Chemistry Notes

Chapter 1 Notes (Chemistry Skills and Assessment toolkit)
Chemistry: An Overview
a. Matter is composed of various types of atoms.
b. One substance changes to another by reorganizing the way the atoms are
attached to each other.
The Scientific Method
a. Steps:
i.
b. Scientific Models:
i. A model is:
1. A set of hypotheses that agrees with various observations
which explains some part of some natural phenomenon.
2. An interpretation of observations; reasoning for a natural
occurrence
ii. Models change over time even if the natural phenomenon does
not, as scientists are constantly finding new information.
iii. A natural law and a theory/model are NOT the same.
1. Natural law summarizes what happens; a theory/model
attempts to explain why something happens.
Units of Measurement
a. A measurement has two parts: a number and a unit.
b. SI system
i. Systeme International
ii. System based on the metric system.
iii. Prefixes are used to change the size of a
measurement.
prefix symbol meaning
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 10²
deka da 101
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6
nano N 10-9
iv. Mass v Weight

1. Mass is a measure of the resistance of an object to a change in
its state of motion; weight is the force that gravity exerts on an
object.
2. Not interchangeable
Uncertainty in Measurement
a. Certain v. Uncertain digits
i. Certain: same regardless of who reads measurement; uncertain:
estimated value which varies based on who reads it.
ii. A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.
b. Significant Figures in Measurement
i. All certain values AND...
ii. Increment/10→ round to this number UNLESS it has a decimal,
then do increment/5
c. Precision and Accuracy
i. Precision and accuracy are not the same!
1. Precision: how repeatable is the experiment
2. Accuracy: is there a systematic error
ii We often average many measurements of the same value which
should provide a more accurate result IF there is only random error
present (does not work if there is a systematic error).
Significant Figures and Calculations
d. Rules for Counting Significant Figures
i. Nonzero integers: significant figures
ii. Zeros
1. Leading: not significant figures
2. Captive: significant figures
3. Trailing
a. With decimal point: significant figures
b. Without decimal point: not significant figures
iii. Exact Numbers
1. Exact numbers DO NOT count in calculations of significant
figures (they have infinite significant figures)
2. Counted numbers, exact conversions.
a. Note: conversions include Fahrenheit→
Celsius or cm→ in
iv. Rules for significant figures in mathematical operations
1. Multiplication/ Division: number of sig figs in result is the
same as the number in the least precise measurement used
in the calculation.
2. Addition/Subtraction: result has the same number of decimal
places as the least precise measurement used in the
calculation.
v. Rules for rounding:
1. Round at the end!
2. Round up at 5, down at 4
a. Only round using the first number to the right of the
last significant figure (eg. 3.48 to one significant figure
is 3 not 4)
Learning to Solve Problems Systematically

a. Look at goal, starting point, and method to finding solution when trying to
solve a problem.
Dimensional Analysis
a. Multiply by different forms of one to get into the units you want to be in.
Temperature
a. 3 types used are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin
b. Conversions:
i. ℃→ K
1. ℃+273.15 = K
ii. ℉→ ℃
1. ℃ (9/5)+32 = ℉
Density
a. Formula
i. Mass/Volume
b. Often used to identify a substance.
Classification of Matter
a. Matter is anything with mass. It is very complex.
b. Matter has 3 states:
i. Solid: Fixed volume and shape
ii. Liquid: Fixed volume, not fixed shape
iii. Gas: Not fixed volume or shape
c. Mixtures
i. A mixture has variable composition.
ii. Types of mixtures:
1. Homogenous (aka solution)→ wine, brass, air
2. Heterogenous→ sand in water, iced tea.
iii. Mixtures can be separated into pure substances by physical methods
d. Pure Substances
i. Constant composition
ii. Compounds or elements
e. Methods of separating mixtures
i. Distillation:
1. most volatile component is vaporized, goes through tube, re
condenses.
2. Good for simple mixtures
ii. Filtration:
1. Pour mixture into mesh.
2. Separates solid from liquid.
iii. Chromatography
1. Uses two phases of matter (mobile-- liquid/gas; stationary--
solid)
2. Separation happens because the components have different
affinities for the two phases so they move through the
system at different rates
3. Paper Chromatography
a. Stationary Phase: Paper, Mobile Phase: Solvent
(usually water)
b. Put drop of mixture on paper.
c. Put solvent in beaker, but not enough to cover drop
on paper.
d. Put paper in, don’t let dot touch liquid.
e. Liquid travels up the paper through capillary action,
takes some dyes with it.
f. Different spots that you end up with signify separate
components.
i. Move differently because of attraction to
solvent or paper.
KEY TERMS
a. Scientific Method: series of steps followed by scientist to answer questions
about scientific nature.
b. Measurement: quantitative observation.
c. Qualitative Observation: Observation not pertaining to amounts or numbers.
d. Quantitative Observation: an observation involving numbers.
e. Hypothesis: educated prediction of the result to an experiment.
f. Theory: a set of assumptions put forth to explain some aspect of the
observed behaviour of matter. Chemistry theories usually involve assumptions
about the behaviour of individual atoms or molecules.
g. Model: a theory.
h. Natural Law: a statement that expresses generally observed behaviour.
i. Law of Conservation of Mass: mass is neither created nor destroyed.
j. Mass: the quantity of matter in an object.
k. Weight: the force exerted on an object by gravity.
l. Significant Figures: the digits of a measurement which are not placeholders.
m. Precision: the degree of agreement among several measurements of the
same quantity, the reproducibility of a measurement.
n. Accuracy: the agreement of a particular value with the true value
o. Random error: measurement has equal probability of being high or low.
p. Systematic error: error that occurs in the same direction each time.
q. Unit Factor Method: an equivalence statement between units used for
converting from one unit to another; dimensional analysis.
r. Dimensional Analysis: Using ratios of units to convert from one unit to
another.
s. Matter: the material of the universe
t. States: the three different forms in which matter can exist (solid, liquid, and
gas)
u. Mixture: 2 or more substances mixed together in a way that allows them to
be separated without breaking chemical bonds or a chemical reaction
v. Solution: a homogenous mixture
w. Homogenous Mixture: a mixture that has consistent properties throughout;
evenly dispersed.
x. Heterogenous Mixture: a mixture that does not have consistent properties
throughout; not evenly dispersed.
y. Pure Substance: a substance with constant composition; a substance which
cannot be broken apart by physical means.
z. Physical Change: a change in the form of a substance, but not in its chemical
composition; chemical bonds are not broken in a physical change.
aa. Distillation: a method for separating the components of a liquid mixture that
depends on differences in the ease of vaporization of the compounds
bb. Filtration: a method for separating the components of a mixture containing a
solid and a liquid.
cc. Chromatography: the general name for a series of methods for separating
mixtures by using a system with a mobile phase (liquid or gas) and a stationary
phase (solid)
dd. Volatile: the ease with which a substance can be changed to its vapor
ee. Compound: a substance with constant composition that can be broken down
into elements by chemical processes
ff. Chemical Change: the change of substances into other substances through a
reorganization of the atoms; a chemical reaction
gg. Element: a substance which cannot be decomposed into a simpler substance by
chemical or physical means.
Chapter 2 Notes (Atoms, Molecules, and Ions)
1. 2.1→ The Early History of Chemistry

a. Boyle
i. First real chemist
ii. 1600s iii. Relationship between pressure and
volume
2. 2.2→ Fundamental Chemical Laws
a. Lavoisier
i. verified the Law of Conservation of Mass
ii. Showed that combustion involved oxygen
iii. Named Oxygen
iv. Guillotined because of French Revolution
b. Proust
i. Law of Definite Proportion (Proust’s law): A given compound always
contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass
c. Dalton
i. Thought that atoms were the particles that
composed elements ii. Law of Multiple
Proportions
3. 2.3→ Dalton’s Atomic Theory
a. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
i. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms
ii. The atoms of a given element are always identical; the atoms of different
elements are different in some fundamental way or ways
iii. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine with each other. A given compound always has the same
relative numbers and types of atoms
iv. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms--changes in the way
they are bound together.
The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction
b. Dalton made assumptions about the relative masses of different elements based
on how they formed compounds. His assumptions were not correct, but his idea
of putting the elements into a table was a good one.
c. Joseph Gay Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro
i. Gay Lussac→ volumes of gases under same pressure, found the ratios in
which they reacted
ii. Avogadro→ at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of
different gases contain the same number of particles (aka Avogadro’s
hypothesis)
1. Determines volume using amount of molecules present, not the
size of the molecules themselves 2. Not accepted by most chemists
4. 2.4→ Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom a. The Electron
i. JJ Thomson
1. Cathode Ray Experiment (around 1900)
a. Used cathode ray tubes to study electrical discharges
b. Ray forms when the tube gets energy, ray is made of negative
particles called electrons
2. Atoms must have some sort of positive particle inside of them to
neutralize the negativity of the electrons
3. Plum Pudding Model
ii. Radioactivity
1. Certain elements produce high energy radiation
2. Types of radioactive emission: gamma rays, beta particles, and
alpha particles
iii. The Nuclear Atom
1. Rutherford
a. Directed particles at a thin sheet of metal foil
i. Trying to prove plum pudding model
ii. Atoms were deflected at large angles--knew that
previous model didn’t work (had to have positive
center and negative outer part)
5. 2.5→ The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction
a. Atom consists of very small nucleus and electrons that move about the nucleus
i. Chemistry of an atom mostly relies on electrons
ii. Nucleus is very dense compared to the rest of the atom
b. Isotopes have almost identical chemical properties
c. Symbols
6. 2.6→ Molecules and Ions

a. The forces that hold atoms in compounds together are chemical bonds, the
result is a molecule
i. Atoms can share electrons
b. Ways to represent molecules
i. most simply represented by using a chemical formula
ii. structural formula
iii. Ball and stick model
iv. Space filling model
c. In a compound made of molecules, individual molecules move in independent
ways d. Types of Bonds
i. Covalent: electrons are shared
ii. Ionic: attraction between oppositely charged ions
7. 2.7→ An introduction to the Periodic Table
a. Periodic Table is a chart that shows all of the known elements
b. Metals
i. Efficiently conduct heat and electricity, can be hammered into thin
sheets, ductility (can be put into wires)
ii. Usually lose electrons form positive ions
c. Nonmetals
i. Usually gain electrons to form negative ions
d. Diatomic Elements
i. H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I
ii. Bond with themselves to form “diatomic” gases
e. Groups (Columns)→ same number of valence electrons
i. Alkali Metals: Group 1, very reactive
ii. Alkaline Earth Metals: Group 2
iii. Halogens: Group 17
iv. Noble Gases: Group 18, do not react since they are stable
f. Periods (Rows)→ same number of electron “shells”
8. 2.8→ Naming Simple Compounds
a. Ionically Bonded Substances
i. Cation is first, anion is second
ii. Cation
1. Groups 1, 2, 13, Ag+, Cd2+, Zn2+ → elemental name
2. All other metals → elemental name (oxidation state in Roman

Numerals)
a. One with lower oxidation state is given the root ous, the
one with the higher charge is give the root ic
3. Polyatomic Ions→ given name
iii. Anion
1. elemental→ root+ide
2. polyatomic→ given name
b. Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
i. Oxyanions: anions of a given element and different numbers of oxygen
atoms
1. One with less oxygen ends in ite, one with more oxygen ends in
ate. If there are more than 2, hypo goes to the one with the
fewest oxygen atoms, per goes to the one with the most
c. Covalently Bonded Substances
i. (prefix--not mono) elemental name+
prefix+ ide ii. Prefixes
1. 1: mono
2. 2: di
3. 3: tri
4. 4: tetra
5. 5: penta
6. 6: hexa
7. 7: hepta
8. 8: octa
9. 9: nona
10. 10: deca
d. Acid
i. A molecule that produces a solution containing free H+ ions; a molecule
in which one or more H+ ions are attached to the anion
ii. Naming
1. Anion doesn’t contain oxygen
a. Hydro+ elemental name+ ic acid
2. Anion contains oxygen
a. Ends in ate→ polyatomic ion+ic acid
b. Ends in ite→ polyatomic ion+ous acid
3. Notes:
a. Sulfur is
root for sulfur
b. Phospor is
root for phosphorus 9. Terms
a. Law of Definite Proportion: a given compound always contains exactly the same
proportion of elements by mass
b. Law of Multiple Proportions: when two elements form a series of compounds,
the ratios of the masses of the second element to combine with 1g of the first
element can always be reduced to small whole numbers
c. Atomic Mass: the mass of an atom of a chemical element expressed in atomic
mass units
d. Atomic Weight: the weighted average mass of the atoms in a naturally occurring
element
e. Avogadro’s Law: equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of particles
f. Cathode Rays: the “rays” emanating from the negative electrode in a partially
evacuated tube; a stream of electrons
g. Electron: a negatively charged particle that moves around the nucleus of an
atom
h. Radioactivity: the spontaneous decomposition of a nucleus to form a different
nucleus
i. Nuclear Atom: an atom having a dense center of positive charge with electrons
moving around the outside
j. Nucleus: the small, dense center of positive charge in an atom
k. Protons: a positively charged particle in an atomic nucleus
l. Neutrons: a particle in the atomic nucleus with mass virtually equal to the
proton’s but with no charge
m. Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. They
have identical atomic numbers but different mass numbers
n. Atomic Number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
o. Mass Number: the total number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus
of an atom
p. Chemical bonds: the force, or more accurately, the energy that holds two atoms
together in a compound
q. Covalent Bonds: a type of bonding in which electrons are shared by atoms
r. Molecule: a bonded collection of two or more atoms of the same or different
elements
s. Chemical Formula: the representation of a molecule in which the symbols for the
elements are used to indicate the types of atoms present and subscripts are used
to show the relative numbers of atoms
t. Structural Formula: the representation of a molecule in which the relative
positions of the atoms are shown and the bonds are indicated by lines
u. Space filling model: a model of a molecule showing the relative sizes of the
atoms and their relative orientations
v. Ball and Stick Models: a molecular model that distorts the sizes of atoms but
shows bond relationships clearly
w. Ion: an atom or group of atoms that has a net positive or net negative charge x.
Cation: a positive ion
y. Anion: a negative ion
z. Ionic bonding: the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions aa.
Ionic Solid: a solid containing cations and anions that dissolves in water to give a
solution containing the separated ions, which are mobile and thus free to
conduct an electrical current
bb. Polyatomic ion: an ion containing a number of atoms cc. Periodic Table: a chart
showing all the elements arranged in columns with similar chemical properties dd.
Metals: an element that gives up electrons ee. Nonmetals: an element not
exhibiting metallic characteristics; an element which accepts electrons from a metal
ff. Binary Compounds: a two element compound gg. Oxyanions: an
anion containing one or more oxygen atoms bonded to another
element hh. Acids: a substance that produces hydrogen ions in
solution; a proton donor
Chapter 3 Notes (Stoichiometry)
1. 3.1→ Counting by Weighing
a. Average mass
i. Total mass of objects/number of objects
b. Counting by Weighing
i. If you know how much an object weighs, you can measure out a certain
number of that object using its weight
2. 3.2→ Atomic Masses
a. Modern system of atomic masses is based on Carbon 12, which is exactly 12 amu
b. Mass spectrometer
i. Most accurate method currently available for comparing the masses of
elements
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ii.
How it works:
1. Ionization: atoms/molecules are passed into a beam of high
speed electrons, which knock electrons off the atoms or
molecules being analyzed and change them into positive ions
2. Acceleration: Electric field accelerates these ions
3. Deflection: An accelerating ion produces its own magnetic field,
so an interaction with the applied magnetic field occurs which
changes the path of the ion
a. The most massive ions are deflected the least
4. Detection: A metal plate detects the masses of the
atoms/compounds, thus allowing you to figure out what they are
iii. Peaks indicate isotopes and their relative abundances
c. Weighted Averages
i. Atomic masses are weighted averages of all of the isotopes of that
element's (average atomic mass) ii. Isotope A (%A)+ Isotope B (%B)
+...=average atomic mass
3. 3.3→ The Mole
a. Avogadro’s Number
i. 6.022 x 1023
b. Not all moles have the same mass, but they are all composed of the same
number of whatever the unit may be
c. A mole is defined such that a sample of a natural element with a mass equal to
the element’s atomic mass expressed contains 1 mole of atoms
4. 3.4→ Molar Mass
a. The molar mass of a substance is the mass in grams of one mole of the
compound
b. Ionic compounds are NOT molecules, instead they are known as formula units
5. 3.5→ Learning to Solve Problems
6. 3.6→ Percent Composition of Compounds
a. Describing composition of compound
i. Numbers of constituent atoms
ii. Percentages by mass
b. Mass Percent
i. Aka weight percent ii. Mass of element in 1 mole of
compound/molar mass of compound (100%)
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ii.
7. 3.7→ Determining the Formula of a Compound
a. Empirical Formula Determination
i. Since mass percentage gives number of grams of a particular element per
100 g of compound, base the calculation on 100 g of compound. Each
percent will then represent the mass in grams of that element
Determine the number of moles of each element present in 100 g of
compound using the atomic masses of the elements present
iii. Divide each value of the number of moles by the smallest of the values. If
each resulting number is a whole number, these numbers represent the
subscripts of the elements in the empirical formula
iv. If the numbers obtained in the previous step are not whole numbers,
multiply each integer so that the results are all whole numbers
b. Determining Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula
i. Obtain the empirical formula
ii. Compute the mass corresponding to the empirical formula
iii. Molar mass/ empirical formula mass
iv. The integer from the previous step represents the number of empirical
formula units in one molecule. When the empirical formula subscripts
are multiplied by this integer, the molecular formula results
c. Determining Molecular Formula from Mass Percent and Molar Mass
i. Using the mass percentages and the molar mass, determine the mass
of each element present in one mole of compound
ii. Determine the number of moles of each element present in 1 mole of
compound iii. The integers from the previous step represent the
subscripts in the molecular compound
8. 3.8→ Chemical Equations
a. Chemical Reactions
i. The process in which old bonds are broken and new ones are formed, but
no atoms are created or destroyed
1. The number of one type of atoms must match on both sides of the
equation
b. The Meaning of a Chemical Equation
i. Put physical states next to each reactant
State Subscript

