T101 US Fundamentals V6 - CompleteBook

Compressor Training
Fundamentals
Safety
Types of Compressors
Ingersoll Rand Compressors
Compression Process
Electricity (Basic Theory)
The typical compression system
Glossary
Rev. Nov 2007

Copyright Notice
© 2001 Ingersoll Rand Company
Proprietary Notices and Disclaimer
PROPRIETARY NOTICES
Copyright 2001 INGERSOLL RAND COMPANY
CONFIDENTIAL AND TRADE SECRET INFORMATION. This manual contains confidential

and trade secret information owned by Ingersoll Rand Company (hereinafter referred to as
"Proprietary Matter"). In consideration of the disclosure of the Proprietary Matter herein to the
authorised recipient hereof, the recipient shall treat the Proprietary Matter as secret and
confidential; shall not disclose or give such Proprietary Matter to third parties without the
express written authorisation of INGERSOLL RAND; shall not use the Proprietary Matter
except to the extent necessary to sue or service the equipment disclosed herein; and shall
disclose such Proprietary Matter only to those of its employees whose use or knowledge of the
Proprietary Matter is necessary. This manual shall be returned upon request by Ingersoll Rand
Company. The unauthorised use of this manual may be punishable by law.
DISCLAIMERS
PROVIDED "AS IS". THIS MANUAL AND THE CONTENTS THEREOF ARE PROVIDED
"AS IS" AND WITHOUT ANY IMPLIED WARRANTIES.
Compressor Fundamentals
Index
Introduction
This Manual has been designed to provide you with
fundamental knowledge about air compression. Its
purpose is to give you a grounding in the theory of
pressure, temperature, volume, fluids and electrics
as well as the construction and operation of Ingersoll
Rand compressors. It will also prepares you for the
hands-on practical training that you will receive on
the Training Course.
Index
Safety
General 1 - 2 Contactors 6
Electrical Hazards 3 - 5 Timer Relays 6
Lock Out / Tag Out 6 Control Relays 6
Short Test 7 Solenoid Valves 7
Pressure Switch 7
Overview Pressure Transducer 8
Why do we compress Air? 1 Temperature Switch 8
Basic Compressor Operation 1 Temperature Sensor 8
Types of Compressors 2 Thermistors 8
A brief history of compressed air 3 - 5 Comparison of Energy Systems 9
Short Test 6 Protection Devices -
Incoming Power Supply 9
Ingersoll Rand Compressors Motor Theory 9
Introduction 1 - 2 SSS M Range Dedicated Motors 9 - 10
Reciprocating Air Compressors 2 Short Test 11
Basic Construction 3
Basic Operation 4 Typical Compression System
Rotary Air Compressors 5 Typical Compression Process 1
Light Industrial Product Line 6 Why filter and dry compressed air? 2
Medium Industrial Product Line 7 - 8 How to remove moisture and
Centrifugal Air Compressors 9 - 10 contaminants 3
Short Test 11 Why is relative humidity important? 3
What creates moisture in compressed
Compression Process air? 4
Fluids 1 Filters and Dryers remove the
Liquids and Gases 1 contaminants 4
Molecular structure of material 1 Types of Filters 4
What is Pressure and what is its effect? 2 - 4 Compressed Air Dryers 4 - 5
Volume, Pressure & Temperature 4 - 5 How to calculate the correct size dryer 5
What is Capacity and what is its effect? 5 Short Test 6
Short Test 6
Glossary
Electrical Terminology 1
Ohm’s Law 1
Circuits Theory 2
3 Phase Voltage Supply 2
1 Phase Voltage Supply 2
Power Supply Considerations 3
Starting Methods Direct-on-line 3
Fan Motor Connections 3
Starting Methods Star/Delta 4
Motor Thermal Overload Protection 5
Miniature Circuit Breakers and Fan
Motor Fuses 5
Transformer 5
Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 3

Ingersoll Rand Global Service Education Team
Issue: 06/Australia, January, 2006. ©Ingersoll Rand Proprietary Information
Safety
General ........................................................................................... 1 - 2
Electrical Hazards ........................................................................... 3 - 5
Lock Out / Tag Out.......................................................................... 6
Short Test........................................................................................ 7
Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual

Safety
Always wear safety equipment that is appropriate

In this section, you will learn for the task (glasses, hats, masks, gloves, shoes,
• Where to find information on safety at etc.).
customer sites. Be aware of what is going on around you and
• How many milliamps of electricity it takes to take action to protect yourself.
kill a human. Never place hands or other body parts in the way
• What Lock out / Tag out mean. of rotating equipment or between pinch points.
• Whether you can safely remove compressor Insure all rotating equipment guards are properly
parts when a supervisor tells you that the installed before machine is started.
pipelines have been emptied of pressure.
Do not use the discharge air for breathing. It
could cause severe injury or death.
Consult a filtration specialist for additional
Safety Manual filtration and treatment equipment to meet health
The on site safety manual must be followed by all and safety standards.
persons and in all activities associated with the Do not attempt to service any part while the
assembly or disassembly of the compressor. machine is operating.
Where no site or plant safety manual exists, the Do not use flammable solvents for cleaning parts.
users of this document must use good judgment and
apply general and specific safety procedures where Personal Protective Equipment
required. Dressing properly and wearing the proper personal
protective equipment is an important first step in
working safely. Working in an industrial environment
with moving machinery can be made safer by
! Caution following a few simple rules of proper dress.
Before commencing any work on the • Do not wear loose-fitting clothing
compressor, consult local on site safety directives • Do not wear jewellery
for applicable safety procedure or precaution
• Cover long hair with a cap or hair net
compliance requirements.
• Wear safety glasses in eye protection areas
It is the responsibility of each individual to ensure • Always wear any special gear required for a job
that they work in a safe manner and in compliance
with any local law or site regulations. Ingersoll Rand Examples of Safe Dress
expects Service Technicians to observe the highest The picture shows short sleeves; however, be aware
safety standards at all times. that many employers require that long sleeves must
always be worn on site.
The safety precautions listed below are a general
reminder only, and in no way are a comprehensive
or adequate safety directive. The safety precaution
Short Hair
listing provides some of the general safety Hair tied or in Net
precautions for conducting maintenance on air
compressors.
No Necktie
General work place safety:

No Jewellery
Know how to quickly contact emergency
assistance.
Keep work area clear of shock, burn, slip, trip,
drop, fall, and other hazards. Well Fitting slacks
Assess hazards. Make a list and discuss with
appropriate personnel.
Report all injuries no matter how minor to No cuffs
appropriate plant safety or health personnel.
Use tools properly.
Safety Shoes

Safety
Head protection Eye Protection

Is required in areas where there may be falling The difference between regular and safety
objects or flying debris, inadequate headroom or eyeglasses is that safety glasses have more durable
exposed electrical conductors. lenses, studier frames and side shields.
A Hardhat must be fitted properly and comply with

local requirements
Webbing squarely 1 inch Clearance

on top of head.
Adjustable
webbing
Shell
Hearing Protection
Earplugs and/or earmuffs must be worn to protect
Headband hearing in noisy work areas. These must comply
with local regulations.
Nape Strap
Heat/Cold Stress
Take necessary precautions to avoid heat stress or
hypothermia.
Confined Spaces
Oxygen monitors are required. Remember, do not
enter any area if:
You are uncertain about atmospheric conditions.

You do not have a permit.
You are not competent with equipment being
used.