ii.
Gas (g)
Liquid (l)
Solid (s)
Aqueous (aq)
c. After balancing an equation, the integers before each compound are known as
coefficients
9. 3.9→ Balancing Chemical Equations
a. Unbalanced equations are not very helpful
b. The formulas of the compounds must never be changed in balancing a chemical
equation
c. Writing and Balancing the Equation for a Chemical Reaction
i. Determine what reaction is occurring
Write the unbalanced chemical equation iii. Balance the equation
by adding coefficients to the different compounds and seeing if they work
10. 3.10→ Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants and
Products
a. Calculating Masses of Reactants and Products in Chemical Reactions
i. Balance the equation
ii. Convert the known mass of the reactant or product to moles
iii. Do a mole to mole ratio using the chemical reactant
iv. Convert back from moles to grams if required
11. 3.11→ The Concept of Limiting Reactant
a. To determine how much product can be formed from a given mixture of
reactants, we have to look for the reactant that is limiting--the one that runs out
first and thus limits the amount of product that can form
i. Don’t assume a reaction is stoichiometric
ii. Reactant that runs out first is the limiting reactant
b. Determination of Limiting Reactant Using Reactant Quantities
i. Mol sub A required/mole sub B required
1. If actual mol A/mol B is more than this, A is
limiting reactant 2. If actual mol A/mol B is less
than this, B is limiting reactant
c. Determination of Limiting Reactant Using Quantities of Product Formed

ii.
i. Determine which reactant would make less product→ that is the limiting
reactant
d. Percent Yield
i. Actual Yield/Theoretical Yield (100%)=percent yield
e. Solving a Stoichiometric Problem Involving Masses of Reactants and Products
i. Write and balance equation
ii. Convert the known masses to moles
iii. Determine limiting reactant
iv. Compute number of moles of desired product
v. Convert from moles to grams using molar mass
12. Terms
a. Chemical Stoichiometry: the calculation of the quantities of material
consumed and produced in chemical reactions
b. Mass Spectrometer: an instrument used to determine the relative masses of
atoms by the deflection of their ions on a magnetic field
c. Average Atomic Mass: the sum of the masses of its isotopes, each multiplied
by its natural abundance
d. Mole: the number equal to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of
Carbon 12
e. Avogadro’s Number: 6.022 x 1023
f. Molar Mass: the mass in grams of one mole of molecules or formula units of
a substance
g. Mass Percent: the percent by mass of a component of a mixture or of a given
element in a compound

h. Empirical Formula: the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound

i. Molecular Formula: the exact formula of a molecule, giving the types of atoms
and the number of each type
j. Chemical Equation: a representation of a chemical reaction showing the relative
numbers of reactant and product molecules
k. Reactants: a starting substance in a chemical reaction
l. Products: a substance resulting from a chemical reaction
m. Stoichiometric Quantities: quantities of reactants mixed in exactly the correct
amounts so that all are used up at the same time, leaving no limiting or excess
reactant
n. Limiting Reactant: the reactant that is completely consumed when a reaction is
run to completion
o. Theoretical Yield: the maximum amount of a given product that can be formed
when the limiting reactant is completely consumed
p. Percent Yield: the actual yield of a product as a percentage of the theoretical
yield

Chapter 4 Notes (Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry)

1. 4.1→ Water, the Common Solvent
a. Water (H2O)
i. Bent shape
ii. Polar covalent bonds
1. Oxygen has partial negative charge, Hydrogens have partial
positive charges 2. Water’s polarity is the reason that it is such
a strong solvent
b. Polar molecules dissolve in water because of hydration
c. Not all ionic substances have the same solubility in water
i. Depending of relative attractions of ions for each other and relative
attractions of the ions for water molecules
d. Water can dissolve many non ionic substances→ substances which are polar can
also be dissolved
2. 4.2→ The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak
Electrolytes
a. Conductivity Properties
i. High conductivity→ solution contains strong electrolyte
ii. Low conductivity→ solution contains weak electrolyte
iii. No conductivity→ solution contains nonelectrolyte b. Strong Electrolytes
i. Substances that are completely ionized when they are dissolved in
water
ii. Soluble Salts
1. Become hydrated when salt dissolves
iii. Strong Acids
1. An acid is substance that produces H+ ions (protons) when it is
dissolved in water
2. A strong acid is an acid for which virtually every molecule
ionizes
a. Completely dissociates into its ions
iv. Strong Bases
1. Soluble ionic compounds containing the hydroxide ion (OH-)
2. When dissolved in water, cation and OH- ion separate completely
c. Weak Electrolytes
i. Small degree of ionization in water

1. Produce relatively few ions when

dissolved in water ii. Weak acids
1. Only ionizes to a slight extent in aqueous
solution iii. Weak base
1. Some OH- ions produced but not many; most
molecules stay in tact d. Nonelectrolytes
i. Substances that dissolve in water but don’t produce any ions
ii. Molecules are spread out within water, but they stay in tact
iii. Eg. ethanol, sugar
3. 4.3→ The Composition of Solutions
a. Chemical reactions often take place when two solutions are mixed. Need to know:
i. Nature of reaction
ii. Amount of chemicals
b. Molarity
i. Explains concentration
ii.
iii. Can use to find concentration of ions in solution
c. How to make a solution
i. From a solid
1. Put weighboat on balance, zero balance
2. Add solid to weigh boat, record mass
3. Put solid in x mL volumetric flask
4. Fill up volumetric flask almost to line
5. Cover volumetric flask with parafilm, swirl and invert flask to dissolve
solid
6. Fill up volumetric flask to line
7. Repeat step 5 ii. From a solution
1. Measure y mL of stock solution in a graduated cylinder, record
volume
2. Put measured stock solution into x mL volumetric flask
3. Fill up volumetric flask almost to line
4. Cover volumetric flask with parafilm, swirl and invert flask to
dissolve solid
5. Fill up volumetric flask to line
6. Repeat step 4

d. Dilution
i. Start with stock solution (solution with higher concentration than you
want), add water to dilute the solution and get the M you want
ii.M1V1=M2V2
1. M1V1= moles solute before dilution
2. M2V2=moles solute after solution
4. 4.4→ Types of Chemical Reactions
a. Precipitation Reactions
b. Acid Base Reactions
c. Redox Reactions
5. 4.5→ Precipitation Reactions
a. A reaction between to solutions which produces an insoluble solid
b. AB+CD→ AD+CB
c. Solubility Rules
i. NO3- is soluble
ii. Group 1 cations and NH4+ are soluble
iii. Halides are soluble EXCEPT WITH Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+
iv. SO42- is soluble EXCEPT with Ba2+, Pb2+, Hg22+, and Ca2+
v. OH- is insoluble
vi. S2- is insoluble
vii.CO32- is insoluble viii. PO43- is insoluble
ix. CrO42- is insoluble
6. 4.6→ Describing Reactions in Solution
a. Formula equation gives overall reaction but not necessarily the actual forms of
the reactants and products in solution
b. Complete ionic equation represents as ions all reactants and products that are
strong electrolytes
c. Net ionic equation includes only solution components undergoing a change
i. Leaves out spectator ions
7. 4.7→ Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions
a. ID the species present in the combined solution, and determine what reaction
occurs
b. Write the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction
c. Calculate the moles of reactants
d. Determine which reactant is limiting
e. Calculate the moles of product (s)

f. Convert back to grams if required

8. 4.8→ Acid Base Reactions
a. In acid base reactions, one reactant includes an acid, the other a base. These
components come together during the reaction to form (usually) H2O
b. Performing Calculations for Acid Base Reactions
i. List the species present in the combined solution before any reaction
occurs, and decide what reaction will occur
ii. Write balanced net ionic equation
iii. Calculate moles of reactants
iv. Determine limiting reactant
v. Calculate moles of required reactant or product
vi. Convert to units needed
c. Acid Base Titrations
i. Add titrant (measured volume of solution of known concentration) in
buret to analyte (substance being analyzed)
ii. Reach a point (equivalence point) when exactly enough titrant has been
added to react with analyte→ marked by change in color of indicator
9. 4.9→ Redox Reactions
a. A reaction that involves the transfer of electrons
b. Oxidation States
i. Way to keep track of electrons in redox reactions
ii. In covalent bonds, arbitrarily assigned
iii. Sum of charges of individual atoms in a compound must equal the total
charge of that compound iv. Rules:
1.
Oxidation state of: Charge: Example(s)
Atom in element 0 Na(s), O2 (g)
Monatomic ion Charge of ion Na+
Fluorine 1- HF
Oxygen (EXCEPT 2- H 2O
WHEN
PEROXIDE: O22-)
Hydrogen with a
1+ HCl
nonmetal

Group 1 cations 1+ NaCl

2. Can have non integer oxidation states because of how oxidation
states are arbitrarily assigned
a. Average of all atoms of that element within the compound
v. Characteristics of Redox Reactions
1. Oxidation: increase in oxidation state
2. Reduction: decrease in oxidation state
3. Oxidizing Agent: reactant that includes element that gets reduced
4. Reducing Agent: reactant that includes element that gets oxidized
10. 4.10→ Balancing Redox Reactions
a. Balancing Redox Reactions by Oxidation States
i. Write unbalanced equation
ii. Determine oxidation states of all products and reactants
iii. Separate into half reactions
iv. Balance all elements other than H and O
v. Balance H and O using H+ ions and H2O
vi. Balance electrons within half reactions
vii. Add half reactions together
viii. Cancel similarities
ix. IF IN BASIC SOLUTION: get rid of H+ ions using OH-
11. Terms
a. Polar Molecule: a molecule that has a permanent dipole moment
b. Hydration: the interaction between solute particles and water molecules
c. Solubility: the amount of a substance that dissolves in a given volume of solute at
a given temperature
d. Solute: a substance dissolved in a liquid to form a solution
e. Solvent: the dissolving medium in a solution
f. Electrical Conductivity: the ability to conduct an electric current
g. Strong Electrolyte: a material that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution that
conducts an electric current very efficiently (dissociates completely)
h. Weak Electrolyte: a material that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution that
conducts only a small electric current (only dissociates a little)
i. Nonelectrolyte: a substance that, when dissolved in water, given a non
conducting solution (does not dissociate at all)
j. Strong Acid: an acid that completely dissociates to produce a H+ ion and the
conjugate base

k. Strong Base: a metal hydroxide salt that completely dissociates into its ions in
water
l. Weak Acid:an acid that dissociates only slightly in aqueous solution
m. Weak Base: a base that reacts with water to produce hydroxide ions to only a
slight extent in aqueous solution
n. Molarity: moles of solute per liter of solution; a measure of concentration
o. Dilution: the process of adding solvent to lower the concentration of a solution
p. Precipitation reaction: a reaction in which an insoluble substance forms and
separates from the solution
q. Precipitate: insoluble solid formed in a precipitation reaction
r. Formula Equation: an equation representing a reaction in solution showing the
reactants and products in undissociated form, whether they are strong or weak
electrolytes
s. Complete Ionic Equation: the equation that shows all substances that are strong
electrolytes as ions
t. Net Ionic Equation: an equation for a reaction in solution, where strong
electrolytes are written as ions, showing only those components that are directly
involved in the chemical change
u. Spectator Ion: ions present in solution that do not participate directly in a
reaction
v. Acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions in solution; a proton donor
w. Base: a substance that produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solution; a proton
acceptor
x. Neutralization reaction: an acid base reaction
y. Volumetric Analysis: a process involving titration of one solution with another
z. Titration: a technique in which one solution is used to analyze another aa.
Equivalence Point/Stoichiometric Point: the point in a titration when enough
titrant has been added to react exactly with the substance in solution being
analyzed
bb. Indicator: a chemical that changes color and is used to mark the end point of a
titration cc. Endpoint: the point in a titration at which the indicator changes color
dd. Redox reaction: a reaction in which one or more electrons are transferred ee.
Oxidation states: a concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in redox
reactions according to certain rules
ff. Oxidation: an increase in oxidation state (loss of
electrons) gg. Reduction: a decrease in oxidation state
(gain of electrons) hh. Oxidizing Agent: the reactant which
contains the substance that gets reduced ii. Reducing

Agent: the reactant which contains the substance that gets

oxidized

Chapter 5 Notes (Gases)

1. 5.1→ Pressure
a. Barometer→ a device that measures atmospheric (barometric) pressure in mmHg
i. made by filling tube all the way with Hg, then flipping it over, thus
creating a vacuum at the top of the tube
b. Units of Pressure
i. 1 atm=760 mmHg=760
torr=101,325 Pa=14.7 psi ii.
Pressure= force/area
2. 5.2→ The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro a. Boyle’s law
i. PV=k
1. Hyperbolic
ii.
b. Charles’ Law
i. V=bT
1. Linear ii. 0 K is absolute zero,
the place at which there is 0 volume
i.
b. Avogadro’s Law
i. V=an

ii.
c. Amonton’s Law
i. P=Tk
ii.
3. 5.3→ The Ideal Gas Law
a.
i.
4. 5.4→ Gas Stoichiometry

a. Molar volume
i. 22.4 L/mol at STP
b. Molar mass of a gas

i.
5. 5.5→ Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
a. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
i. if there is a mixture of gasses, the total pressure exerted is the sum
pressure each gas would exert if it was alone
ii.
1
.
iii. gas collection over water

1. use Dalton’s law to account for the vapor pressure, which is
directly correlated with T
iv. Since there are no IMF, the type of atom doesn’t matter
b. Mole Fraction: ratio of the number of moles of a given component in a mixture
to the total number of moles in the mixture

i.
1. X is called a chi
6. 5.6→ The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
a. Postulates of KMT
i. The particles are so small compared with the distances between them
that the volume of the individual particles can be assumed to be
negligible (0)
ii. The particles are in constant motion. The collisions of the particles with
the walls of the container are the cause of the pressure exerted by the
gas.
iii. The particles are assumed to exert no forces on each other (no
intermolecular forces)
iv. The average kinetic energy of the gas is directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas (in K)
v. All collisions are perfectly elastic (no energy is lost)
b. Ideal Gas Law
i. PV=nrT
ii. r is the ideal gas constant
1. .0821 (L)(atm)/(mol)(K)
c. Relationships between parameters
i. P and V (Boyle’s Law)
1. Inverse relationship
2. gas particles hit the wall of a smaller container more often,
causing an increase in pressure
ii. P and T
1. Direct relationship
2. When temperature increases, the speeds of the particles of the
gas increase, so the particles hit the walls of the container with
greater force and frequency, causing an increase in pressure
iii. V and T (Charles’s Law)
1. Direct relationship

2. As temperature increases, the speeds of the particles of the gas

increase, so in order to keep the pressure constant the volume
must increase
iv. V and n (Avogadro’s Law)
1. Direct
2. An increase in moles means that particles collide with the walls of
the container more frequently (because there are more particles),
unless the volumes also increases to keep the pressure constant
d. Mixture of Gases (Dalton’s Law)
i. Dalton’s law makes sense because KMT assumes all gas particles are
independent, and it is unimportant which gas the particles are
e. The Meaning of Temperature
i. KE=3/2 RT
ii. Index of the random motions of the particles of a gas
f. Root Mean Square Velocity
i.
1. Square root of the average velocity squared
ii.
1. M is molar mass in
kJ/mol
a. As molar mass increases (all else constant), velocity
decreases
2. R is 8.314 J/mol (K)
3. T is temperature in Kelvin
4. U rms is given in m/s
iii. Mean free path
1. The path a particle travels between collisions
a. Different particles have different energies based on
collisions
7. 5.7→ Effusion and Diffusion
a. Diffusion: mixing of gases

i. More complicated than diffusion because gas particles hit one another,
causing them to move differently than they would in a vacuum
b. Effusion: passage of a gas through a tiny orifice into an evacuated chamber
i. Graham’s law of Effusion
1.
a. Predicted by kinetic molecular theory

8. 5.8→ Real Gases
a. A real gas exhibits most ideal behavior at low pressures and high temperatures
b. Van der waals equation
i.
ii.
9. 5.9→ Characteristics of Several Real Gases
a. Lower a means lower IMF (since a corrects for IMF)
10. 5.10→ Chemistry in the Atmosphere
a. Atmosphere is mostly N2 and O2
b. Upper atmosphere depends a lot on radiation from other things in space
i. Protects us from this radiation→ breaking down because of pollution
(mostly CO2)
c. Ozone created, process called photochemical smog
d. Burning coal produces acid rain
11. Terms
a. barometer: a device that measures atmospheric (barometric) pressure in mmHg
b. manometer: a device that measures the pressure of a specific gas in mmHg

c. pressure: the force exerted by gaseous particles on the walls of the container d.
Absolute zero: 0 K
e. temperature: a measurement of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a
system
f. volume: the amount of space a substance occupies
g. pressure: the force exerted by gaseous particles on the walls of the container
h. inverse relationship: a relationship between two numbers in which an increase in
the value of one number results in a decrease in the value of the other number.
i. direct relationship: a relationship between two numbers where an increase or
decrease in one variable causes the same change to occur in the second variable
j. elastic collisions: encounters between two bodies in which the total kinetic
energy of the two bodies after the encounter is equal to their total kinetic energy
before the encounter (no energy is lost in the collision as heat, noise, etc)
k. Mole Fraction: ratio of the number of moles of a given component in a mixture
to the total number of moles in the mixture
l. Effusion:the movement of a gas through a pore or capillary into a vacuum
m. Diffusion: the mixing of gases

Chapter 6 (Thermochemistry)
1. 6.1→ The Nature of Energy
a. Energy is the capacity to do work or to produce heat
b. Law of conservation of energy
i. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed
c. Types of Energy
i. Potential: energy due to position or composition
ii. Kinetic: energy due to the motion of the object
1.
d. Heat and work
i. Heat: the transfer of energy between two objects due to a temperature
difference
1. q=mCΔT, where C is the specific heat capacity of the substance
ii. Work: force acting over a distance
iii. Heat and work are path functions, but energy is a state function
e. Chemical energy
i. System v surroundings
1. System: part of the universe on which we wish to focus attention
2. Surroundings: everything else in the universe
ii. Endothermic v exothermic
1. Exothermic
a. some of the potential energy stored in the chemical bonds
is being converted to thermal energy via heat
f. First law of thermodynamics
i. The energy of the universe is constant
ii. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred from one
object to another (law of conservation of energy)
g. Types of systems
i. Open: can exchange matter and energy with surroundings
ii. Closed: can only exchange energy with surroundings (no transfer of
matter)
iii. Isolated: cannot exchange matter or energy with surroundings
h. Internal energy
i. the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of each particle in the system
ii. State function

iii.
i. Work (with a piston)
i.
1. Because work= force (distance), pressure=force/area
a. work=pressure (area) (Δh)
b. w=-pΔv
2. 6.2→ Enthalpy and Calorimetry
a. Enthalpy
i.
ii. State function
iii. Under constant pressure
1.
iv. Change in enthalpy
1.
a. ΔH is positive→ exothermic
i. Heat on product side
b. ΔH is negative→ endothermic
i. Head on reactant side
v. Enthalpy and Energy
1. ΔH is approximately ΔE when a small amount of work is done

(usually: when the moles of gas stay roughly constant) b.

Calorimetry
i. The science of measuring heat
ii. Heat capacity
1.
2. Specific v molar
a. specific→ given per gram→ J/(℃ x g)
b. molar→ given per mole→ J/(℃ x mol)
iii. Calorimeter should be adiabatic
1. Eg. coffee cup
2. 0=qrxn+qcalorimeter
a. Remember that q=(mass)(C)(ΔT)
iv. Constant pressure calorimetry (coffee cup calorimetry)
1. Pressure doesn’t change
2. Can measure temperature change in order to measure change in
enthalpy
3. qp=ΔH=ΔE
v. Constant volume calorimetry (bomb calorimetry)
1.
2. Inside steel, usually used for combustion reactions
3. Start w large amount of O2 gas
4. Make sure to always set up the same way, because Ccal is a
combination of mass and C
a. qv=CcalΔT
vi. Extensive property
3. 6.3→ Hess’s Law
a. Since enthalpy is a state function, the change of enthalpy for a reaction is not
dependent upon the order in which the steps of the reaction occur

i.
b. Characteristics of Enthalpy Changes
i. If a reaction is reversed, the sign of ΔH is reversed
ii. If a reaction is multiplied by a factor, ΔH is also multiplied by that factor
iii. If two reactions are added, add ΔHs
4. 6.4→ Standard Enthalpies of Formation
a. ΔH°f means enthalpy of formation under standard conditions
i. the enthalpy change that accompanies the formation of one mole of
product at 1 atm and 25°C from its elements in their standard states
b. ° symbolizes standard conditions
i. Gaseous state: 1 atm
ii. Solution: 1.00 M
iii. For a condensed state, the standard state is pure liquid/solid
iv. USUALLY 25°C (can assume unless told otherwise)
v. AN ELEMENT’S STANDARD STATE: the element’s state at 1 atm and 25°C
1. We define an element’s standard state as having a ΔH of 0. All
other ΔH are based on this standard.
c. Enthalpy Calculations
i. Steps
1. Break reactants into elemental form (standard state)
a. Σ -n reactant ΔH°f, reactant
2. Form products using standard states of elemental form
a. Σ n product ΔH°f, product
ii. ΔHrxn=Σ n product ΔH°f, product-Σ n reactant ΔH°f, reactant

1.
5. 6.5→ Present Sources of Energy
6. 6.6→ New Energy Sources
7. Terms
a. System: area of interest
b. Surroundings: everything not in system
c. Energy: the capacity to do work or to produce heat
d. Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transformed
e. Potential energy: energy due to position or composition
f. Kinetic energy: energy due to the motion of the object
g. Heat: the transfer of energy between two objects due to a temperature
difference
h. Work: force acting over a distance
i. State function: a property of a system that depends only on the system’s present
state
j. Path function: a property of a system that depends on the path taken to get to
the current state
k. System: part of the universe on which we wish to focus attention
l. Surroundings: everything else in the universe
m. First law of thermodynamics: The energy of the universe is constant
n. Internal energy: the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of each particle in
the system
o. Enthalpy: the sum of the internal energy added to the product of the pressure
and volume of the system
p. Calorimetry: the science of measuring heat flow
q. Calorimeter: an apparatus for measuring the amount of heat involved in a
chemical reaction or other process
r. Heat Capacity: the amount of heat (usually expressed in calories, kilocalories, or
joules) needed to raise the system's temperature by one degree

s. Extensive Property: dependent on amount

t. Intensive Property: not dependent on amount
u. Adiabatic: no heat transfer w surroundings
v. Hess’s Law: in going from a particular set of reactants to a particular set of
products, the enthalpy change is the same whether the reaction takes place in
one step or in a series of steps
w. Standard Enthalpy of Formation: the enthalpy change that accompanies the
formation of one mole of product at 1 atm and 25°C from its elements in their
standard states

Chapter 7 Notes (Atomic Structure and Periodicity)

1. 7.1→ Electromagnetic Radiation
a. parameters
parameter symbol unit
wavelength λ m
frequency ν 1/s, Hz
energy E J;//
velocity c m/s
b. equations
i. λν=c
1. inverse relationship
ii. E/ν=h
1. direct relationship
iii. Eλ=hc
1. inverse relationship
2. 7.2→ The Nature of Matter
a. Equations
i. ΔE=nhν
1. n is an integer
2. h is Planck’s constant 3. ν is frequency
ii. Ephoton=hν
iii. Ephoton=-2.178 x 10-18 J (1/nf2- 1/ni2)
1. Bohr equation
2. ONLY FOR HYDROGEN
b. Energy can only be gained or lost in “packets” of discrete size known
as quantums
c. Einstein suggested that electromagnetic radiation can be viewed as a
stream of “particles” called photons d. The Photoelectric Effect
i. Phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from the
surface of a metal when light strikes it
ii. observations:
1. no electrons emitted by a given metal below a specific threshold
frequency, v0

2. For light with frequency lower than the threshold, no electrons

are emitted regardless of the intensity of the light
3. For light with frequency greater than the threshold frequency, the
number of electrons emitted increases with the frequency of the
light
4. For light with frequency greater than the threshold frequency, the
KE of the emitted electrons increases linearly with the frequency
of the light
iii. Photons behave as if they have mass under certain circumstances, but it has
no rest mass
1. EM radiation can act either as a wave or a particle; it is therefore
said to have wave particle duality
2. Since light can act as a particle, people started to ask whether
particles could act as waves. De Broglie was one of these people.
Scientists now believe all matter exhibits both particulate and
wave properties. His equation is below.
a. The larger the piece of matter, the more it acts like a
particle
iv. Equations
1. Minimum energy to remove an electron
a. E0=hv0
2. KEelectronwhen v>v0
a. 𝐾𝐸(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛) =1/2𝑚𝑣 2= ℎ𝑣 − 𝑣 0
3. Theory of relativity
a. E=mc2
4. De Broglie’s equation
a. λ=h/mν
e. Diffraction
i. Scattered radiation in metals/crystals can cause diffraction
1. Interfere constructively→ makes light look brighter
2. Interfere destructively→ makes like look less bright/like its not
there at all
3. 7.3→ The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen
a. Line spectrum v. Continuous Spectrum
i. hot solids, liquids, and very dense gases emit continuous spectra
(white light)

ii. energized atoms emit non-continuous spectra (discrete lines with

specific wavelengths)
b. Hydrogen emits a line spectrum, which matches up with what Planck’s ideas said
it should emit
4. 7.4→ The Bohr Model
a. Niels Bohr
b. electrons reside in “shells” based on how much energy they have--can only lose
and gain specific amounts of energy
c. uses quantum
d. experimentation showed certain chemicals only emit certain wavelengths of
light, thus proving that they can only emit certain amounts of energy in a specific
amount of time
e. works well with Hydrogen, encounters issues with larger atoms
f. Came up with an equation which define which energy “levels” were available to
an electron in the
Hydrogen atom
i. E=-2.178 x 10-18 J (z2/n2)
1. z=nuclear charge, n is an integer
2. An electron with more negative energy is more tightly bound to
the nucleus
ii. To find the energy consumed or emitted when an electron jumps from
one energy level to another, subtract the final energy from the original
one
1. To find the wavelength of the emitted photon
a. ΔE=hc/λ 5.
7.5→ The Quantum Mechanical Model
a.Schrodinger, Heisenberg, and de Broglie
b.Thought about electrons like standing waves
c.Heisenberg uncertainty principle
d.The Physical Meaning of a Wave Function
i. The square of the function indicates the probability of finding an electron
near a particular point in space
ii. It is more probable to find an electron near the nucleus, but the orbitals
increase in size as they get further from the nucleus. This causes one
maximum that is close to the nucleus but not the closest to it
6. 7.6→ Quantum numbers
a. principal quantum number