Safety
Electrical Hazards There have been suggestions that the maximum

Electric motors are used to voltage of portable lamps be limited to 25V.
drive a large majority of the Although a shock of 40V poses no great danger to
air compressors currently in the heart or nervous system, it can be felt. Portable
DANGER lamps are usually used in confined spaces and by
service. The electrical
power supplied to these workers up ladders, and in these places it could be
HIGH VOLTAGE motors can deliver a dangerous to recoil from an unexpected electric
dangerous electric shock to shock.
the human body.
The effects of electric shock depend on the type of
Electric shock is the effect produced on the body, circuit, its voltage, resistance, current, pathway
and in particular the nervous system, by an electric through the body and duration of the contact. The
current passing through it. effects can range from mild tingling to immediate
cardiac arrest. Although it is impossible to predict
Electricity has three effects; electrolysis, heating and the exact injury from any given current, the following
the stimulation of nerves. The seriousness of these table shows the general relationship between the
effects on the human body depends on the degree of injury and the amount of current for a 60-
magnitude and frequency of the current. cycle hand-to-foot path of 1 second’s duration of
shock.
DC currents of only a few hundred microampere will
have an electrolytic effect and cause small ulcers on
the skin at the points where electrodes are Current Reaction
connected.
1 milliamp Perception level. Just a faint tingle
Heating is an effect at higher frequencies or higher 5 milliamps Slight shock felt, not painful but
currents. Burns can be caused by the passage of a disturbing.
heavy current through the body. An average individual can let go;
however, strong involuntary
Nerve or muscle stimulation is the most dangerous reactions to shocks in this range
form of electric shock. It can cause the victim to stop can lead to injuries.
breathing or interfere with heart function. Because of
muscle spasm the victim may not be able to release 6-30 milliamps Painful shock, muscular control is
their grip on the wire or source of the current. 50 and lost. This is called the freezing
60 Hz, which is the operating frequency of the current or “let go” range and is
normal domestic supply, is almost the worst sufficient to cause death.
frequency at which to operate, from the point of view 50-150 milliamps Extreme pain, respiratory arrest,
of electric shocks. At 50 Hz a current as low as 1mA severe muscular contractions.
can be felt. Individual cannot let go. Death is
possible.
The size of the current affecting the shock victim
depends on the supply voltage and the resistance of 1—4.3 Amps Ventricular fibrillation. (The
the human body. Resistance is measured in ohms, rhythmic pumping action of the
the symbol for ohms is Ω. heart ceases.) Muscular
contraction and nerve damage
The resistance of the skin varies. That of dry skin occur. Death is most likely.
varies from about 10kΩ to 100kΩ. The resistance of 10 Amps Cardiac arrest, severe burns,
skin that has become moist from sweating may drop
probable death.
to only 1kΩ. (It is this change in resistance that is
used in a lie-detector, as it is argued that people
tend to sweat more when not telling the truth.)
Immediately after bathing, the resistance of the skin
can drop to only a few hundred ohm. The resistance
of internal body tissue can be a lot lower than the
skin and the shock from even small currents can be
fatal or cause serious injury.

Safety
General electrical safety: !

Caution
! Warning
Pressurised air may be trapped between the block
valve and the compressor discharge check valve.
Electricity can be lethal. Ensure this section of pipe is vented before pipe
It is silent and invisible and can cause death! removal is attempted.
30 milliamps passing through the human body is
sufficient to kill.
Use care to keep pressurized portable air lines
secured. A loose hose can whip about with
Consider all electrical wires to be energized until sufficient energy to cause great harm and/or
proven otherwise. death.
Tag, disengage, and lock out all power supplies
to the compressor driver and control system Noise
before any work is commenced. The noise generated by an
Use caution to keep cords and cables away from CAUTION operating compressor can
pinch points and from crush damage when using be sufficient to damage a
portable electrical tools and lighting. HEARING PROTECTION person’s hearing. Ears are
MUST BE WORN much more sensitive to
Use double insulated or other properly grounded IN THIS AREA noise than most people
electrical tools only. realise, because noise
Utilize properly trained and authorized electrical seldom hurts. Serious damage can be done to
personnel when needed. hearing without the injured person realising it.
Always double check with a reliable and regularly
There is a point at which noise will hurt. Noise is
calibrated voltmeter, DO NOT rely on another measured in decibels. In a very quiet room, a person
person’s assurances that power is off. with good hearing can just barely hear a sound
Double check your work and ensure that all measuring 0 decibels. That is the threshold for
electrical covers are replaced prior to normal hearing. In the average factory, the noise
reconnecting power. measures 80 to 90 decibels.
When you must work on live equipment make
Hearing damage begins to occur at this level in an
sure:
eight hour period, but the noise of a punch press is
• All loose clothing and jewellery is removed
over 100 decibels. A good rule of thumb is, if you
• Do not work alone
must shout to be heard when standing at arm’s
• Wear safety glasses and rubber soled boots
length, the noise level is over 90 decibels. At this
• Keep un-insulated tools away from live
level, hearing must be protected. It is not until 130
equipment
decibels that sound becomes painful to the normal
• Never start a machine with the starter door
ear. The following table lists the decibel levels of
open
some common sounds.
• Do not allow anyone to lean over you when
you are working with live electrical Type of Sound Decibels
equipment.
Threshold of hearing 0
General pipe system safety: Whisper 10 to 20

Consider all air system pipelines to be Quiet Office 20 to 40
pressurized until proven otherwise.
Automobile 40 to 50
Do not attempt to remove any compressor parts
without first relieving the entire system of Conversation 60
pressure. Heavy street traffic 70 to 80
Never allow pressurized air to be directed at the
Average factory 80 to 90
body.
Do not stand directly in front of a cover plate, Punch press 100 to 110
plug, or other removable piece when it is being Threshold of pain 130 to 140
detached from a pressurized system, storage/
receiver tank, or other gas tight enclosure. Gunshot blast 140

Safety
Rigging safety:
! Warning
The work required to disassemble and
reassemble the air compressors involve
disconnecting electrical components, lifting heavy
weights, opening piping systems and enclosed
spaces. These hazards can cause severe bodily
harm or death to you and others if you do not
protected yourself. Do not engage in work if any
safety precautions applicable to the task and
situation have not been implemented.
Never attempt to lift heavy components if you
are inexperienced.
Only qualified personnel are authorized to lift
heavy components.
Use rigging equipment that has been tested and
certified for lift capability.
Never attempt to lift a weight that is higher than
the weight rating of the lifting equipment.
Always be aware of the centre of gravity of lifted
weights.
Use stay and steady lines on all lifts that are
above your head.
Never place any part of your body under a
suspended weight.

Safety
Lock Out / Tag Out 1 Before shutdown, the authorised employee must
know the type of magnitude of the energy, the
hazards of the energy to be controlled and the
! Warning method or means to control the energy.
Develop and use a “Red Tag” procedure or 2 The authorised employee shuts down the machine
similar system whereby maintenance personnel can or equipment by the normal stopping procedure.
lock off the power switch during maintenance.
Use your own padlock to be sure 3 The main power switches, circuits or other sources
of energy are moved to the OFF position or
otherwise rendered inoperative
Lockout/tagout (LO/TO)
is the means by which 4 Locks are placed on switches or other energy
the flow of energy is sources, for example, isolating valves on a
blocked to a piece of compressed air line, in the SAFE or OFF position.
equipment and kept For a group lockout, all members of the group must
blocked out while the add their own locks to the lockout. Warning tags
equipment is being should be placed with each lock.
serviced. 5 All potentially hazardous stored or residual energy
(such as electrical, pressurised system) are made
This is accomplished by safe.
installing LO/TO
devices at the source of 6 After ensuring that no personnel are exposed, and
the energy. as a check on having disconnected the energy
The intent of the sources, the authorised employee operates the
program is to reduce or push button or other normal operating controls to
eliminate deaths and make certain the equipment will not operate.
injuries that can result
when energy is mistakenly restored to a component
that is undergoing service or maintenance.
! Caution
The following general procedure to Lockout/Tagout Return operating controls to the NEUTRAL or
is provided for information only. Please note that OFF position after the test.
only authorised employees can lockout/tagout using
equipment specific procedures. 7 The equipment is now locked/tagged out.
8 After the work is complete and the equipment is
ready for normal operation, check the area around
the machines to ensure that no one is exposed.
9 After all tools have been removed from the

equipment, guards reinstalled and affected
employees notified, remove lockout/tagout devices.
10 Restore the energy-isolating devices back to the

ON position.

Short Test
Short Test
Answer each question as fully as you can, or tick the best option.
1 Where do you find information about safety when you are at a customer’s
sites?
a) Ingersoll Rand Safety Manual b) Customer Safety procedures
c) Use your best judgment d) None of the above
2 What is the “let go” range sufficient to cause death?
a) 10 milliamps b) 20 milliamps
c) 30 milliamps d) 40 milliamps
3 What level of electrical current will cause severe muscular contractions that
prevent the person being shocked from letting go of the source?
4 What is the purpose of lockout/tagout (LO/TO)?
5 What does Lock out / Tag out mean to you?

a) Lock out your tools and tag out customer parts
b) Lock out the electricity and tag out the power switch
c) Lock out your truck and tag out your timesheet
d) Lock out the electricity and tag out the parts
6 Which of the following is true? Circle all that apply
a) You can remove compressor parts after someone tells you that the pressure was relieved.
b) Consider all air system pipelines to be pressurized until proven otherwise.
c) Don’t worry about pressure, it is not dangerous.
d) Do not stand directly in front of a cover plate or any removable piece when you are removing it
from the compressor.
7 What are some of the hazards associated with high-pressure air in a
compressed air system?
8 At what noise level (decibels) will an average person experience physical pain?
9 Describe some articles of clothing that are unsafe in an industrial workplace.

Overview
Why do we compress Air? ...............................................................1
Basic Compressor Operation...........................................................1
Types of Compressors .....................................................................2
A brief history of compressed air .....................................................3 - 5
Short Test...................................................................................6

Why do we compress Air?
In this section, you will learn Amusement parks

• Why do we compress air
snow making
• Basic Compressor Operation
• Types of Compressors
• A brief history of compressed air
• Basic operation
Why do we compress air?

Compression is undertaken for a variety of reasons. Glass plants
Many processes can only be carried out by
Blowing
compressed gases. Some of these include:
Etching
Transmission of power for pneumatic tools. Molding, etc.
Basic Compressor Operation

There are various ways to compress air. One of the
simplest is by means of a
piston in a cylinder. As the
Shot blasting piston moves forward in the
cylinder it compresses the air
Paint Spraying
into a smaller space, thus
raising its pressure. We are all
familiar with the bicycle pump,
which is typical of this principle.
A reciprocating air compressor

utilises the same pumping principle. Air is drawn into
a cylinder and compressed by a piston, which is
driven by a connecting rod and crankshaft. An air
compressor is very similar to the engine in an
Transporting materials automobile.
Conveying
Air enters the compressor through a combination
filter and muffler that cleans the air and silences the
noise. The clean air passes into the cylinder through
an inlet valve, which is opened automatically by
differential air pressure. The air is then compressed
by the piston and forced
Air separation, for industrial gases (oxygen, through a discharge valve
nitrogen). into a storage tank.
Type 30 Air Compressor,

circa 1930

There are two general groups of air compressors,
positive displacement and continuous flow. Positive
Displacement compressors are either Reciprocating
or Rotary.
Positive Continuous
Displacement Flow
These are units in which successive volumes of air
are confined within a closed space and elevated to a
higher pressure.
Reciprocating Ejector
The compressing and displacing element in Devices that use a high velocity gas or steam
these units is a piston having a reciprocating jet to entrain the inflowing air, then convert the
motion within a cylinder. velocity of the mixture to pressure in a
diffuser.
Rotary Dynamic
Compressing and displacement is effected by These are machines in which the rapidly
the positive action of rotating elements rotating element accelerates the air as it
passes through the element, converting the
velocity head into pressure, partially in the
rotating element and partially in stationary
diffusers or blades.
Sliding Vane
Axial vanes slide radially in a rotor
eccentrically mounted in a cylindrical
Centrifugal
casing. Air trapped between vanes is
compressed and displaced.
One or more rotating impellers, usually
shrouded on the sides, accelerate the
air. Main air flow is radial.
Liquid Piston
Water or other liquid is used as the piston Axial Flow
to compress and displace the air.
Air acceleration is obtained by the
action of the bladed rotor shrouded on
the blade ends. Main air flow is axial.
Straight Lobe
Two straight mating lobed impellers trap
air and carry it from intake to discharge. Mixed Flow
This is no internal compression.
An impeller form combining some
characteristics of both the centrifugal
and axial types.
Helical Lobe
Two intermeshing rotors, each with a
helical form, compress and displace the
air.

A brief history of compressed air
10,000 The first use of compressed air was when ancient man blew on embers to start
BC a fire. Thus the first “compressor” was human lungs (capacity 100 1/min,
pressure 0.02-0.08 bar(g)).
The work capability of compressed air was well understood by primitive hunters
who used a blowpipe and darts to hunt wild animals.
3000 BC Man began to melt gold, copper, tin and lead found in pure form in nature and
later to reduce their oxides.
Temperatures in excess of 1000oC required a more powerful compressor. This again was
provided by nature with wind being compressed against a hillside and forced across a ridge.
Egyptian and Sumerian goldsmiths developed a blowpipe to provide a
more convenient and reliable means of melting their metals.
The blowpipe is still used today, but is, of course, inadequate in

capacity for volume smelting of metals.
2500 BC Hand bellows, the first mechanical form of compressor, were invented.
1500 BC Foot bellows were invented
1000 BC Bellows were driven by water wheels.
1750 AD John Smeaton’s water driven air blowing cylinder, replaced bellows.
1776 AD John Wilkinson invented a cannon-boring machine. This invention enabled production of large,
accurately machined, cast iron cylinders for both blowing machines and steam engines.
The first prototype was installed in his machine shop in Wilby, Shropshire, UK. It was limited to a
pressure of about 1 bar(g) by the temperature capability of the leather links controlling the
wooden valves.
The bellows and the early blowing machines were primarily used to supply combustion air for
smelting and to ventilate underground mines. This was necessary because the ore was mined by
setting fire to the face and then cooling it with water to fracture the rock.
1800 AD People began to seriously think of compressed air as an energy transmission medium. It had
already been found that steam was limited to short distances because it cooled and condensed
so quickly.
1820 AD Metallurgical plants were growing in size and it was necessary to supplement installed steam
plants with water power. But, in Wales, a waterfall in the narrow valley could not be used as there
was no adjacent land on which to build a rolling mill.
It was decided to use the water to power blowing machines and to pipe the air to power air
motors in the mill about 1000 metres away. Unfortunately on start up, although the blowing
machines worked well, the air motors would not turn.
Compressed air technology very nearly ceased before it started.

Eventually it was found that the vitrified clay pipes, which worked well as water conduits, would
not hold air.

1857 AD Since prehistoric times, man has worked with rock. Mining originated when flint was needed for
stone age tools. When mining progressed from lighting fires to blasting with explosives, it became
necessary to drill holes in the rock. This was initially accomplished by hand, using the “hammer
and twist” method.
Long distance transmission of compressed air energy began with the building of the Mt. Cenis
railway tunnel in the Swiss Alps.
The 13.6km tunnel began in 1857 with manual drilling and would have taken 30 years to
complete. After four years, compressors were installed at both ends to power rock drills. When
the two teams met, there were 7km of distribution line running from each end.
The Mt. Cenis experience caused people to think about building distribution networks to provide
compressed air energy to individual businesses.
1860 AD People began to develop mechanical rock drills.
It was shortly after that Ingersoll Rand began (as a result of individual
efforts by Simon Ingersoll and the Rand brothers. Once the mechanical
rock drill was operational, much work was done to develop reliable
sources of motive power.
The air compressor developed quickly from this point
1871 AD Patent No. 112,254 issued to Simon Ingersoll on 7th March, 1871. Ingersoll Rand Rock Drill in
Kalgoorlie, WA
This is the date from which we trace Ingersoll Rand's history.
1888 AD Victor Popp, an Austrian engineer, gained a concession to run a compressed air distribution
system through the Paris sewer system.
The plant was commissioned with 1500 kW of compressors feeding 7 km of mains and 50 km of
feeder line.
1891 AD By this time, the system which operated at a pressure of 6 bar(g), had grown to a capacity of
18,000 kW (1.8 MW).
One of the major reasons for Popp’s success was a novel pneumatic clock which kept accurate
time driven by timed pulses of compressed air. This became a “must have” item and once air was
connected to restaurants, factories, shops, physicians surgeries, lawyers offices, etc., it became a
simple matter to hook other pneumatic devices into the system.
Inventors in all parts of the work now got busy and many
patents were issued. In Paris, for example, air was used for:
• Pneumatic clocks
• Pneumatic despatch systems
• Passenger lifts
• Wine and beer dispensing
• Air motors up to 70 kW to run tools, looms, presses, etc
Factory in Paris that made
• Pneumatic drive of DC generators up to 36 kW to light air compressors for Victor
• Restaurants, theatres, hospitals, etc
Many reports concluded that compressed air was the energy transmission medium of the future.
They took a very negative attitude to the electric distribution system then also in its infancy. There
were others, however; who were equally enthusiastic about the merits of electricity and who
dismissed compressed air because of its poor efficiency.
Neither of the two opposing schools of thought were proven totally correct. Compressed air plants
kept developing and expanding. Electric transmission systems became the exclusive means of
distributing power. Compressed air now serves as an important complement to electricity and it is
called the “fourth” utility.

1902 AD World’s first truly portable compressor built
1903 AD Pneumatic tools added
1913 AD Centrifugal pumps added. First centrifugal compressor built.