i. n
ii. size of orbital/proximity of nucleus (energy level)
1. As n increases, the electrons energy increases
2. As n increases, the electron becomes less negative (less tightly
bound to the nucleus)
iii. n=1, 2, 3, 4, …
b. angular quantum number/subshell
i. l
ii. type of orbital
iii. l=n-1, …, 0
iv.
c. magnetic quantum number
i. ml
ii. Orientation in space
iii. ml=-l, ..., 0, ..., l
iv. ml possibilities for s, p, and d orbitals
v.
1. note that any orbital can be named with any ml value that makes
sense with its angular quantum number, as long as no other
orbital has already been named with that value (there are no
assigned ml values for specific positions)
d. electron spin quantum number
i. ms
ii. describes one of the two possible electrons in an orbital
1. They must be spinning in opposite directions iii. ms=± ½
7. 7.7→ Orbital Shapes and Energies

a. Orbitals have specific areas of high probability, and areas of 0 probability (nodes)
b. As n increases, the number of nodes increases
i. Number of nodes for an orbital is n-1
c. All orbitals with the same value of n have the same energy (ONLY IN HYDROGEN)
8. 7.8→ Electron Spin and Pauli Exclusion Principle
a. An orbital can hold only two electrons, and they must have opposite spins
9. 7.9→ Polyelectronic Atoms
a. When considering polyelectronic atoms instead of Hydrogen, must also consider:
i. Kinetic energy of electrons as they move around the nucleus
ii. Potential energy of attraction between nucleus and electrons
iii. Potential energy of repulsion between electrons
b. Electron correlation problem
i. Don't know exactly where electrons are→ cannot calculate repulsion
c. Outer electrons are “shielded” from positive nuclear charge by other electrons d.
Ens<Enp<End<Enf
i. S electrons have one peak closer to nucleus than p, higher peak further
1. S electrons penetrates to the nucleus more than one in a 2p orbital
(penetration effect)
10. 7.10→ The History of the Periodic Table
a. Originally constructed to represent the patterns observed in the chemical
properties of elements
b. Dobereiner, Newlands, Meyer, Mendeleev
i. Mendeleev used his table to correctly predict qualities about elements
which were undiscovered at the time
11. 7.11→ The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table
a. As protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up elements, electrons
are similarly added to these
Hydrogen like orbitals (Aufbau principle)
b. The lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one having the maximum
number of unpaired electrons allowed by the Pauli exclusion principle (Hund’s
rule)
c. electron configuration can be abbreviated. Instead of writing this out for all
shells, we can put the noble gas closest (but below) to the atom, then write out
the electron configuration for the remaining electrons
d. The elements in the same group have the same valence electron configuration

e. Many transition metals have electron configurations that are different than their
expected electron configuration, because it is sometimes more energy efficient
to have an unpaired electron in a higher energy level than a paired one in a lower
energy level
i. Cr: [Ar] 3d54s1
ii. Cu:[Ar] 3d104s1
f. Orbitals and the Periodic Table
1. 4 blocks (s, p, d, f)
2. think of each elemental block as one more electron
a. explains the order in which electrons “fill up” orbitals in an atom (filling sequence)
3. as electrons are further from the nucleus, they have more energy
a. as n increases, so does energy
b. s<p<d<f
12. 7.12→ Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
a. Ionization Energy
i. The energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion
1.
ii. Ionization energy increases (first<second, etc)
1. Positive nuclear charge remains the same, negative charge
lowers→ nucleus holds on to remaining electrons more tightly
2. Changes based on whether the electron is core or valence (more
energy to remove core)

iii. First ionization energy increases as you go right on the periodic table, and
goes down as you go down on the periodic table
1. Discrepancies caused by energy lost in pairing
electrons
2.
iv. Electron Affinity
1. The energy change associated with the addition of an electron to
a gaseous atom
a.
2. The more negative the energy, the greater the quantity of energy
released
3. Many elements do not form stable isolated 1- ions
4. Only a first electron affinity (because that electron causes the
atom to be negative, and thus to repel other electrons)
5.
a. Periodic trends
i. As you go right, electron
affinities increase ii. As you go
down, electron affinities decrease
v. Atomic Radius

1. Cannot be specified exactly

2. Obtained by measuring distance between atoms in chemical
compounds
3.
a. Goes down as you go right
b. Goes up as you go down
13. 7.13→ The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals
a. Information contained in the periodic table
i. Number and type of valence electrons in a group are the same
ii. The most chemically reactive metals are the ones in the lower left hand
corner of the table, where ionization energies are smallest
iii. The most chemically reactive nonmetals are the ones with the largest
electron affinities b. The Alkali Metals
i. Experience many of the same qualities for the
reasons listed above ii. Most form 1+ ions
14. Terms
a. electromagnetic radiation: light (can think of it as wave and as particle)
b. wavelength: distance between two consecutive crests or troughs
c. frequency: the number of wavelengths that pass a specific point in one second
d. energy of light: energy emitted per photon
e. velocity: distance travelled over unit time
f. photon: discrete “packet” of light; the manner in which we look at light as
particles
g. Hertz: the unit equivalent to 1/s
h. c: speed of light (2.9979 x 108 m/s)
i. h: planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js)

j. spectroscope: a tool which separates light into its component wavelengths

k. excited state: a state of a physical system (eg. electron) that is higher in energy
than the ground state
l. ground state: the lowest energy state of an atom or other particle, the starting
point of an electron m. endothermic: absorbing energy
n. exothermic: releasing energy in the form of heat/light
o. Quantization: the concept that energy can occur only in discrete units called
quanta
p. Photon: a quantum of electromagnetic radiation
q. Photoelectric effect: the production of electrons or other free carriers when light
is shone onto a material
r. Dual nature of light: the statement that light exhibits both wave and particulate
properties
s. Diffraction: the scattering of light from a regular array of points or lines,
producing constructive and destructive interference
t. Diffraction Pattern: the distinctive pattern of light and dark fringes, rings, etc,
formed by diffraction
u. Continuous Spectrum: a spectrum that exhibits all wavelengths of visible light
v. Line Spectrum: a spectrum showing only certain discrete wavelengths
w. Standing Wave: a stationary wave as on a string of a musical instrument; in the
wave mechanical model, the electron in the hydrogen atom is considered to be a
standing wave
x. Wave Function: a function of the coordinates of an electron’s position in 3D
space that describes the properties of the electron
y. Wave mechanical model: a model for the hydrogen atom in which the electron is
assumed to behave as a standing wave
z. orbital: probability distribution describing a volume of space around the nucleus
where up to two electrons are likely to be found (90% of the time)
aa. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: we cannot know momentum (mass x velocity)
and position of an electron at the same time
bb. quantum numbers: used to describe the most probable position of an electron
within an atom cc. Paulib Exclusion Principle: no two electrons within an atom
can be identified by the same set of 4 quantum numbers
dd. Hund’s rule: the lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one having the
maximum number of unpaired electrons allowed by the Pauli exclusion principle
ee. Aufbau Principle: as protons are added to the nucleus of an atom, electrons fill
orbitals from the lowest to the highest energy

ff. Probability Distribution: the square of the wave function indicating the
probability of finding an electron at a particular point in space
gg. Radial Probability Distribution: probability that an electron in the orbital with
quantum numbers n and l will be found at a distance r from the nucleus
hh. Nodal surfaces/nodes: an area of an orbital having 0 electron probability ii.
Degenerate: a group of orbitals with the same energy
jj. Electron Spin: a quantum number representing one of the two possible values
for the electron spin kk. Polyelectronic Atoms: an atom with more than one
electron
ll. valence electrons: electrons in the outermost principal quantum level of an atom
mm. Core electrons: an inner electron in an atom; one not of the outermost
principal quantum number level nn. Lanthanides: a group of 14 elements following
lanthanum in the periodic table, in which the 4f orbitals are being filled
oo. Actinides: a group of 14 elements following actinium in the periodic table, in
which the 5f orbitals are being filled
pp. Representative elements: those elements within the A groups on the periodic
table
qq. First Ionization Energy: energy required to remove the most loosely held
electron from one mole of gaseous atoms to produce 1 mole of gaseous ions
each with a charge of 1+.
rr. Second Ionization Energy: energy needed to remove a second electron from each
ion in 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions to give gaseous 2+ ions
ss. Atomic Radii: half the distance between the nuclei in a molecule consisting of
identical atoms tt. Metalloids: elements along the division line of metals and
nonmetals (on periodic table). They exhibit metallic and nonmetallic properties

Chapter 8 Notes (Bonding: General Concepts)

1. 8.1→ Types of Chemical Bonds
a. Can study compounds in many different ways
b. Systems act in the way in which they achieve the lowest possible
energy c. Ionic Bonding
i. Energy of interaction between ions is calculated using Coulomb’s Law
ii. If you get a negative number, that means that the ion pair has lower
energy than the separated ions
d. Bonding between identical atoms
i. Opposite forces
1. Unfavorable forces : electron-electron repulsion, proton-proton
repulsion
2. Favorable force: electron-proton attraction
ii. Get the right distance apart (lowest energy) → bond length
1. Too far→ not enough attraction, electronelectron repulsion
stronger than attraction
2. Too close→ proton-proton repulsion stronger than attraction
e. Intermediate bonding (polar bonds)
i. Electrons not shared equally, atoms have fractional charges
2. 8.2→ Electronegativity
a. Expected bond energy
i. Expected bond energy of a bond is the average of the diatomic bonds of
each element involved in the bond
ii. The greater the difference between the actual bond energy and the
expected bond energy, the more polar the bond is

b.
i. F has the greatest electronegativity
c.
3. 8.3→ Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments
a. Dipole
i. A molecule with sigma positive and sigma negative parts (molecule with
partially charged parts)
1. Only if polar bonds are not equal and opposite
ii. Can be shown with colors→ red is electron rich, blue is electron poor
4. 8.4→ Ions: Electron Configurations and Sizes
a. Electron Configuration of Compounds
i. Two nonmetals→ covalent bond
ii. Non metal and metal→ ionic bond
b. Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds
i. Ionic solids are set up in a way that minimizes repulsions (+ + and - -) and
maximizes attractions
(+ -)
1. In gases, the ions are much further apart and normally don’t
interact as much
ii. Electrons are transferred in a manner that gives all atoms involved an octet
(or duet for H or He) c. Size of Ions

i. Hard to exactly define ionic radii (similar to atomic radii) → too hard to
measure
ii. Cations are smaller than neutral atoms (of same element), anions are
bigger than neutral atoms and cations (of the same element)
1. The fewer electrons an atom has, the smaller it is
iii. The isoelectronic ion with the MOST protons is the smallest, the one with
the LEAST protons is the largest
5. 8.5→ Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds
a. Lattice energy defines how strongly the ions attract each other. Lattice energy is
the change in energy that takes place when separated gaseous ions are packed
together to form an ionic solid.
i. Shown with negative sign because energy is released
b. Lattice energy calculations
i.
6. 8.6→ Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds
a. Hard to tell difference between ionic and polar covalent bonds
i. No totally ionic bonds between discrete pairs of atoms
ii. Percent ionic character
1. (Measured dipole moment of X-Y/calculated dipole moment of
X+Y-) (100%)
iii. Any compound that conducts an electric current when melted will be
classified as ionic
7. 8.7→ The Covalent Chemical Bond: A Model
a. Chemical bonds are forces that cause a group of atoms to behave as a unit
i. Bonds result from the tendency of a system to seek its
lowest possible energy b. Models: An Overview

i. Models are attempts to explain how nature operates on the microscopic

level based on experiences in the macroscopic world
ii. Fundamental Properties of Models
1. Models are human inventions, and therefore are not always
completely accurate
a. Can actually be entirely incorrect
2. Models become more complicated as they age
3. Have to understand how complicated/accurate a model is so that
your results match with the precision of the model
8. 8.8→ Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions
a. Bonds don’t always have the same energy (even between the same elements) →
bond energies we use are averages
b. Different energies for multiple bonds
c. Bond Energy and Enthalpy
i. ΔH= sum of energies required to break old bonds (+) plus the sum of the
energies released in the formation of new bonds (-)
9. 8.9→ The Localized Electron Bonding Model
a. Localized electron model
i. Description of the valence electron arrangement in the molecule using
Lewis structures
ii. Prediction of the geometry of the model using the valence shell electron
pair repulsion model iii. Description of the type of atomic orbitals used by
the atoms to share electrons or lone pairs
10. 8.10→ Lewis Structures
a. Lewis structure show how valence electrons are arranged among the atoms in
the molecule
b. The most important requirement for the formation of a stable compound is that
the atoms achieve noble gas electron configurations
i. To obey octet rule
c. Ionic
i. Just draw ions with their valence electrons and charge
d. Covalent
i. Sum the total number of valence electrons (add another for each
negative charge on the molecule)

ii. Use a pair of electrons to form a bond between each pair of bound
atoms iii. Arrange the remaining electrons to satisfy the duet
rule (H or He) or the octet rule
11. 8.11→ Exceptions to the Octet Rule
a. Boron usually has 6 valence electrons instead of 8
b. S and Se often have more than 8 electrons (either 10 or 12) when in compounds
such as SF6 c. Comments about Octet Rule:
i. C, N, O, F always obey octet rule
ii. B and Be often have fewer than 8 electrons (electron deficient) →
molecules they are in are very reactive
iii.Second row elements can never exceed octet rule (because they don’t
have a d orbital)
iv. Third row and heavier elements usually obey the octet rule but can
exceed it
12. 8.12→ Resonance
a. Resonance is invoked when more than 1 valid Lewis structure can be written for
a particular molecule. The resulting electron structure of the molecule is given by
the average of the resonance structures
b. Occurs because model shows electrons as localized when they don’t necessarily
have to be c. Odd Electron Molecules
i. Cannot be dealt with using localized electron model, because this model
thinks of electrons in pairs
d. Formal Charge
i. The difference between the number of valence electrons on the free
atom and the number of valence electrons assigned to the atom in the
molecule
ii. Lone pair electrons belong entirely to the atom in question
iii. Shared electrons are divided equally between the two sharing atoms
(counts for one electron for each atom)
iv. Still estimates→ do not count as entirely accurate e. Rules Governing
Formal Charge
i. To calculate the formal charge on an atom:
1. Take the sum of the lone pair electrons and one half the shared
electrons. This is the number of valence electrons assigned to the
atom in the molecule

2. Subtract the number of assigned electrons from the number of

valence electrons on the free, neutral atom to obtain the formal
charge
ii. The sum of the formal charges of all atoms in a given molecule or ion
must equal the overall charge on that species
iii. If non equivalent Lewis structures exist for a species, those with formal
charges closest to zero and with any negative formal charges on the most
electronegative atoms are considered to best describe the bonding in the
molecule or ion.
13. 8.13→ Molecular Structure: VSEPR
a. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)’s main postulate is that the
structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron
pair repulsions
i. That electrons pairs will be as far apart as possible
b. Steps to apply VSEPR
i. Draw Lewis structure
ii. Count electron pairs
iii. Determine position of atoms from the way the electron pairs are shared
iv. Determine name of molecular structure from position of atoms
c. Lone pairs require more room than bonding pairs
i. This makes sense because they move around more→ not centered between
two nuclei

a.
d. The VSEPR Model and Multiple Bonds
i. Multiple bonds are counted as one effective pair
ii. When a molecule exhibits resonance, any one of the resonance
structures can be used to predict the molecular structure using VSEPR
e. Molecules Containing No Central Atom
i. Can use VSEPR with multiple central atoms
f. Summary of VSEPR
i. Determine Lewis structure
ii. Sum electron pairs around central atom
iii. Count pairs (each multiple bond counts as one pair) iv. Figure out
molecular structure
g. How well does VSEPR work?
i. Pretty well most of the time→ some exceptions to every model
14. Terms

a. Bond Energy: energy required to break a specific bond

b. Ionic Bonding: the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
c. Ionic Compound: a compound that results when a metal reacts with a nonmetal
to form a cation and an anion
d. Coulomb’s Law: the equation that defines the strength of an ionic bond
e. Bond Length: the distance between the nuclei of two atoms connected by a
bond, the distance where the total energy of the bond is minimal
f. Covalent Bonding: bonding in which electrons are shared by nuclei
g. Polar Covalent Bond: a covalent bond in which the electrons are not shared
equally
h. Electronegativity: the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons
to itself
i. Dipole Moment: a property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be
represented by a center of positive charge and a center of negative charge
j. Isoelectronic Ions: ions containing the same number of electrons
k. Lattice energy: the change in energy that takes place when separated gaseous
ions are packed together to form an ionic solid
l. Single Bond: bond in which one pair of electrons is shared
m. Double Bond: bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared
n. Triple Bond: bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared
o. Localized Electron Model: assumes that a molecule is composed of atoms that
are bound together by sharing pairs of electrons using the atomic orbitals of the
bound atoms
p. Lone Pairs: electrons localized on an atom
q. Bonding Pairs: electrons found in the space between two atoms
r. Lewis Structure: a diagram of a molecule showing how the valence electrons are
arranged among the atoms in the molecule
s. Octet Rule: the observation that atoms of nonmetals tend to form the most
stable molecules when they are surrounded by eight valence electrons (to fill
their valence orbitals)
t. Resonance: a condition occurring when more than one valid Lewis structure can
be written for a particular molecule. The actual electronic structure is not
represented by any one of the Lewis structures but by the average of all of them
u. Formal Charge: the difference between the number of valence electrons on the
free atom and the number of valence electrons assigned to the atom in the
molecule
v. Molecular Structure: the 3D arrangement of atoms in a molecule

w. VSEPR: a model whose main postulate is that the structure around a given atom
in a molecule is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsions

Chapter 9 Notes (Covalent Bonding: Orbitals)

1. 9.1→ Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model a. sp3
hybridization
i. Assume that atoms have 4 equal orbitals→ put s and p orbitals
together to combine into sp3 orbitals
ii.
Whenever a set of equivalent tetrahedral atomic orbitals is
required by an atom, this model assumes that the atom adopts a
set of sp3 orbitals; the atom becomes sp3 hybridized b. sp2
hybridization
i. Whenever an atom is surrounded by three effective pairs, a set of sp2 orbitals
is required
ii. Sigma (𝜎) and Pi(𝝅) bonds
1. Sigma bond
a. Formed using sp2 orbitals
b. In plane
2. Pi bonds
a. Formed using the unused p orbitals
b. Above and below plane
3. Double bonds are one sigma and one pi bond
c. sp hybridization
i. Two effective pairs around an atom will always require sp
hybridization of that atom d. dsp3 hybridization
i. A set of five effective pairs around a given atom always requires a trigonal
bipyramidal arrangement, which in turn requires dsp3 hybridization of
that atom
e. d sp hybridization
2 3
i. Six electron pairs around an atom are always arranged octahedrally and
require d2sp3 hybridization of that atom
f. Summary of using localized electron model
i. Lewis
ii. VSEPR→ molecular structure
iii. Hybrid orbitals

1.
2. 9.2→ The Molecular Orbital Model
a.
b. Molecular Orbital Model
i. The electron probability of both molecular orbitals is centered along the
line passing through the two nuclei→ called sigma orbitals
1. MO1→ between nuclei (bonding molecular orbital)
2. MO2→ either side of nuclei (antibonding molecular orbital)
ii. The shape of the orbital depends on whether the interference is
constructive or destructive (whether the wave functions of the orbitals
are in phase or out of phase)

1. In phase→ constructive→ bonding orbital

2. Out of phase→ destructive→ antibonding orbital
iii. # of molecular orbitals= # of atomic orbitals
1. Conservation of energy
2. atomics orbitals no longer exist if they are used to form molecular
orbitals
iv. MO1 is lower in energy than the original orbitals, MO2 is higher in energy
than the original orbitals 1. If the energy of the electrons in the
molecular orbitals is lower than their energy in their separated state, the
situation is favorable to bonding (pro bonding)
2. If the energy of the electrons in the molecular orbitals is higher
than their energy in their separated state, the situation is
antibonding→ the atoms will not bond
v. A bonding orbital is one that is lower in energy than the atomic
orbitals it is formed from, an antibonding orbital is higher in
energy than the atomic orbitals it is formed from
1. Bonding orbitals place electrons between the nuclei, which
prevents as much proton proton repulsion from occurring→ lower
energy→ more stable
vi. Naming molecular orbitals
1. Use * to denote anti bonding
2. Use sigma/pi and then the orbitals they came from
a.

vii. Molecular electron configurations can be written in the same

way as atomic electron configurations
viii. Each molecular orbital can hold 2 electrons
c. Bond Order
i. The difference between the number of bonding electrons and the
number of antibonding electrons divided by 2 ii. Larger bond order
means greater bond strength
3. 9.3→ Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
a. P orbitals can also form MOs
i. 4 form Pi MOs (2 p orbitals not along internuclear axis)
ii. 2 form Sigma MOs(1 p orbital along internuclear axis)
iii.
iv.
1. For F2
2. Sigma below pi because sigma bonds are stronger than pi bonds
b. Paramagnetism
i. Paramagnetism: substance is attracted into the inducing magnetic field
ii. Diamagnetism: substance is repelled from the inducing magnetic field
iii. Paramagnetism is associated with unpaired electrons, diamagnetism is
associated with paired electrons
c. SP mixing
i. Occurs when the 2s and 2p have relatively similar energies

ii. All orbitals have contributions from 2s and from 2p orbitals, the amount
from each determines the energy of the orbitals
iii.
iv.
v. Pi bonds do not change energy
d. Orbital Diagrams, Bond Energies, Bond Lengths
i. As bond order increases, bond energy increases, bond length decreases
4. 9.5→ Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital
Models
a. Sigma bonds can be treated as localized, pi bonds must be treated as delocalized

i.
b. Interaction of p orbitals
5. 9.6→ Photoelectron Spectroscopy
a. Can be used to determine what energies electrons have (ionization energies) and
the percent abundance of each one
i. Percent abundance expresses how many electrons exist at a certain
energy, the energy level expresses the orbital
b. Energy decreases from left to right
i. Core electrons are the closest to the axis
6. Terms
a. Hybridization: the mixing of the native orbitals on a given atom to form special
atomic orbitals for bonding
b. Hybrid Orbitals: a set of atomic orbitals adopted by an atom in a molecule
different from those of the atom in a free state
c. sp3 hybridization: hybridization of 3 p orbitals and 1 s orbital
d. sp2 hybridization: hybridization of 2 p orbitals and 1 s orbital
e. dsp3 hybridization: hybridization of 1 d orbital, 3 p orbitals, and 1 s orbital
f. Molecular Orbital Model: a model that regards a molecule as a collection of
nuclei and electrons, where the electrons are assumed to occupy orbitals as
much as they do in atoms, but having the orbitals extend over the entire
molecule. In this model the electrons are assumed to be delocalized rather than
always located between a given pair of atoms.
g. Sigma Bond: a covalent bond in which the electron pair is shared in an area
centered on a line running between the atoms
h. Pi Bond: a covalent bond in which parallel p orbitals share an electron pair
occupying the space above and below the line joining the atoms
i. Molecular Orbitals: mathematical function describing the wave-like behavior of
an electron in a molecule
j. Sigma Molecular Orbital: molecular orbital where shared electron density is
directly between the bonding atoms, along the bonding axis

k. Bonding Molecular Orbital: molecular orbital with lower energy than the orbitals
it was formed from
l. Antibonding Molecular Orbital: molecular orbital with higher energy than the
orbitals it was formed from
m. Bond Order: The difference between the number of bonding electrons and the
number of antibonding electrons divided by 2
n. Paramagnetism: substance is attracted into the inducing magnetic field
o. Diamagnetism: substance is repelled from the inducing magnetic field
Chapter 10 Notes (Liquids and Solids)
1. 10.1→ Intermolecular Forces
a. Intramolecular bonding is within molecules, intermolecular forces are between
molecules
b. Phase changes are physical not chemical
c. Dipole-Dipole Forces
i. Partially charged parts of polar molecules are attracted to each other
ii. Solid has more ordered organization of

molecules than liquid
iii. Not dependent on size, dependent on charge
iv. When there are dipole dipole forces, there are also London
Dispersion Forces d. Hydrogen Bonding
i. Special dipole-dipole
1. Not actually a bond
2. H-F, N-H, O-H because these are all small and have a very high
effective nuclear charge
a.

3. Stronger than normal Dipole-Dipole

ii. When there is hydrogen bonding, there are also Dipole-Dipole Forces and
London Dispersion
Forces
e. London Dispersion Forces
i. In every kind of molecule
ii. Caused by a temporary dipole moment (induced dipole)
1. Electrons are momentarily on one side of an atom (because of
probability distribution), causing the electrons in an atom near
that side to be repelled
2.
iii. The strength of the bond depends of the shape of the molecules and the
number of electrons
1. The larger the molecule, the stronger the force because there is a
larger chance of a temporary dipole
2. 10.2→ The Liquid State
a. Liquid exists usually in droplets
i. Molecules in interior pulled by more molecules than those on surface,
spherical shape minimizes surface area
b. Surface tension
i. The resistance of a liquid to increase its surface area
ii.Liquids with higher intermolecular forces generally have higher
surface tensions c. Capillary action
i. Spontaneous rising of liquid in a narrow tube
ii. Cohesive forces v adhesive forces
1. cohesive→ between molecules of liquid
2. adhesive→ between liquid molecules and container
a. Occur when the container a liquid is in has polar bonds (eg.
glass)

iii.
1. polar→ concave meniscus
a. adhesive>cohesive
2. nonpolar→ convex meniscus
a. cohesive>adhesive
d. viscosity
i. The measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow
ii. As IMF increase, viscosity increases
e. Structural model for liquids
i. Liquids have non negligible intermolecular forces and molecular
movement, so they are much harder to model than gases or solids ii. Can
use spectroscopy to model them better
3. 10.3→ An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids
a. Crystalline v Amorphous solids
i. Amorphous: solid with considerable disorder in its structure
ii. Crystalline: solid with a highly regular arrangement of its components
1. Shown in lattice, made up of unit cells
b. X Ray Analysis of Solids
i. Structures of solids determined by X Ray Diffraction
1. Diffraction occurs when beams of light are scattered from a
regular array of points in which the spacing between the
components are comparable with the wavelength of the light
2. Used to determine intermolecular spacings
c. Bragg Equation
i.
d. Types of Crystalline Solids
i. Ionic v molecular v atomic solids

1. ionic→ ions at the points of the lattice that describes the structure
of the solid
2. molecular→ discrete covalently bonded molecules at each of its
lattice points
3. atomic→ have atoms at the lattice points that describe the
structure of the solid
4
.
e.
4. 10.4→ Structure and Bonding in Metals
a. Closest packing: placing the spherical atoms of a metal as close together as
possible
i. Hexagonal closest packing: body centered cubic (aba)
ii. Cubic closest packing: face centered cubic (abca)
iii.

iv.
1. Coordination number is the number of atoms a single atom in the
structure is closest to b. Density of a unit cell
i.
ii. Volume of unit cell
1.
2. V=a3
iii. Packing efficiency
1. Fraction of volume occupied (higher packing efficiency
means more dense) c. Bonding Models for Metals

i. Electron sea model

1. Regular array of metal cations in a sea of
valence electrons ii. Band model
1. Electrons are assumed to travel around the metal crystal in
molecular orbitals formed from the valence atomic orbitals of the
metal atoms
2. The large number of molecular orbitals become more closely
spaced and form a virtual continuum of levels, called bands
3. Metals conduct electricity and heat very well because of the
availability of highly mobile electrons (can easily move to
conduction band→ no band gap)
a. d.
Metal Alloys
i. Alloy: a substance that contains a mixture of elements and has metallic
properties
1. Substitutional Alloy: a type of alloy in which host metal atoms are
replaced by other metal atoms of similar size
2. Interstitial Alloy: a type of alloy in which holes in the packed metal
structure are filled with small atoms
a. Eg. steel (Carbon in holes of iron crystal)
ii.
5. 10.5→ Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids
a. Network solid→ giant molecule

b. Diamond v graphite
i. Graphite has weak bonding between layers, but strong
bonding within layers ii. Conductivity
1. Diamond has all sigma bonds→ very large band gap
a.
2. Graphite has pi bonds→ very small band gap
a
.
iii.
c. Silicon
i. Silica (SiO2)
1. Quartz
a. Strong long range order
b. Each silicon is connected to 4 Carbons
2. Glass
a. Amorphous