1920 AD High temperature pumps aided the thermal cracking of crude oil
1930 AD The T30 compressor introduced
Compressor
1933 AD Two stage air cooled portable developed

1941 AD The boiler circulating pump introduced
1947 AD The first “big drill” built
1948 AD Centrifugal compressors transport natural gas
1950 AD Sliding vane compressors introduced. Quiet pumps for nuclear submarines

2000 AD IR was first-to-market introducing a true variable speed drive compressor directly driven by
Hybrid/Permanent magnet motor

Short Test
Short Test
When you finish, check your answers by reading through the section again.
1 Name five processes where compressed air is used
2 What are two general groups of air compressors?
3 Rotary Compressor can be classified as a dynamic compressor

True
False
4 Centrifugal Compressor is a dynamic compressor which converts velocity into

pressure
True
False
5 Can you remember any interesting facts and dates from ‘a brief history of
compressed air’?

Introduction ..................................................................................... 1 - 2
Reciprocating Air Compressors ...................................................... 2
Basic Construction .................................................................... 3
Basic Operation......................................................................... 4
Rotary Air Compressors.................................................................. 5
Light Industrial Product Line ........................................................... 6
Medium Industrial Product Line ...................................................... 7 - 8
Centrifugal Air Compressors........................................................... 9 - 10
Short Test................................................................................ 11

Rotary such as:

In this section, you will learn SSR, Sierra, Nirvana
• Types of Compressors
• Differences between types of air SSR UP series (Pegasus)
compressors
• The major differences between SSR, Sierra
and Nirvana compressors
• Why two stage compression is more efficient

Ingersoll Rand’s range of compressors can be
divided into three major groups:
Reciprocating such as:

T-30, PHE, ESH, Pet-Star, LLE, XLE
Type T30
Oil Free Sierra Compressor
PET Star Reciprocating Compressor
Nirvana - Variable Speed Rotary Compressor

Centrifugal such as:

Centac, X-Flo
Reciprocating Air Compressors
Sizes 1 CFM to 6,300 CFM
CV0 Reciprocating air compressors are positive

displacement compressors. This means they are
taking in successive volumes of air, which are
confined within a closed space, and elevating this
air to a higher pressure. The reciprocating air
compressor accomplishes this by using a piston
within a cylinder as the compressing and displacing
element.
The reciprocating air compressor is considered

single acting when the compression is accomplished
2ACII using only one side of the piston. A compressor
using both sides of the piston is considered double
acting.
The reciprocating air compressor uses a number of

automatic spring loaded valves in each cylinder that
open only when the proper differential pressure
exists across the valve.
Inlet valves open when the pressure in the cylinder

is slightly below the intake pressure. Discharge
valves open when the pressure in the cylinder is
slightly above the discharge pressure.
A compressor is considered to be single stage when

the entire compression is accomplished with a
single cylinder or a group of cylinders in parallel.
Many applications involve conditions beyond the
practical capability of a single compression stage.
Too great a compression ration (absolute discharge
pressure/absolute intake pressure) may cause
excessive discharge temperature or other design
problems.
CV2 For practical purposes most plant air reciprocating
air compressors over 100 horsepower are built as
multi-stage units in which two or more steps of
compression are grouped in series. The air is
normally cooled between the stages to reduce the
X- Flo -- Single Stage Machine temperature and volume entering the following
stage.
Reciprocating air compressors are available either
as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and non-
lubricated configurations, may be packaged, and
provide a wide range of pressure and capacity
selections.

Reciprocating Compressors Type T30

Basic Construction
The reciprocating air compressor is the most
common design used today. It normally consists of
the following elements:
• The compression element, consisting of air

cylinders, heads, pistons, inlet and discharge
valves, and unloaders.
• A system of connecting rods, piston rods,
crossheads and a crankshaft and flywheel for
transmitting the power developed by the driving
unit to the piston.
Light Industrial Product Range
• A self-contained lubricating system for bearings,
gears and cylinder walls, including a reservoir or
sump for the lubricating oil and a pump, or other
means of delivering oil to the various parts. On Petstar
some compressors a separate force-fed
lubricator is installed to supply oil to the
compressor cylinders.
• A regulation or control system designed to
maintain the pressure in the discharge line and
air receiver (storage tank) within a predetermined
range of pressure.
An unloading system, which operates in conjunction
with the regulator to reduce or eliminate the load put
on the prime mover when starting the unit and in
times of low system demand.
Heavy Industrial Product Range
Inlet
Cylinder Valves
Crankshaft End
Piston
Discharge
Valves

Reciprocating Compressors
Basic Operation
A section of a typical reciprocating single stage,
single-acting compressor cylinder is shown below.
[E]
As the piston continues upward, air

is compressed until the pressure in
the cylinder becomes great enough
[C] to open the discharge valve against
the pressure of the valve springs
[A] This difference in and the pressure of the discharge
pressure causes the line.
Inlet and discharge valves inlet valve to open into
are located in the clearance the cylinder until the From this point to the end of the
space and connected piston reaches the stroke, the air compressed within
through ports in the cylinder bottom of its stroke [C]. the cylinder is discharged at
head to the inlet and practically constant pressure.
discharge connections.
To Air Receiver
Discharge
Delivery or
Expansion
Compression
Intake
Clearance Space
[A] [B] [C] [D] [E]
During the suction stroke, the During the compression

[B] [D]
compressor piston starts its stroke, the piston starts
downward stroke and the air upward, compression begins
under pressure in the and at point [D] has reached
clearance space rapidly the same pressure as the
expands until the pressure compressor intake. The spring
falls below that on the loaded inlet valve then closes.
opposite side of the inlet
valve.

Rotary Air Compressors Rotary air compressors produced by

Sizes 30 CFM to 3000 CFM Ingersoll Rand can be classified into
Rotary air compressors are positive displacement two groups:
compressors. The most common rotary air
compressor is the single stage helical or spiral lobe • Contact cooled (SSR)
oil flooded or contact cooled screw air compressor. (also known as “wet screw“ or
oil flooded compressors)
The compression and air displacement are achieved
by the positive action of the rotating elements. • Oil free compressors (Sierra)
These compressors can be divided into two groups:
• Oil Free
• Oil Flooded (contact cooled) Depending on their size,
Rotary Products can be classified as:
Inlet air is trapped between rotor lobes. The air
volume is reduced as these lobes intermesh.
Coolant is injected to remove heat created by the • Light Industrial Product line
compression process. (up to 50 Hp)
• Medium Industrial Product line
The only moving parts within the compression (50 Hp—500 Hp)
chamber are the two rotors, held apart by dynamic
pressure. As a result of precise bearing alignment
and clearances at the tip of the rotors, there is no Depending on operational speed, they
contact between either the rotors, or the rotors and
housing.
can be classified as:
Since the cooling takes place right inside the • Constant Speed (SSR, Sierra)
compressor, the working parts never experience • Variable Speed (Nirvana)
extreme operating temperatures. The rotary
compressor, therefore, is a continuous duty, air
cooled or water cooled compressor package.
The two stage oil flooded rotary screw air

compressor uses pairs of rotors in a combined
airend assembly. Compression is shared between
the first and second stages flowing in series. This
reduces the power required to compress the air by
up to fifteen percent.
The oil free rotary screw air compressor utilizes

specially designed airends to compress air without
oil in the compression chamber yielding true oil free
air. Oil free rotary screw air compressors are
available air cooled and water cooled and provide
the same flexibility as oil flooded rotaries when oil
free air is required.
As you can see, rotary screw air compressors are

available air cooled and water cooled, oil flooded
and oil free, single stage and two stage. There is a
wide range of availability in configuration and in
pressure and capacity.

Light Industrial Product Line diagnostics that minimize downtime. The SE

SSR UP-Series 7.5-30 HP (PEGASUS) Series can operate in ambient temperatures up to
The SSR UP-Series 115ºF and features hydraulic type SAE O-ring
design was inspired by fittings to eliminate leaks. The factory fill of Ultra
workplace demands as Coolant offers superior separation and is
detailed to us by many formulated for 8,000 hours (two years) of operation
hundreds of before a required change. The SE Series includes
compressor users. a low sound enclosure, an EPACT high-efficiency
Ingersoll Rand motor with overload protection, and features these
engineers applied our additional options: no enclosure,
expertise and world- TEFC motor, Star-Delta starter, NEMA 4 electrics,
class technologies to upper range modulation with ACS, power outage
create a new standard restart, heavy-duty filter, phase monitor, outdoor
of performance and modification, no aftercooler, multiple use
value through design sequence, premium efficiency motor and a remote
innovations. start/stop.
• Reliable, simple and proven rotary design
A number of factors • 100% continuous duty cycle
contribute to reduced • Quiet operation: 76dBA or less
compressor noise
levels, including: a
high-efficiency airend and motor; a horizontal The SE Series 50 HP unit has been superseded by
separator, specially designed to dampen noises; a the 50 HP Pegasus in the year 2002.
centrifugal fan, and a compartmentalized enclosure
system that is designed for superior acoustic
(sound) containment.
Compartment
Acoustic Enclosure
Separator
High-Efficiency Low- Cartridge
Speed Motor and Airend
Closely Coupled Airend Combination

and Separator Manifold
Cooling Air
Cast Horizontal Pre-Filter
Separator
SE Series 30-50 HP
For larger light
industrial, commercial
and automotive
applications, the
Ingersoll Rand SE
Series delivers a
reliable, pulsation-free
air supply with
intelligence. The
Intellisys® microprocessor control provides a finger-
touch panel with full operating control, and displays
discharge pressure and temperatures, fault
warnings, shutdowns and additional operating