3.
ii. silicates: substances that contain silicon oxygen anions
d. Ceramics
i. Nonmetallic materials that are strong, brittle, and resistant to heat and
attack by chemicals
ii. Heterogenous
iii. Made by the weathering action of water and carbon dioxide on the
mineral feldspar, which is a mixture of silicates
e. Semiconductors
i. Between conductors and insulators
1.
ii. Doping
1. Replacing main atom (usually Si) with an atom with a different
number of valence electrons
a. N type: replace using atom with more electrons
i.
ii. Extra electron
iii. Electrons closer to conduction band
b. P type: replace using atom with less electrons

i. ii. Hole forms

iii. Electrons move around to fill hole in valence band,
hole moves around
c.
2. Junctions
a. PN junction
i.
ii.
Holes move from p to n, electrons move
from n to p
b. Reverse and Forward Bias
i. Hooking PN junction up to battery

ii.
1. In reverse, no current flows. In forward, current flows
6. 10.6→ Molecular Solids
a. Strong bonds within molecules, weak forces between molecules
i. Stronger as the molecule gets bigger because of London Dispersion Forces
7. 10.7→ Ionic Solids
a. Stable, high melting substances held together by the strong electrostatic
attraction forces that exist between oppositely charged ions
b. Usually packed by doing closest packing with larger ion (usually anion) and filling
holes with smaller ion
(usually cation)
i. Types of holes:
1. Trigonal
2. Tetrahedral 3. Octahedral
4.
ii. Type of hole depends on relative radii of ions
1. Smallest hole→ trigonal→ if bigger ion is a lot bigger than smaller
ion
2. Medium hole→ tetrahedral→ if bigger ion is kind of bigger than
smaller ion

3. Biggest hole→ octahedral→ if bigger ion is pretty much the same

size as smaller ion
iii. Not all holes are filled→ depends on ratio of ions c. Types and Properties
of Solids
i.
8. 10.8→ Vapor Pressure and Changes of State
a. Vapor Pressure
i. Liquid
1. Evaporation occurs at a constant rate at a given temperature
2. Eventually, enough vapor molecules are present above the liquid
so that the rate of condensation equals the rate of evaporation
a. Equilibrium (no further net change occurs in the amount of
liquid or vapor because they balance each other)
b. Pressure of vapor present at equilibrium=vapor pressure
3. Liquids with high vapor pressures are volatile
a. Evaporate quickly
4. Determinants of Vapor Pressure
a. Vapor pressure is determined by the size of the
intermolecular forces in the liquid
i. Large intermolecular forces→ low vapor pressure
because molecules need high energies to escape to
the vapor phase
ii.
Larger molar mass usually means lower vapor
pressure because it also means larger dispersion
forces
b. Vapor pressure increases with temperature

i. As a liquid gets hotter, it has more energy and thus

more molecules have enough energy to jump to
the vapor phase
ii. Can be plotted on a line
c.
5. Boiling point
a. When vapor pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
b. Normal boiling point→ vapor pressure is 1 atm
6. Equations
a.
i. Enthalpy of vaporization: energy it takes to convert

a substance from liquid to vapor, usually in kJ/mol
b.
i. If you know VP at one temperature and you want to
know it at another ii. If you know VP and want to know
enthalpy of vaporization
ii. Solid
1. Sublimation is when a substance changes from a solid to a gas
b. Changes of State

i.
Physical changes
ii. Melting and boiling points are determined by the vapor pressures of the
solid and liquid states
1. Melting point: Solid and liquid phase have the same vapor
pressures
2. Case 1: Solid vapor pressure>liquid vapor pressure
a. Conversion from solid to liquid through vapor phase
b. Only the liquid state can exist in this situation at equilibrium
3. Case 2: Solid vapor pressure<liquid vapor pressure
a. Liquid requires greater pressure than solid to be at
equilibrium, liquid turned into solid
4. Case 3: Solid vapor pressure=liquid vapor pressure
a. Liquid and solid can coexist
iii. Phase changes can occur at different temperature if a liquid is
supercooled or superheated
1. supercooled→ not enough organization to form solid
2. superheated→ bubble forms, vapor pressure>atmospheric
pressure, liquid is splashed
9. 10.9→ Phase Diagrams
a. A way to represent the phases of a substance as a function of temperature and
pressure
i. In a closed system

ii.
1. Points
a. Triple point: the point at which all three phases of water
are present
b. Critical pressure: the pressure required to produce
liquefaction at the critical temperature
c. Critical temperature: the temperature above which vapor
cannot be liquefied no matter what pressure is applied
d. Critical point: (critical temperature, critical pressure)
e. Normal melting point: melting point at 1 atm
f. Normal boiling point: temperature at which vapor
pressure of the liquid is 1 atm
iii.
1. Fusion curve: solid→liquid, liquid→ solid
2. Sublimation curve: solid→ gas, gas→ solid
3. Vaporization curve: liquid→ gas, gas→ liquid
iv. Make sure to note whether pressure is to scale or not
b. Phase Diagram of Water

i.
ii. Fusion curve has negative slope
1. Because solid is more dense than liquid
c. Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
i.
ii. At 1 atm, Carbon Dioxide sublimes (dry ice)
10. Terms
a.Intramolecular force: a force within a molecule
b.Intermolecular force: a force between molecules
c.Condensed States: liquid or solid
d.Surface tension: The resistance of a liquid to increase its surface area
e.Capillary action: Spontaneous rising of liquid in a narrow tube
f.Viscosity: The measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow
g.Crystalline Solids: solid with a highly regular arrangement of its components
h.Amorphous solids: solid with considerable disorder in its structure
i.Lattice: a 3D system of points designating the positions of the components that
make up the substance j. Unit Cell: smallest repeating unit of the lattice
k. Ionic solid: ions at the points of the lattice that describes the structure of the
solid
l. Molecular solid: discrete covalently bonded molecules at each of its lattice points
m. Atomic solid: have atoms at the lattice points that describe the structure of the
solid

n. Band Model: Electrons are assumed to travel around the metal crystal in
molecular orbitals formed from the valence atomic orbitals of the metal atoms
o. Conduction Band: a delocalized band of energy partly filled with electrons in a
crystalline solid. These electrons have great mobility and are responsible for
electrical conductivity.
p. Valence Band: The outermost electron shell of atoms in an insulator or
semiconductor in which the electrons are too tightly bound to the atom to carry
electric current
q. Alloy: a substance that contains a mixture of elements and has metallic
properties
r. Substitutional Alloy: a type of alloy in which host metal atoms are replaced by
other metal atoms of similar size
s. Interstitial Alloy: a type of alloy in which holes in the packed metal structure are
filled with small atoms t. Network solid: giant molecule
u. silicates: substances that contain silicon oxygen anions
v. Ceramics: Nonmetallic materials that are strong, brittle, and resistant to heat and
attack by chemicals
w. Semiconductor: a solid substance that has a conductivity between that of an
insulator and that of most metals, either due to the addition of an impurity or
because of temperature effects
x. Insulator: a substance that doesn’t conduct
y. Doping: the intentional introduction of impurities into a lattice in order to make
it a better semiconductor
z. N type Semiconductor: the addition of an atom into a lattice with more valence
electrons than the “central atom”
aa. P type Semiconductor:the addition of an atom into a lattice with less valence
electrons than the “central atom”
bb. PN Junction: a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor
material, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor
cc. Reverse Bias Diode: The application of a reverse voltage to the p-n junction
which causes a transient current to flow as both electrons and holes are pulled
away from the junction.
dd. Forward Bias Diode: a voltage applied to a circuit or device, usually a
semiconductor device, in the direction that produces the larger current
ee. Vaporization: conversion of a liquid into a gas ff. Evaporation: the process of a
substance in a liquid state changing to a gaseous state due to an increase in
temperature and/or pressure

gg. Heat of Vaporization: the energy required to vaporize one mole of a liquid at a
pressure of 1 atmosphere hh. Condensation: Process by which a gas changes to a
liquid
ii. Equilibrium: a dynamic condition in which two opposing changes occur at equal
rates in a closed system jj. Vapor Pressure: pressure exerted by a vapor in
equilibrium with its corresponding liquid at a given temperature
kk. Sublimation: change of state from a solid directly to a gas
ll. Normal Melting Point: the temperature at which the solid and liquid states have
the same vapor pressure under conditions where the total pressure is 1 atm
mm. Normal Boiling Point: the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid is exactly 1 atm (and the atmospheric pressure is 1 atm)
nn. Phase Diagram: A way to represent the phases of a substance as a function of
temperature and pressure oo. Triple point: the point at which all three phases of
a substance are present pp. Critical pressure: the pressure required to produce
liquefaction at the critical temperature qq. Critical temperature: the temperature
above which vapor cannot be liquefied no matter what pressure is applied
(above which there is supercritical fluid)
rr. Critical point: (critical temperature, critical pressure) ss. Fusion
curve: liquid/solid barrier, also known as freezing/melting tt.
Sublimation curve: solid/vapor barrier uu. Vaporization curve:
liquid/vapor barrier, also known as evaporation/condensation vv.
Polarizability: the ability to form instantaneous dipoles (directly
related to LDF)

Chapter 11 Notes (Properties of Solutions)

1. 11.1→ Solution Composition
a. Ways to define concentration
i. Molarity (M)
1. Moles solute/L soln
ii. Mass percent
1. (Mass solute/mass solution)(100%)
iii. Mole Fraction (𝟀)
1.
a. if A and B are the only components of the solution
iv. Molality (m)
1. Moles solute/kg solvent
a. Does not change with temperature
v. Normality (N)
1. # equivalents/L soln where the definition of an equivalent depends
on the reaction taking place in the solution
a. ACID BASE RXN: The mass of acid or base that can furnish
or accept exactly 1 mole of protons
b. REDOX RXN: the quantity of oxidizing or reducing agent
that can accept or furnish exactly one mole of electrons
2. 11.2→ The Energies of Solution Formation
a. Steps of forming solution
i.
Separate solute Takes energy
Make room for solute in solvent Takes energy

Form interactions between solute
Releases energy
and solvent
1.
2. Change in energy associated with the formation of the solution is
the enthalpy of solution (ΔHsoln)

3.
a. Forms if ΔHsoln is close to or less than 0. Even if it is slightly above the

solution will form because of entropy ii.
3. 11.3→ Factors Affecting Solubility

a. Structure effects
i. Hydrophobic→ water fearing (mostly nonpolar)
1. CH bonds
ii. Hydrophilic→ water loving (polar or charged)
1. OH, NH, C=O bonds
b. Pressure Effects
i. Pressure increases the solubility of a gas
ii. Henry’s Law
1.
2. Best for low concentration, weak IMF between solute and solvent,
and gases that do not dissociate
c. Temperature Effects
i. For solid: as temperature increases, solubility USUALLY increases

1.
ii. For gas: as temperature increases, solubility decreases
1.
a. Gas has more kinetic energy, comes out of soln faster
4. 11.4→ The Vapor Pressures of Solutions
a. The presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent
i. Has to be nonvolatile because if not it contributes to the vapor pressure
and makes it more complicated
ii. Works because it in essence dilutes the concentration of the solvent, which
lowers the rate at which the solvent vaporizes, thus lowering the vapor
pressure of the solution b. Raoult’s Law
i. Explains an “ideal solution”
ii.

iii. iv. When solutions dissociate:

1. Count as the number of moles of ions they dissociate into. Eg. NaCl
should be counted as two moles, because it dissociates into one mole of Na + ions
and one mole of Cl- ions c. Nonideal solutions
i. A solution that follows Raoult’s law is called ideal
1. Solute solute, solvent solvent, solute solvent interactions about
equal
ii. When solute solvent interactions are stronger than solute solute or solvent
solvent interactions
1.
2. Largest deviation in middle because that is where there are the
most solute solvent interactions
iii. When solute solvent interactions are weaker than solute solute or solvent
solvent interactions
1.
5. 11.5→ Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression a. Boiling Point Elevation
i.

ii. Liquid vapor pressure is lower, meaning it takes a higher T to make the
liquid vp the same as the atmospheric vp
b. Freezing Point Depression
i. Solid and liquid vapor pressures both change, freezing point
decreases
ii.
6. Terms
a. Molarity: moles solute/liters solution
b. Mass percent: (Mass solute/mass solution)(100%)
c. Molality: Moles solute/kg solvent
d. Mole fraction: the ratio of moles of a given component in a mixture to the total
number of moles in the mixture
e. Normality: the number of equivalents of a substance dissolved in a liter of
solution
f. Enthalpy of solution: Change in energy associated with the formation of the
solution
g. Enthalpy of hydration:the amount of energy released when a mole of the ion
dissolves in a large amount of water forming an infinite dilute solution in the
process
h. Hydrophobic: water fearing
i. Hydrophilic: water loving
j. Colligative Property: properties that depend upon the concentration of solute
molecules or ions, but not upon the identity of the solute

Chapter 12 Notes: Chemical Kinetics

1. 12.1→ Reaction Rates
a. For a reactant A
i.
ii. Put a negative sign in front. Rates should always be positive.
b. Rates must work with the stoichiometry of the reaction. For example, if a product to
reactant ratio in the chemical equation is 1:1, these two substances must have the same
rate over the same time period
i.
c. Rates are not constant over the course of a reaction
i. Also possible to use a derivative (instantaneous rate of change)
d. Given in M/s
e. Reaction Rate
i.
2. 12.2→ Rate Laws: An Introduction
a. If we choose conditions where the reverse reaction can be ignored, the reaction
rate will depend only on the concentrations of the reactants
b.
i. Note: x and y MUST be
experimentally determined 1.
Usually: 0, 1, 2 (zero, first, second
order)
ii.
c. Types of Rate Laws

i. Differential Rate Law (rate law)

1. Expresses how rate depends on concentration
ii. Integrated Rate Law
1. Expresses how concentrations depend on time
3. 12.3→ Determining the Form of the Rate Law
a. See how a change in initial concentration affects the rate in order to determine
the reactant orders
b. Then use any of
the given
experiments to solve for K
c. Overall Reaction Order
i. Reactant orders added up
4. 12.4→ The Integrated Rate Law
a.
i. Integrated rate law is ALWAYS a straight line--look for which of these is a
straight line to solve for the reaction order
b.
c. Types of Reactions
i. Zero Order: when a substance such as a metal surface or an enzyme is
required for the reaction to occur
ii. First Order: NUCLEAR
d. Half Life of a First Order Reaction
i.

ii. Does NOT depend on concentration

1. For both zero and second order reactions, it does
e. Pseudo First Order Rate Laws
i. Have such large amounts of all but one reaction that they functionally
remain the same and the rate law is determined using only the one
reactant that is not in extreme excess
5. 12.5→ Reaction Mechanisms
a. Most reactions occur in a series of steps called the reaction mechanism
i. Sum of elementary steps must give the overall balanced equation for the
reaction
ii. The mechanism must agree with the experimentally determined rate law
b. A balanced chemical equation for a reaction does not give any direct information
about the reaction mechanism
c. Intermediates: species that are neither reactants nor products but that are
formed and consumed during the reaction sequence
d. Elementary steps
i. A reaction whose rate law can be written from its molecularity
(uni, bi, ter…) ii. The slowest step is the rate determining step.
We use this step to write the rate law
1. Harder when this step is not first because intermediates can go back to reactants
iii. Mechanism cannot be proved absolutely