Medium Industrial Product Line SSR Two Stage Compressors

Energy savings dramatically reduce a compressor’s
SSR Compressors operating costs.
• The SSR operates in ambient temperatures up to As a rule of thumb, a
46°C (115°F). SSR 2 -stage
• Routine maintenance is done through latched compressor will save
panels on the machine. around 15% of the
• Easy installation – set it and bolt down, hook it up consumed power
to the proper electrical service and piping system, compared to a Single
cover the forklift holes and let it go. No vibration Stage machine of
mounts are required. similar capacity and
pressure, due to its
• Quiet operation – the sub assembly isolates the
higher efficiency.
drive train from the package for virtually vibration
free operation.
To achieve peak
efficiency and because
50 - 100 Hp unit specifications include:
the two compression
• Acoustic Enclosure- 85 dBA stages have different
• “SE” Intellisys Controller objectives, a two stage
• Pressure rating 100, 125, 140, 165 psig rotary screw airend
uses different Ingersoll Rand profile rotor sets. Our
• On/Off Line- std. Modulation/ACS– modes of
first stage rotors utilise a profile for high
operation
displacement and discharge at relatively low
• Star Delta / Direct on Line (DOL) Starter pressure. The second stage profile achieves high
• Gear Driven efficiency compression to final package pressure.
The SSR two-stage compressor is fully piped and

wired, resulting in simple external connection of all
utilities. The compression on these machines is
shared between the first and second stages flowing
in series. This increases the overall compression
efficiency.
Specifications:
• 100 - 500 HP
• Sound enclosed
125 - 500 Hp unit specifications include:
• SG Intellisys Controller
• Sound enclosure
• Pressure rating 100, 125, 140, 200 psig
• SG Intellisys Controller
• On/Off Line and Modulation/ACS control modes
• Pressure rating 100, 125, 140, 165 psig of operation
• On/Off Line and Modulation/ACS modes of • Integral Gear Driven
operation
• Gear Driven

Sierra Oil Free Compressor Nirvana Compressors

• 50—400 Hp 37—75 kW (50-100 Hp)
• Two stage • Hybrid permanent magnet
• 1st Stage Rotors— • Variable speed operation

Carbon Steel • Unlimited starts per hour
• 2nd Stage Rotors— • No motor bearings
Stainless Steel • No gears/coupling
• Gear Type Oil Pump • Acoustic enclosure
• Sound enclosure o
• 46 C ambient temperature
• Air cooled or Water operation
cooled, intercooler • Start/stop no unloaded blowdown operation
and aftercooler
• 100% oil free
Nirvana compressors deliver maximum efficiency at
• High efficiency motor virtually any load and, at full load, the new Nirvana
o
• 46 C design ambient temperature compressors produce the most air using the least
• energy.
50 - 100 Hp Sierras
have the following A conventional, fixed-speed air compressor is
specifications: controlled by an inlet control valve that modulates
• Intellisys (SE Style) between open and closed positions. But using the
Controller inlet valve to meet system air demand results in
• Pressure rating 100, extreme pressure fluctuations and wasted energy,
125, 150* psig greatly reducing efficiency whenever the compressor
(* only on certain operates outside its optimum performance range.
models)
Using a frequency inverter and
the Hybrid Permanent Magnet
motor, Nirvana compressors
deliver air at a constant pressure,
regardless of demand, at
125 - 200 Hp Sierra maximum efficiency. Nirvana
compressors: compressors achieve constant
• Intellisys (SG Style) pressure and maximum efficiency
Controller across their entire operating
range, from 100% loaded down to
• Pressure rating 100,
as little as 25% loaded.
125, 150 psig
Nirvana does not blowdown. Instead, Nirvana

compressors reduce speed, and volume, to meet
demand. Rather than run unloaded, a Nirvana
compressor shuts off.
250 - 400 HP Sierra
compressors
• Intellisys (SG Style)
Controller
• Pressure rating 100,
125, 150* psig.
(* 400 Hp models are available as 150 psig only)

Heavy Industrial Product Line The high pressure air is used for a variety of
purposes including pneumatic control devices,
Centrifugal Air Compressors pneumatic sensors, pneumatic valve operators,
Sizes 400 CFM to 15,000 CFM pneumatic motors and starting air for diesel engines.
The centrifugal air compressor is a dynamic The following picture shows a cross section of an
compressor, which depends on transfer of energy Ingersoll Rand Centac centrifugal 100% oil free
from a rotating impeller to the air. The rotor compressor:
accomplishes this by changing the momentum and
pressure of the air. This momentum is converted to
useful pressure by slowing the air down in a • Impeller accelerates the air
stationary diffuser. • Diffuser compresses the air
• Cooled between stages
The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free
compressor by design. The oil-lubricated running
Performance is significantly effected by atmospheric
gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and
changes, such as inlet air pressure, temperature and
atmospheric vents.
water temperature,
The centrifugal is a continuous duty compressor,
with few moving parts, that is particularly suited to
high volume applications--especially where oil free
Impeller
air is required.
Discharge
C
Centrifugal air compressors are typically water-
cooled and the package includes the aftercooler and
all controls.
D
Basic Construction
The centrifugal compressor, originally built to handle
only large volumes of low pressure gas and air A
(maximum of 40 psig), has been developed to
enable it to move large volumes of gas with higher
discharge pressures. However, centrifugal
compressors are now most frequently used for
B
medium volume and medium pressure air delivery.
Casing
One advantage of a centrifugal compressor is the Section perpendicular to shaft

smooth discharge of the compressed air
Basic Operation
Air enters the eye of the Impeller [D]. As the Impeller
rotates, air is thrown against the casing of the Discharge
compressor and becomes compressed as more air is
thrown out by the impeller blades. Impeller
Suction
Air is pushed along the path designated [A], [B] and
[C]. The pressure of the air is increased as it is Driving Shaft
pushed along this path.
Centrifugal compressors can use a variety of blade Suction

orientations including both forward and backward
curves as well as other designs. Casing
A centrifugal air compressor may have several

stages of compression. The discharge air from one Section along shaft
stage feeds the inlet of the next stage. This allows
the centrifugal compressor to achieve higher
pressures. Intercoolers are required for multi-staging.

2nd Stage
1st Stage
Cross section of an IR Centac Compressor
3 stage Centac Compressor
Discharge 1st Stage

Main Oil Pump
Bullgear Shaft Seal Bullgear

Moisture
Separators
Plain
Bearing
Impeller Coolers
Inlet 1st Stage

Reverse
Thrust Bearing
Thrust Bearing
Pinion
Diffuser
Plain Vibration
Bearing Probe Cross section of an Ingersoll Rand Centac
Carbon Ring Compressor
Seals

Short Test
Short Test
1 How is air compressed by a Positive Displacement compressor?
2 What is the advantage of having more than one stage of compression?
3 A rotary screw compressor is defined as a positive displacement compressor

a) True
b) False
4 In general, how are compressors classified?
5 What is the most common type of air compressor design used today?
6 Name at least 5 differences between SSR and Nirvana Compressors:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Compression Process
Fluids 1
Liquids and Gases ........................................................1
Molecular structure of material......................................1
What is Pressure and what is its effect? .......................2 - 4
Volume, Pressure & Temperature.................................4 - 5
What is Capacity and what is its effect?........................5
Short Test ................................................................6