6. 12.6→ A Model for Chemical Kinetics
a. Two requirements must be satisfied for reactants to collide successfully
i. The collision must involve enough energy to product the reaction; that is,
the collision energy must equal or exceed the activation energy
ii. The relative orientation of the reactants must allow formation of any
new bonds necessary to produce products

b. i.
1. Plotting ln K v. 1/T gives straight line with slope -Ea/R
c. Graphs
i.
7. 12.7→ Catalysis
a. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed itself
i. Provides new reaction pathway with lower activation energy
b. Homogenous/Heterogenous
i. Homogenous: in same phase as reacting molecules
ii. Heterogenous: in a different phase than molecules (usually a solid)
8. Terms
a. Chemical Kinetics: the area of chemistry that concerns reaction rates
b. Reaction Rate: the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time
c. Rate Constant: a coefficient of proportionality relating the rate of a chemical
reaction at a given temperature to the concentration of reactant
d. Differential Rate Law (rate law): Expresses how rate depends on concentration
e. Integrated Rate Law: Expresses how concentrations depend on time
f. Order: the positive or negative exponent, determined by experiment, of the
reactant concentration in a rate law
g. Initial Rate: instantaneous rate at t=0
h. Overall Reaction Order: sum of reactant orders

i. Half life: time required for a reactant to reach half of its original concentration
(t1/2)
j. Reaction Mechanism: a series of elementary steps
k. Intermediates: species that are neither reactants nor products but that are
formed and consumed during the reaction sequence
l. Elementary step: A reaction whose rate law can be written from its molecularity
m. Molecularity: number of species that must collide to produce the reaction
indicated by that step
n. Rate determining step: the slowest elementary step of a reaction (the step that
determines the rate of the reaction)
o. Activation energy: the minimum quantity of energy that the reacting species
must possess in order to undergo a specified reaction
p. Frequency factor (A): combination of collision frequency and steric factor
q. Steric factor: the factor (always less than 1) that reflects the fraction of collisions
with orientations that can produce a chemical reaction
r. Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed itself

Chapter 13 Notes (Chemical Equilibrium)

1. 13.1→ The Equilibrium Condition
a. Equilibrium
i. Dynamic condition
ii. No net change
1. Forward and reverse rates are equal
iii. Reaction rates depend on concentrations of reactants
b. At equilibrium, ΔG=0
2. 13.2→ The Equilibrium Constant
a. Keq
i. where a, b, c, d represent the coefficients

on their
respective substance in the balanced chemical equation
ii. NO UNITS
iii. Given for certain T, same for any amounts at that T iv. AT
EQUILIBRIUM
1. Not at equilibrium, this equation gives Q
b. Conclusions about the equilibrium expression
i. If reaction is reversed, K→ 1/K
ii. If reaction is multiplied by a constant A, K→ KA

iii. If two reactions are added together, K=(K1)(K2)
c. Equilibrium position
i. Each set of equilibrium concentrations
3. 13.3→ Equilibrium Expressions Involving Pressures a. KP
i.
ii.
4. 13.4→ Heterogenous Equilibria

a. Involve more than one phase

b. If pure solids or liquids are included in chemical reaction, they ARE NOT included
in the equilibrium expression
i. Since they are constant at a given T (since you calculate concentration from
density)
5. 13.5→ Applications of the Equilibrium Constant
a. The Extent of a Reaction
i.
ii.
iii. >> or << by orders of magnitude
iv. Size of K and time to reach equilibrium are NOT directly related
b. Reaction Quotient
i. Used to determine which way the reaction is moving
ii.
6. 13.6→ Solving Equilibrium Problems
a. Problem Solving Strategy
i. Write balanced equation
ii. Write equilibrium expression
iii. List initial conditions
iv. Calculate Q to determine direction of rxn
v. Use ICE to find new concentrations
1.

2. Then use these expressions to find X by plugging in with

equilibrium expression
a. REMEMBER: cannot have negative molarity, positive root is right
vi. Check calculated equilibrium concentrations by making sure they give the
correct K
b. Treating Systems That Have Small Equilibrium Constants
i. Use steps 1-5 given above, then use 5% trick
ii. Assume x is small enough to be negligible on one side, pretend it is
iii. Solve for X
iv. Prove 5%!!! (do assumption-actual/assumption)
1. Usually works if assumption is greater than 1000 times KC
7. 13.7→ Le Chatelier's Principle
a. If a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the position of the equilibrium
will shift in a direction that reduces that change
b. The Effect of a Change in Concentration
i. If a component is added, equilibrium shifts to reduce the amount of
that component
ii.If a component is reduced, equilibrium shifts to increase the amount
of that component c. The Effect of a Change in Pressure
i. Addition of an inert gas
1. Does not affect equilibrium (no effect on partial pressures)
ii. Reduction in Volume
1. System reacts by reducing moles of gas present
d. The Effect of a Change in Temperature
i. K changes with T
ii. Think of a change in T as either heat as either a product (exothermic) or a
reactant (endothermic)
1. T goes down→ heat removed
a. exothermic→ shift towards products
b. endothermic→ shift towards reactants
2. T goes up→ heat added
a. exothermic→ shift towards reactants
b. endothermic→ shift towards products
8. Terms
a. Equilibrium: the state in which both reactants and products are present in
concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time. Usually, this

state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse
reaction
b. Law of mass action: law stating that the rate of any chemical reaction is
proportional to the product of the masses of the reacting substances, with each
mass raised to a power equal to the coefficient that occurs in the chemical
equation
c. Equilibrium constant: the value obtained when equilibrium concentrations of the
chemical species are substituted in the equilibrium expression
d. Equilibrium Expression: the expression (from the law of mass action) obtained by
multiplying the product concentrations and dividing by the multiplied reactant
concentrations, with each concentration raised to a power represented by the
coef cient in the balanced equation
e. Equilibrium Position: Each set of equilibrium concentrations
f. Homogenous Equilibrium: an equilibrium involving reactants/products of only
one phase
g. Heterogenous Equilibrium: an equilibrium involving reactants and/or products in
more than one phase
h. Reaction Quotient: a function of the activities or concentrations of the chemical
species involved in a chemical reaction
i. Le Chatelier’s Principle: If a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the
position of the equilibrium will shift in a direction that reduces that change

Chapter 14 Notes (Chemical Equilibrium)

1. 14.1→ The Nature of Acids and Bases
a. Arrhenius Acids and Bases
i. Arrhenius Acid: produces H+ ion in aqueous solution
ii. Arrhenius Base: Produces OH- ion in aqueous solution
iii. Problems:
1. Only applies to aqueous solutions
2. Not all bases have OH-
b. Bronsted Lowry Model
i. Bronsted Lowry Acid: proton donor
ii. Bronsted Lowry Base: proton acceptor
iii. Works in non-aqueous solutions
c. Protons
i. proton=H+=H3O+ (hydronium)
d. Conjugate Acids and Bases
i.
e. Ka and Kb
i.
1. Acid dissociation constant
ii.
2. 14.2→ Acid Strength

a.
i. Strong acid is one where this equilibrium (Ka) lies far to the right (>1)
1. Assume 100% dissociation in calculations
ii. Weak acid is one where this equilibrium (Ka) lies far to the left (<<1)
b. Strong Acids
i. HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4
c. A strong acid yields a weak conjugate base, a weak acid yields a strong conjugate
base
d.
e. Polyprotic Acids
i. An acid with multiple protons
ii.
iii. Keeps getting deprotonated, but K decreases for each successive
reaction
1. This is because it already has a - charge so it is harder to remove
another proton
2. USUALLY second and third are irrelevant, except in the case of
H2SO4
f. Water as an Acid and a Base
i. Water is amphoteric: it can behave as either an acid or a base
ii. Autoionization

1.
iii.
1. KW=1.0x10-14 at 25 ℃
a. Thus, in neutral water at this T [H3O+]=[OH-]=1.0x10-7
3. 14.3→ The pH scale
a.
b.
i. As pH goes up, acidity goes down
c. REMEMBER: WEIRD SIG FIGS
i. Only numbers after the decimal point count as sig figs

4. 14.4→ Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions

a. Assume 100% dissociation (and if small number add 1.0x10-7 to account for H3O+
already in neutral water (if at 25 ℃)
b. NO NEED FOR ICE
5. 14.5→ Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions
a. Use ICE (and probably 5% approximation)
b. Solving Weak Acid Equilibrium Problems
i. Write equation
ii. (determine Q to determine direction of reaction)
iii. ICE
iv. Write the equilibrium expression
v. Solve the equation for x
1. Check 5% if
used vi. Figure out
concentrations
c. Percent Dissociation
i. Amount dissociated/initial concentration (100%)
6. 14.6→ Bases
a. Strong Bases
i. NaOH, KOH, metal hydroxide what is soluble
ii. 100% dissociation
b. Not all bases contain OH
i. NH3 and many other molecules with a lone pair on N also act as bases
c. Weak Bases
i. Not 100% dissociation
7. 14.7→ Polyprotic Acids
a. When doing successive equilibria make sure to include the initial concentration
of H3O+
8. 14.8→ Acid Base Properties of Salts

a. Salts that Produce Neutral Solutions
i. Cation: from strong base
ii. Anion: from monoprotic strong acid
b. Salts that Produce Basic Solutions
i. Cation: from strong base
ii. Anion: conjugate base of weak acid (stronger Kb)

1.
c. Salts that Produce Acidic Solutions
i. Cation: conjugate acid of a weak base
1. ii.
Anion: from monoprotic strong acid
d. Checking Ks
i. Cation: from conjugate acid of weak base
ii. Anion: from conjugate base of weak acid
iii. CHECK Ks, lower K of weak acid or base means higher K of conjugate→
higher is the one it will be e. Process
i. What ions
ii. What is K
iii. What is equilibrium rxn
iv. ICE
v. math
9. 14.9→ The Effect of Structure on Acid Base Properties a. Bond Polarity
i. As the HA bond gets more polar (as the electronegativity of A increases), the
acid gets stronger
(because then the H is more 𝛅+ and is thus more easily removed)
1. NOTE: pH is not determined by strength, but rather by strength
AND concentration
ii.
b. Oxyacids
i. As # of O goes up, acid strength increases

ii.
iii.
1. Because the electrons get pulled away from the H, and because the
- charge on the conjugate base is delocalized, making it more
stable and thus weaker
10. 14.10→ Acid Base Properties of Oxides
a. Covalent: usually gas, acidic
b. Ionic: usually solid, basic
i. Metal hydroxides
11. 14.11→ The Lewis Acid Base Model
a. Focuses on electron pairs, not protons
i. Acid: electron pair acceptor, uses lone pair to form bond
ii. Base: electron pair donor
b.
12. 14.12→ Strategy for Solving Acid Base Problems: A Summary a. Remember ICE

b. Write everything down

c. Think through the chemistry first
13. Terms
a. Arrhenius Concept: a concept postulating that acids produce hydrogen ions in
aqueous solution, while bases produce hydroxide ions
b. Bronsted Lowry Model: a model proposing that an acid is a proton donor and a
base is a proton acceptor
c. Conjugate Acid: the species formed when a proton is added to a base
d. Conjugate Base: the species formed when a proton is removed from an acid
e. Conjugate Acid Base Pair: two species related to each other by the
accepting/donating of a single proton f. Acid Dissociation Constant: Ka
g. Strong Acid: an acid that completely dissociates in aqueous solution to form H 3O+
and its conjugate base
h. Weak Acid: an acid that does not completely dissociate in aqueous solution
i. Oxyacid: an acid that contains O
j. Amphoteric: a substance that acts both as an acid and a base
k. Autoionization: the transfer of a proton from a molecule to another molecule of
the same substance
l. Polyprotic Acid: an acid with multiple acidic protons
m. Monoprotic Acid: an acid with a single acidic proton
n. pH Scale: a way to represent a solution’s acidity
o. Major Species: components present in relatively large amounts
p. Percent Dissociation: Amount dissociated/initial concentration (100%)
q. Strong Base: a base that completely dissociates in aqueous solution to form OH -
and its conjugate acid
r. Weak Base: a base that does not completely dissociate in aqueous solution

Chapter 15: Acid Base Equilibria

1. 15.1→ Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion a. Common ion effect
i. Addition of an ion already involved in the equilibrium, which in turn
shifts the equilibrium ii. For weak acid: conjugate base→ pH ↑ iii. For
weak base: conjugate acid→ pH ↓
b. Equilibrium Calculations
i. Add common ion to ICE table, then solve again
2. 15.2→ Buffered Solutions
a. A solution that resists a change in pH
b. Buffer Composition
i. Weak acid + conjugate base OR weak base + conjugate acid in significant
quantities together in solution
c.
d.
e.
pH
i. Determined by the ratio of [HA] to [A-]

ii.
f. Henderson Hasselbalch Equation (DO NOT USE)
i.
3. 15.3→ Buffering Capacity
a. pH is determined by ratio of [A-] to [HA], capacity of buffered solutions is
determined by the magnitudes of
[HA] and [A-] and the amount of each present
b. If you want a buffer for a certain pH range, use a buffer with a pK a within 1 of
that pH
c. Ratio of [HA] to [A-] should be between .1 and 10 (within one order of
magnitude), but a buffer with more total concentration will have a higher buffer
capacity
d. Problem Solving Strategy
i. Determine chemical reaction(s) in play
ii. Do stoichiometry for anything with a huge K→ MOLES
(use chart)
1.
iii. Set up equilibrium reaction
iv. ICE→ CONCENTRATION
v. math
4. 15.4→ Titrations and pH curves
a. Titration nuts and bolts
i. Want 4 sig figs
b. Strong Acid Strong Base Titrations
i.
ii. If reactants are in stoichiometric quantities, the reaction will be a
neutralization reaction, pH=7

1. EQUIVALENCE POINT AT 7
iii. Use stoichiometry to find amount of H3O+, then determine
pH (use mole chart) iv. Graph:
1.
a. Strong acid with strong base
b.
2.
a. Strong base with strong acid
c. Weak Acid Strong Base Titrations

i.
ii. This solution will essentially fully react to form a weakly basic solution
(huge K)
iii.
3.
1. Equivalence point around 8-9

2. NOTICE: buffer zone

iv.
1. Bigger original rise in weaker acids, bigger rise around equivalence
point for stronger acids
d. Weak Base Strong Acid Titrations
i. This solution will essentially fully react to form a weakly acidic solution
(huge K)
ii.
1. Equivalence point around 3-4
2. NOTICE: buffer zone
iii.
e. Polyprotic Acids

i.
1. Multiple equivalence points
5. 15.5→ Acid Base Indicators

a. Ways to determine equivalence point
i. pH meter
ii. Acid base indicator which marks the end point of a titration by changing
color. The equivalence point and the end point are not the same, but are
assumed to be very close together. This is why it is vital to choose a good
indicator.
b. Indicators
i. Indicators change color when they lose or gain a proton, which
happens depending on the amount of H3O+ available or available to be
furnished by the solution
ii. For acids, choose indicator that changes around 8-9; for bases choose
one that changes around
3-4 iii. When you get close to the equivalence point,
pH changes VERY quickly
1. Be really careful not to put in too much, should be a very faint
change
iv.