Compression Process
Molecular structure of materials

In this section, you will learn Solids, liquids and gases are all composed of
• The difference between liquids and gases molecules in continuous motion. However the
• The difference between gauge and absolute arrangement of these molecules and the spaces
pressure between them, differ, giving rise to the characteristic
• Specific volume
properties of the three different states of matter.
• Temperature Scales
Ïn solids, the molecules are densely and regularly
• Boyle’s and Charles’s Laws
packed and movement is slight, each molecule
• Capacity and its effect being restrained by its neighbours.
Summary: The individual molecules are closely

packed and their movement is restricted to
Fluids vibrations of small amplitude.
In everyday life, we recognise three states of matter;
solid, liquid and gas. Although different in many Ïn liquids, the structure is looser; individual
respects, liquids and gases have a common molecules have greater freedom of movement
characteristic in which they differ from solids; they and, although restrained to some degree by the
are fluids, lacking the ability of solids to offer surrounding molecules, can break away from this
permanent resistance to a deforming force. Fluids restraint, causing a change of structure.
flow under the action of such forces, deforming
continuously for as long as the force is applied. Summary: The molecules are still closely packed,
but their movement is greater. Certain of the
Liquids and Gases molecules will have sufficient kinetic energy to
Although liquids and gases both share the common break through the surrounding molecules, so that
characteristics of fluids, they have many distinctive the relative positions of the molecules can
characteristics of their own. change from time to time.
¨
A liquid is difficult to compress and,
for many purposes, may be Ïn gases, there is no formal structure, the spaces
regarded as incompressible. A between molecules are large and the molecules
given mass of liquid occupies a can move freely.
fixed volume, irrespective of the size Liquid
or shape of its container and a free Summary: The spacing between molecules is
surface is formed if the volume of some ten times as great as in a liquid. The
the container is greater than that of attractive forces between molecules are very
the liquid. weak, so that molecules are free to travel until
stopped by a solid or a liquid boundary. A gas
A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes will; therefore, expand to fill a container,
of volume with pressure are large, cannot normally irrespective of volume.
be neglected and are related to ¨
changes of temperature. A given
mass of gas has no fixed volume
Effect of Temperature
and will expand continuously unless ¨Varying of temperature on solids, liquids or gases
restrained by a containing vessel. It Gas can have an effect on the molecular activity. The
will completely fill any vessel in effect can cause a phase change, i.e. change of one
which it is placed and; therefore, state to another. For example, solid carbon dioxide
does not form a free surface. at -23°C at atmospheric pressure will convert to a
gas phase change.

Compression Process
What is pressure and what is its effect? Absolute Pressure
The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth is Is the sum of adding atmospheric and gauge
known as the atmosphere. This atmosphere exerts pressure. As an example: the atmospheric pressure
pressure on everything. is 14.7 psi and your gauge reads 125 psi; adding the
two gives a pressure expressed as 139.7 psia
Atmosphere (pounds per square inch absolute).
The air surrounding the earth consisting of oxygen, ¨PSI
nitrogen and other gases. The atmosphere rises to a A pressure reading in Pounds per Square Inch.
height of about 22,000 miles and rotates with the
¨PSIA
earth.
A pressure reading in Pounds per Square Inch
Absolute.
Atmospheric Pressure
Is due to the weight of the earth's atmosphere and at ¨PSIG
sea level is 14.7 pounds per square inch (1.01 bar). A pressure reading in Pounds per Square Inch as
Atmospheric pressure is usually stated in either read on a Gauge.
pounds per square inch or in milibar. • Sea level atmospheric pressure is
14.7 psia (1 bar)
Pressure • On top of a mountain 1524m (5000 feet) high
Is a measure of the force exerted per unit area on
the pressure is 12.18 psia (0.84 bar)
the boundaries of a substance (or system). It is
caused by the collisions of the molecules of the
For a given volume, a greater energy is required to
substance with the boundaries of the system.
make the pressure higher. The higher the pressure
the greater the potential to do work. When we
As molecules hit the walls, they exert forces that try
reduce the air system pressure we can frequently
to push the walls outward. The forces resulting from
save energy. These savings occur when we can
all of these collisions cause the pressure exerted by reduce air leaks and energy consumption.
a system on its surroundings. Pressure is frequently
measured in units of:
2
Pressure Scales
• N/m (Pascals) When pressure is measured relative to a perfect
2
• lb/in or psi (pounds per square inch) vacuum, it is called absolute pressure (psia); when
2
• kg/cm (kilogram of force on a square centimeter of
measured relative to atmospheric pressure (14.7
area) psia) it is called gauge pressure (psig).
F kg N lb
P=
A cm2 m2 in2 The latter pressure scale was developed because
almost all pressure gauges register zero when open
to the atmosphere. Therefore, pressure gauges
Pressure is usually measured by a gauge registering measure the difference between the pressure of the
the difference between pressure in a vessel and the fluid to which they are connected and that of the
current atmospheric pressure. Therefore, a gauge surrounding air.
pressure does not indicate the true absolute gas
pressure. To obtain the absolute pressure, it is If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, it is
necessary to add the current atmospheric or designated as a vacuum. A perfect vacuum would
barometric pressure, expressed in the proper units, correspond to absolute zero pressure. All values of
to the gauge pressure. absolute pressure are positive because a negative
value indicates tension, which is considered
Barometric pressure impossible in any fluid.
Varies with altitude and, at any given location, with
moisture content and weather. When indicated by a Gauge pressures are positive if they are above
mercury barometer, barometric pressure averages atmospheric pressure and negative if they are
29.92 inches of mercury at sea level. below. The relationship between absolute, gauge,
vacuum and atmospheric pressures is shown below.
For our purposes, atmospheric and barometric
pressures are identical if measured at the same
time, location, and weather conditions. The only
Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Gauge Pressure
difference will be the units of measure used to
Absolute
express the pressure. Vacuum-Negative Gauge Pressure
Absolute Zero
Absolute Pressure

Compression Process
Pressure Conversion Temperature Scales
Patm is atmospheric pressure, which is also called The two temperature scales normally used for
the barometric pressure measurement purposes are the Celsius (C) and
Pgauge is gauge pressure, and Fahrenheit (F) scales.
Pvac is vacuum pressure (also gauge)
The scales are based on a specification of the
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge number of increments between the freezing point
Pabs = Patm - Pvac and boiling point of water at standard atmospheric
pressure. The Celsius scale has 100 units or
In addition to pounds per square inch or Pascals, degrees (o) between these points and the Fahrenheit
pressure can be measured with reference to the scale has 180 units or degrees (o). The zero points
force that exists in a column of fluid at a certain on the scales are arbitrary.
height. The most common of these are inches of
water, inches of mercury, millimeters of mercury and The freezing point of water was selected as the zero
microns of mercury. Conversion factors are as point of the Celsius scale. The coldest temperature
follows: achievable with a mixture of ice and saltwater was
selected as the zero point of the Fahrenheit scale.
• 14.7 psia = 408 inches of water The temperature at which water boils was set at 100
on the Celsius scale and 212 on the Fahrenheit
• 14.7 psia = 29.9 inches of mercury
scale.
• 1 inch of mercury = 25.4 millimeters of mercury
3
• 1 millimeter of mercury = 10 microns of mercury The relationship between the scales is represented
by the following equations.
Density
o
Density of a substance is the total mass of that C = (oF—32.0)(5/9)
substance divided by the total volume occupied by
o
that substance (mass per unit volume. F = 32.0 +(9/5) oC
m 1 It is necessary to define an absolute temperature

ρ=—=— scale having only positive values. The absolute
V ν temperature scale that corresponds to the Celsius
scale is called the Kelvin (K) scale. And the absolute
Where: ρ = density kg/m3 (lbm/ft3) scale that corresponds to the Fahrenheit scale is
m = mass kg (lbm) called the Rankine (R) scale.
V = volume m3 (ft3)
ν = specific volume m3/kg (ft3/lbm) The zero points on both absolute scales represent
the same physical state. This state is where there is
Specific Volume no molecular motion of individual atoms. The
The specific volume of a substance is the total relationships between the absolute and relative
volume of that substance divided by the total mass temperature scales are shown in the following
of that substance (volume per unit mass). The equations and comparison of temperature scales.
specific volume is the reciprocal of its density.
o
K = oC +273 o
R = oF + 460
V 1
ν= — = — o o o o
M ρ C K F R
100 373 212 672

Where: ν = specific volume m3/kg (ft3/lbm)
V = volume m3 (ft3)
0 273 32 492
m = mass kg (lbm)
ρ = density kg/m3 (lbm/ft3)
-273 0 -460 0
Temperature
A measure of the molecular activity of a substance.
The greater the movement of molecules, the higher
the temperature. It is a relative measure of how hot
or cold a substance is and can be used to predict
the direction of heat transfer.

Compression Process
Compression Processes Volume, Pressure & Temperature
Compression and pressurisation processes are There is a direct relationship between volume and
common in many types of industrial plants. pressure in the compressor system. If we draw in
1m3 into a compressor at atmospheric pressure and
Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law compress it to 101.5 psig (7 bar) gauge, this can
The results of certain experiments with gases at then be reduced in size to 1/8th of its original
relatively low pressure led Robert Boyle to formulate volume.
a well known law. It states that:
The pressure of a gas expanding at constant

temperature varies inversely to the volume, or
(P1)(V1) = (P2)(V2) = (P3)(V3) = constant
Charles, also as the result of experimentation, 1m3 0.125m3
concluded that:
The pressure of a gas varies directly with

temperature when the column is held constant 7 7
and the volume varies directly with temperature
when the pressure is held constant, or: 5 5
1 1
When pressure is constant V1 = T1
2 2
V2 T2
0 0
BAR BAR
When volume is constant P1 = T1
P2 T2 0 psig 101.53 psig
14.7 psia 116.23 psia
Ideal Gas Law (8 bara)
By combining the results of Charles’ and Boyle’s
experiments, the following relationship can be
obtained:
PV In a gas the spacing between

— = constant molecules is ten times greater than in
T a liquid. This is why a gas can be
easily compressed down to a very
The constant in the preceding equation is called the small volume, whereas liquid or solid
ideal gas constant (R), thus the ideal gas equation cannot.
becomes the following: The pressure a gas exerts is as a
result of collisions between the
Pν= RT molecules of a gas and the boundary
of the space in which they are
The pressure and temperature are absolute values. contained.
Where:
P = absolute pressure (Pa)

ν = specific volume (m3/kg)
Reduction of volume forces molecules
R = Gas constant (J/kg x K)
closer together thus increasing
T = absolute temperature (K)
pressure.

Compression Process
When gas is cooled down molecules, What is capacity and what is its effect?
slow down, i.e. loose kinetic energy and One of the most misused terms in the compressor
are pulled in. This process is called industry is the word “capacity” or free air. Capacity
condensation. To stay as a gas refers to the amount of compressed air that is
molecules must move fast enough to available and capacity can be expressed in various
keep apart, their velocity depends upon ways. Most commonly in
temperature.
For every temperature there is a CFM (Cubic Feet per Minute) or m³/min (cubic meter
maximum number of molecules that can per minute).
exist as a gas in a given volume at a
given pressure. The actual flow rate of a compressor can be
Adding more gas molecules to a given expressed as free air delivered (FAD, ie., the
volume of maximum density without an increase in delivered quantity of air is measured at the
temperature will increase mutual attraction of discharge of a compressor and converted to intake
molecules enough to start condensation. At a very pressure and temperature.) For example, intake air
high temperature, molecules will dissociate and the at an absolute pressure of 1 bar, dry air and a
atoms will break up. This stage called plasma temperature of 20oC, corresponds to an air density
consists of electrons and atomic nuclei, for the
of ρ = 1.189 kg/m3.
purpose of this manual however, we will not discuss
this process any further..
If the inlet air is not dry but contains water vapour,
part of this vapour will condense in the intercooler
and aftercooler, so that the mass output decreases.
Similarly, if the intake air temperature exceeds 20oC,

the density is lower and consequently, also the mass
output. As a rule of thumb “each temperature
decrease of 3oC at the air intake results in a mass
output increase of approximately 1%.

Short Test
Short Test
1 Define specific volume.
2 Why do gases expand to fill the containing vessel?
3 What is the Fahrenheit equivalent of 80oC?
4 When you add atmospheric and gauge pressure together them equal
a) Pressure
b) Absolute pressure
c) Atmospheric pressure
d) Barometric pressure
5 What is the Kelvin equivalent of 80oF?
6 What is the relationship between Temperature and Mass Output?

Electricity
(Basic Theory)
Electrical Terminology..................................................................... 1
Ohm’s Law ...................................................................................... 1
Circuits Theory ................................................................................ 2
3 Phase Voltage Supply.................................................................. 2
1 Phase Voltage Supply.................................................................. 2
Power Supply Considerations......................................................... 3
Starting Methods Direct-on-line ...................................................... 3
Fan Motor Connections................................................................... 3
Starting Methods Star/Delta............................................................ 4
Motor Thermal Overload Protection................................................ 5
Miniature Circuit Breakers and Fan Motor Fuses ........................... 5
Transformer..................................................................................... 5
Contactors....................................................................................... 6
Timer Relays ................................................................................... 6
Control Relays................................................................................. 6
Solenoid Valves .............................................................................. 7
Pressure Switch .............................................................................. 7
Pressure Transducer ...................................................................... 8
Temperature Switch........................................................................ 8
Temperature Sensor ....................................................................... 8
Thermistors ..................................................................................... 8
Comparison of Energy Systems ..................................................... 9
Protection Devices - Incoming Power Supply................................. 9
Motor Theory................................................................................... 9
SSS M Range Dedicated Motors .................................................... 9 - 10
Short Test................................................................................ 11

Semi-Conductor (Electronic Components)

In this section, you will learn Is a material that can be changed from a non-
• The difference between conductor and an conductive state into a conductive state and back
isolator. again by biasing the material.
• The relationship between voltage, current
and resistance. Ohm’s Law
In 1827 George Simon Ohm discovered that there
• About 3 phase voltage supply.
was a definite relationship between voltage, current
• The major difference between star/delta and and resistance in an electrical circuit. Ohm’s Law
direct on line starting methods. defines this relationship and can be stated in three
• Protective devices on Rotary Compressor ways.
Packages.
1) Applied voltage equals circuit current times the
circuit resistance. The equation V = IxR is a
mathematical representation of this concept.
Elsollectrical Terminology
2) Current is equal to the applied voltage divided by
Voltage the circuit resistance. The equation I = V/R is a
Electromotive force (emf) or potential difference, is mathematical representation of this concept
described as the pressure or force that causes
electrons to move in a conductor. In electrical 3) Resistance of a circuit is equal to the applied
formulas and equations, you will see voltage voltage divided by the circuit current. The
symbolised with a capital E, while on laboratory equation R = V/I is a mathematical representation
equipment or schematic diagrams, the voltage is of this concept.
often represented with a capital V.
Electron Current or Amperage Parameter Measuring Unit Relationship

Described as the movement of free electrons
through a conductor. In electrical formulas, current is Voltage (V) Volt (V) V=IxR
symbolised with a capital I, while in the laboratory or
on schematic diagrams, it is common to use a Current (I) Amp (A) V
capital A to indicate amps or amperages. I= —
R
Resistance
Defined as the opposition to current flow. The Resistance (R) Ohm (Ω) V
amount of opposition to current flow produced by a R=—
material depends on the amount of available free I
electrons it contains and the types of obstacles the
electrons encounter as they attempt to move
through the material. Resistance is measured in
ohms and is presented by the symbol (R) in
equations. The short notation for ohm is the Greek
letter omega Ω.
Conductor
A conductor allows the free flow of current with a
minimum amount of voltage required due to its
extremely low resistance value.
Insulator
An insulator prevents the flow of current from
escaping a conductor and stops conductors from
contacting each other due to its extremely high
resistance value.

Circuits Theory 3 Phase Voltage Supply

Consider the circuit below: - For a voltage to 3 phase supply has three alternating voltages
develop, a closed loop (circuit) must be present. For separated by 120º angle. This is used predominately
instance; to allow control of a light bulb a switch is by the commercial and industrial sectors and often
installed and used to open or close the loop, thus referred to as AC (Alternate Current) supply.
controlling the voltage flow and therefore current
flow. 3 phase is the standard power supply required for
Ingersoll Rand Rotary compressors due to the size
The current flow needs to be regulated and is of the main motor.
controlled by the amount of resistance between the
positive and negative voltages. The standard voltage is 400, 415, 460 volts at 50
and 60 Hertz (50 & 60 complete cycles a second) 3
The light bulb has an element inside that provides Phase.
the necessary resistance to regulate the current
flow, this resistance is also known as the Load. V 1 cycle = 1 Hz
The battery shown is often referred L1

to as DC (Direct Current) supply
120°
L2
360°
To prevent a short circuit the conductors connecting

the components are covered by an insulating
material such as PVC or rubber. This prevents L3
contact with other conductors and earth
connections. V
A short circuit occurs if the positive and negative 1 Phase Voltage Supply
voltages are connected together with no resistance/ A single phase supply can be obtained by
load in the loop. connecting to only 1 of the generated phases and
using a neutral connection for the zero volt
This means that the current flow is un-regulated, so connection of the circuit and is used in the domestic
an over-current situation occurs which will damage sectors as well as commercial and industrial sectors.
the conductors and components unless protected.
Imagine a row of houses with a 3 phase supply
Fuses and miniature circuit breaker are used as running down the street, Each house needs to have
protection to break the circuit in the event of an over- a single phase and neutral connection for household
current situation developing. electrical equipment.
Choices: -
1) Use only 1 of the phases to supply all the houses
on the street so all the load is on that 1 particular
phase.
2) To equally balance the load on the system by
splitting the houses equally onto the 3 phases
available: -
House 1 on Phase L1
House 2 on Phase L2
House 3 on Phase L3 etc.
The 2nd choice is the best to prevent an uneven

loading on the 3 phases which would cause an
imbalance to occur on the supply.