1. Usually use phenolphthalein
v.
6. Terms
a. Common Ion: ion already involved in equilibrium
b. Common Ion Effect: Addition of an ion already involved in the equilibrium, which
in turn shifts the equilibrium
c. Buffered Solution: the solution which resists changes in pH in the case of addition
of small amount of acid or base
d. Buffering Capacity: a measure of the efficiency of a buffer in resisting changes in
pH; how much acid/base can be added to a buffer before it is no longer a buffer
e. pH Curve: plot showing mL titrant added vs. pH
f. Acid base indicator: marks end point of acid base titration by changing color
g. End point: point in titration when the visual indicator changes color
h. Equivalence Point: point in titration when moles titrant added=moles unknown
present in solution
i. Titration: a quantitative determination of the amount of acid/base by the (very
nearly) stoichiometric reaction of that acid or base with a known volume of
known concentration of a strong base or acid
j. Titrant: added from burette to Erlenmeyer flask containing an unknown acid or
base.

Chapter 16: Solubility and Complex Ion Equilibria

1. 16.1→ Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product
a. We can think of solubility as an equilibrium, with solubility product constant K sp
i. Only includes ions, since pure phases are not included
b. Equilibrium expression only applies when there is solid left in the solution!
c. Solve problems the same way as a normal equilibrium problem
d. Relative Solubilities
i. Can only compare Ksp if the stoichiometry is the same, otherwise solve for
s and compare those e. Common Ion Effect
i. The presence of a common ion greatly decreases s
ii. Use 5% rule
f. pH and solubility
i. Salts that are basic are more soluble in acidic solution than in water
because the anion can react with the solution, thus removing products
and causing a shift towards the right by Le Chatelier's
Principle
ii. Strong
Base:
1. Add strong base: solubility decreases by Le Chatelier because you
are increasing the concentration of OH- in solution
2. Add strong acid: H3O+ reacts with OH-, so [OH-] decreases,
equilibrium shifts towards products and solubility increases
iii. Weak Base
1. Add strong base: OH- reacts with weak acid to form more of the
basic anion, [anion] goes up,equilibrium shifts towards reactants
and solubility decreases
2. Add strong acid: H3O+ reacts with basic anion to form weak acid,
[anion] goes down, equilibrium shifts towards products and
solubility increases
2. 16.2→ Precipitation and Qualitative Analysis
a. Ion Product (Q)

i. b.
Selective Precipitation
i.
ii. Separating metal ions by adding something that reacts to make some
of the metals form a precipitate (different levels of solubility)
1. Use Ksp to find saturation point of each, then use one that causes
the one with lower solubility to precipitate but does not yet
saturate the solution of the one with the higher solubility
iii. If one is >99% dissolved at saturation point of other cation,
that is a success c. Qualitative Analysis

i.
We can use selective precipitation to qualitatively analyze a mixture of
cations to determine what metal ions are present
ii.
1. Order you go in because don’t want to precipitate everything in
first step (then it is not separating solution)
2. Step 2: many cations form insoluble sulfides, but in acidic
conditions, only the most insoluble sulfides precipitate (because
the concentration of S2- is very low)
iii.
3. 16.3→ Equilibria Involving Complex Ions

ii.
a. Complex ion is a charged species consisting of a metal ion surrounding by ligands
i. Ligand is a Lewis base that donates an electron pair to a metal ion in solution
1. OH-, NH3, CN-
Number of ligands is coordination
number iii. Makes it more soluble
b. Use compounded equilibria (and multiply Ks) to solve
i. Might have to use quadratic
c. Used to help separate post qualitative analysis
i.
d. Amphoteric metal hydroxide
i. More soluble in acidic solution because lower pH means a lower
concentration of OH-
ii. Some metal hydroxides form complex ions with hydroxide and will be
more soluble in basic solution
4. Terms
a. Solubility product constant: Ksp
b. Molar Solubility (s): moles dissolved/L soln
c. Selective Precipitation: a method of separating metal ions from an aqueous
mixture by using a reagent whose anion forms a precipitate with only one or a
few of the ions in the mixture
d. Qualitative Analysis: the use of selective precipitation to qualitatively analyze a
mixture of cations to determine what metal ions are present
e. Complex Ion: a charged species consisting of a metal ion surrounding by ligands

iii.
f. Ligand: a Lewis base that donates an electron pair to a metal ion in solution

iv.
Chapter 17 (Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy)
1. 17.1→ Spontaneous Processes and Entropy
a. Some reactions are spontaneous, others are not
i. Something being spontaneous DOESN’T mean it is fast
b. Entropy (S)
i. The driving force for a spontaneous process is an increase in the
entropy of the universe ii. The universe tends towards an increase in
entropy
Entropy depends on the microstates available
1. A more disordered state has higher probability, because there are
more microstates that lead to it happening
iv. State function
c. Positional entropy
i. phase changes
1. ΔS (+ or -)
Ending
state
Starting s l g
state
s + +
l - +
g - -
ii. Solution formation

1. Positive entropy change because ions move about freely→ more
disorder
iii. Solid w weak dipole
1. Entropy LOWER than expected because a weak dipole means one
orientation is preferred, # microstates decreases
2. 17.2→ Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
a. In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in the entropy of the
universe

v.
i. Entropy increases with the number of energetically equivalent ways to
arrange the system
(microstates)
b. ΔSuniv=ΔSsys+ΔSsurr
3. 17.3→ The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity
a. Entropy changes in the surroundings are primarily determined by heat flow
i. Exothermic processes release energy in the form of heat, and thus
increase the entropy of the surroundings
1. More energy means more available microstates, more disorder
ii. The impact of the transfer of a given quantity of energy as heat to or
from the surroundings will be greater at lower T

b.
i. The quantity of heat (at constant P) is qrev, which represents reversible heat
1. At constant pressure, q=ΔH
2.
a. ΔH in this case represents ΔHsys
c. Molecular entropy
i. S=kB lnW
1. W= number of microstates
2. kB=Boltzmann’s constant=1.3806 x 10-23 J/K
d.
4. 17.4→ Free Energy
a.
b.

c.
i. If ΔG<0 reaction is spontaneous
ii. NOTE: ΔH usually in kJ/mol, ΔS usually in J/mol, ΔG should be given in kJ
5. 17.5→ Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions
a. In general, when a reaction involves gaseous molecules, the change in positional
entropy is dominated by the relative numbers of molecules of gaseous reactants
and products
i. If # moles of gas increases, ΔS>0
ii. If # moles of gas decreases, ΔS<0
b. Third Law of Thermodynamics
i. The entropy of a perfect crystal at 0K is 0
c. Standard Entropy
i. Normally calculated at 298 K
d.
6. 17.6→ Free Energy and Chemical Reactions
a. ΔG° is the standard free energy change
i. the change in free energy that will occur if the reactants in their
standard states are converted to the products in their standard states
b. ΔG°f is the standard free energy of formation
i. The change in free energy that accompanies the formation of one mole
of a substance from its constituent elements with all products and
reactants in their standard states
ii. 0 for an element in its standard state
iii. A lower ΔG°f means the compound is more stable
c. What makes a reaction favorable?
i. More disorder→ increases entropy of system
ii. Exothermic→ increases entropy of surroundings d. ΔG°rxn
i.
7. Terms
a. Spontaneous: occurs without outside intervention
b. Entropy: a measure of molecular randomness or disorder
c. Microstate: a specific microscopic configuration of a thermodynamic system that
the system may occupy with a certain probability in the course of its thermal
fluctuations

d. Positional probability: a type of probability that depends on the number of

arrangements in space that yield a particular state
e. Free energy: a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the capacity of a system to
do work
f. Standard Free Energy Change: the change in free energy that will occur if the
reactants in their standard states are converted to the products in their standard
states
g. Standard Free Energy of Formation: The change in free energy that accompanies
the formation of one mole of a substance from its constituent elements with all
products and reactants in their standard states
h. Reversible Heat: a cyclical process, carried out by a hypothetical pathway, which
leaves the universe exactly the same as it was before. The system must be at
equilibrium at every point for reversible heat to work.

Chapter 18 (Electrochemistry)
1. 18.1→ Balancing Oxidation Reduction Reactions
a. Half Reduction Method
i. Write oxidation and reduction reactions
ii. Balance
1. All elements except H and O
2. Balance O using H2O
3. Balance H using H+
4. Balance charge using electrons
iii. Make number of free electrons in each reaction equal by multiplying by a
constant (integer)
iv. Add half reactions, cancel identical species
v. Check and make sure that charges are balanced
vi. IF IN BASIC SOLUTION:
1. Add OH- to both sides, cancel H2Os created by this step if necessary
2. 18.2→ Galvanic Cells
a. Must separate the two half reactions in order to utilise the energy of the moving
electrons
b. Need a salt bridge or porous disk in the middle, because if not a negative charge
accumulates in the cathode, while a positive charge accumulates in the anode.
At this point, no more electrons will move over to the cathode. A salt bridge fixes
this issue by allowing ions into the cathode and anode to help neutralize the
charges of each. A porous disk serves the same purpose.
c.
d. Cell Potential (Ɛ°cell)

i. The driving force of the electrons in a galvanic cell
ii. Can be measured using a voltmeter or potentiometer
1. Potentiometer is more accurate, because in voltmeter energy is
lost to friction
e. Units

i.
3. 18.3→ Standard Reduction Potentials
a. We need to standardize cell potential because we can measure the voltage of an
entire cell, but not of the half reactions separately
i. Standardized with
2H++2e- → H2
b. Standard reduction potentials
i. Reduction potential
ii. 1M
iii. All gases at 1.00 atm
c. To find oxidation potential, do -reduction
d. Combining half reactions
i. The half reaction with the largest positive potential will run as written
(reduction), and the other half reaction will run in reverse. The net
potential of the cell will be the difference between the two.
1.
ii. Half reactions are NOT multiplied by integers to balance. Standard
reduction potential is an intensive property.
e. Line Notation
i. Anode on left, cathode on right
ii. When reactant is aqueous or gas, insert inert conductor as electrode
(usually Pt)
f. Complete Description of a Galvanic Cell
i. The cell potential is always positive for a galvanic cell
ii. The direction of electrons flow is obtained using the half reactions and
determining the cell potential
iii. Designate anode and cathode
iv. Determine all present substances
4. 18.4→ Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free Energy a. Work and cell potential
i. Maximum work is (charge)(E°cell)

1. Note charge=nF
ii. In any real, spontaneous process some energy is always waster--the
actual work realized is always less than the calculated maximum
b. Faraday’s Constant (F)
i. 96,485 C/mol e-
c. Free energy and Cell Potential
i.
5. 18.5→ Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration a. Concentration Cells
i. A cell in which both compartments have the same components but at
different concentrations b. The Nernst Equation
i.
1. When Q=K, the system is at equilibrium, and Ecell=0. A dead battery
is not actually dead, it has just reached equilibrium
ii. At room temperature:
1.
c. Ion Selective Electrodes
i. Electrode that is sensitive to the concentration of a particular ion
ii. Eg: pH meter
d. Calculation of Equilibrium Constants of Redox Reactions
i.
ii. Use the fact that Ecell=0 to determine fomula at temperatures other than
25℃
e.
6. 18.6→ Batteries
a. A battery is a group of galvanic cells connected in series, where the potentials of
the individual cells add to give the total battery potential
7. 18.7→ Corrosion
a. The process of returning metals to their natural state--the ores from which they
were originally obtained b. Corrosion of Iron: rust
i.
8. 18.8→ Electrolysis
a. Electrolysis involved forcing a current through a cell to produce a chemical
change for which the cell potential is negative
b. Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis
i. The mass of element deposited on an electrode in an electrolytic cell is
proportional to the total charge passed through the cell
c. Electrolysis of Water
i. Add salt to allow current to flow
ii.
iii.
1. In neutral water (low concentrations of hydronium and hydroxide),
Ecell=-1.23 V
iv.
d. Electrolysis of Mixtures of Ions
i. Can separate these mixtures of metal ions by plating out metals one at a
time (one with highest
Ecell will plate out first
9. Terms
a. Electrochemistry: the study of the interchange of chemical and electrical energy
b. Salt bridge: a U-tube containing an electrolyte that connects the two
compartments of a galvanic cell, allowing ion ow with-out extensive mixing of
the different solutions
c. Porous Disk: a disk inside a tube that connects the two compartments of a
galvanic cell, allowing ion ow with-out extensive mixing of the different solutions
d. Galvanic Cell: a device in which chemical energy is changed to electrical energy
e. Anode: the electrode where the oxidation reaction occurs in a galvanic cell
f. Cathode: the electrode where the reduction reaction occurs in a galvanic cell
g. Cell Potential: the driving force in a galvanic cell that pulls electrons from the
reducing agent in one compartment to the oxidizing agent in the other
h. Potential Difference: the amount of work energy required to move an electric
charge from one point to another, given in V
i. Concentration Cell: A cell in which both compartments have the same
components but at different concentrations
j. Battery: a group of galvanic cells connected in series, where the potentials of the
individual cells add to give the total battery potential
k. Electrolysis: a process that involves forcing a current through a cell to cause a
nonspontaneous chemical reaction


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Chapter 1 Notes (Chemistry Skills and Assessment toolkit)

iv. Mass v Weight

Learning to Solve Problems Systematically

1. 2.1→ The Early History of Chemistry

6. 2.6→ Molecules and Ions

2. All other metals → elemental name (oxidation state in Roman

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h. Empirical Formula: the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound

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Chapter 4 Notes (Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry)

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1. Produce relatively few ions when

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f. Convert back to grams if required

Oxidation state of: Charge: Example(s)

Atom in element 0 Na(s), O2 (g)

Monatomic ion Charge of ion Na+

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Group 1 cations 1+ NaCl

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Agent: the reactant which contains the substance that gets

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Chapter 5 Notes (Gases)

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4. 5.4→ Gas Stoichiometry

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iii. gas collection over water

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2. As temperature increases, the speeds of the particles of the gas

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a. Predicted by kinetic molecular theory

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(usually: when the moles of gas stay roughly constant) b.

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s. Extensive Property: dependent on amount

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Chapter 7 Notes (Atomic Structure and Periodicity)

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2. For light with frequency lower than the threshold, no electrons

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ii. energized atoms emit non-continuous spectra (discrete lines with

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1. Cannot be specified exactly

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j. spectroscope: a tool which separates light into its component wavelengths

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Chapter 8 Notes (Bonding: General Concepts)

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