Power Supply Considerations Fan Motor Connections

The customer must ensure voltage is stable and Terminal connections for fan motors allow for both
within the following tolerances Star and Delta configuration and it is important to
connect the motor correctly to avoid damage
+/- 10% when starting. occurring.
+/- 6 % when running.
Fan motors must be wired as follows to suit the
The cable size must be large enough to ensure that appropriate supply voltage.
no voltage drops occur. Protection device must be
correctly rated. Motor Rated Fuses are Up To 5.5kW -
recommended on the customers incoming supply to Windings Configuration 400/230 V
the unit.
STAR CONNECTION
Examples:
L1 L2 L3
90% Voltage will cause: -
19% decrease in starting / running torque
1.5% decrease in full-load speed.
11% increase in full-load current.
7 ºC increase in full-load temperature rise.
U1 V1 W1
V2 W2 U2 LINK
1% imbalance will cause: -
2% decrease in full-load efficiency.
Slight decrease in full-load speed. MOTOR TERMINAL BLOCK
1.5% increase in full-load current.
2% increase in full-load temperature rise.
7.5kW, 11kW, and 15kW -
Starting Methods Winding Configuration 400/690 V
Direct-On-Line (Full Voltage)
Motors can be connected direct-on-line to the ∆ DELTA CONNECTION
incoming supply. A single contactor provides the
necessary control of the motor connection to the
supply without the need for any complicated timer
circuits.
The main advantage of direct on line is a simple

control of the motor connection. The disadvantage
is that the inrush current is up to 7 x F.L.C. which
can cause problems on power supplies. The motor
has full voltage and L1
torque on start up due to L2
the high inrush current. L3
The Overload is set to FAN CONTACTOR

the Full Load Current of
the motor as per the
motor’s data plate.
3 phase Fan motors

within SSR compressors
are started using the
direct-on-line method because the inrush current is
small compared to the inrush for the main motor and
does not affect the power supply.

Starting Methods When connected in Delta the voltage applied to

each winding is maximum voltage, no reduction
Star / Delta takes place, so the torque available to the motor is
When connected in Star the voltage is reduced due full load torque and therefore the motor can draw
to the extra resistance of the additional winding, this maximum current
reduces the torque available to the motor and L1 L2 L3 DELTA
ensures that the inrush current is reduced to a
maximum of 3.5 x F.L.C. Therefore; when the MAIN
L1
voltage is reduced, the inrush current is also STAR
reduced due to the relationship of voltage, torque W2 V1

and inrush current.
V² ~ (proportional) Torque ~ Current

W1
MM V2
When running in Star, the torque and therefore the

current, is reduced to 33% of full voltage values (full L3
U2 U1
L2
voltage values occur when running in Delta).
Delta Connection
When the start button is pressed and the Main and
Star contactors energise, the motor takes a 3.5 x full
load current to get the motor turning. Once the When the delta contactor energises an auxiliary
motor is turning the current drops to a lower value contact is used to allow the compressor to load. This
(normally 33% full load value) as the motor is easier prevents the compressor from loading when running
to turn once rotating. in Star which would cause the motor to stall.
L1 L2 L3 DELTA L1 The Star and Delta contactor are electrically and

STAR mechanically interlocked to prevent both contactors
V1
MAIN from energising together and causing a short circuit
to occur.
A normally closed auxiliary contact is used for both

W2
V2 Star and Delta.
U2
MM
The power supply for the Star contactor coil is wired
W1 U1 through the normally closed Delta auxiliary contact.
L3 L2 This means the Star contactor can only energise
Star Connection
when the Delta contactor is de-energised and the
auxiliary is closed.
When the star contactor de-energises, the voltage
flowing into the motor stops and the rotor starts to The power supply for the Delta contactor coil is
slow down but within 50 milliseconds the delta wired through the normally closed Star auxiliary
contactor has energised allowing voltage flow to contact and the Delta contactor can only energise
occur. This is star/delta transition. when the Star contactor is de-energised and the
auxiliary is closed.
When the voltage flow is re-established the motor
needs another large amount of current to get the
motor to full load speed which is normally 10 x full
load current. This is known as the star/delta
transitional current.

Motor Thermal Overload Protection Transformer

The Main Motor Overload monitors driver phase Control Transformer to Power Contactors and
current and provides protection against over current Solenoids
situations. Thermal
overloads are The Control Transformer supplies the Contactors
calibrated to trip at and Solenoids and components used within the
120% of the control circuit with power.
overload setting.
The transformer has 2 windings, primary and
If excessive current secondary, which step up or step down the voltage
is drawn, the depending on the ratio of turns within the windings.
overload relay will
operate, opening its CONTROL TRANSFORMER
contact and breaking
the control circuit. 415 V 110 V
380 V
PRIMARY SECONDARY
!
Note 0V 0V
Thermal Overloads do not protect against short

circuit conditions. Incoming supply protection (fuses
or circuit breakers) protect against short circuit The primary winding is rated for the incoming
situations. supply on the compressor and will have different
tapping for 380, 400 or 415 volts. The correct
Miniature Circuit Breakers and Fan Motor tapping should be selected during commissioning.
Fuses The secondary winding will give the correct voltage

Miniature Circuit Breakers are used to protect the output for the control circuit components. The
transformer primary and secondary windings and secondary voltage is induced into the windings by
also the control circuit. The miniature circuit breaker the magnetic field created by the primary winding.
monitors the current flow within the circuit and if a
short circuit occurs the circuit breaker will operate The transformer VA rating ensures that the voltage
and break the circuit. output from the secondary winding will not
decrease or be affected by supply dips. Control
The circuit breaker can be reset voltage drops can cause contactor damage/failure
once the fault has been isolated and possibly motor damage due to contactor
and rectified unlike fuses which “chatter”.
are a one shot device and
require replacing after operating
to break a circuit.

Contactors Timer Relays

Contactors are used for the control of the main Timer relays have electrical contacts which are
motor and are energised via the control system/ controlled by a timer circuit to change states as per
Intellisys to start the motor and connect the motor for the time setting on the relay.
normal operation.
Typical relays will have an adjustment scale and a
The contactors have a coil inside which is a winding setting for either seconds, minutes or hours. When
around a central piece. The 3 moving contacts are voltage is applied to the relay the timer circuit starts
connected to a laminated iron core. to count and at the prescribed time will change the
state for its electrical contacts.
When voltage is passed through the coil a magnetic
field is created which attracts the laminated iron core When voltage is removed the contacts will revert to
into pulling down and closing the 3 moving contacts. the de-energised
state.
Timer relays might be

used within the
compressor package
for the Star/Delta
control of contactors,
the Auto-Restart
feature and in some
cases an Unloaded
Stop Feature.
Control Relays Timer Relays Control Relays

Control relays have a
coil inside which is a
winding around a central piece, the electrical
contacts are connected to an iron core.
When voltage is passed through the coil, a magnetic

field is created which attracts the iron core, moving
and closing the electrical contacts.
Control relays are used for

• latching the control circuit
• as slaves to energise bigger components such as
contactors etc. and
• as part of control logic in circuits.
SLAVE RELAY CONTACTOR
0V
110 V

Solenoid Valves Pressure Switch

Solenoid valves are used for the control of either air The compressor loading and unloading set points
flow/signals or coolant flow/signals and are might be controlled by a switch which responses to
energised via the control system/Intellisys to change pressure to open and close electrical contacts (older
state. units).
The solenoid valves can be either Normally Open, The pressure switch uses the following contacts: -
such as the Blow Down Valve 3 SV, or Normally
Closed such as the Coolant Stop valve 5 SV. • Common and Normally Closed
for Load/Unload control.
When control voltage is applied to the solenoid
• Common and Normally Open
valve, the valve will change state; for example: -
for Auto-Restart signal.
3 SV Blow Down
Valve is normally !
open and when Note
energised (when The Upper Set Point must not exceed the maximum
the compressor is operating pressure of the unit.
loaded) will
change state and
close preventing
the unit from Upper Set-Point Adjustment
blowing down. • Remove the transparent cover
3 SV Blow Down Valve
• Turn the adjuster
• The red pointer will move
5 SV Coolant Stop valve is
normally closed and when • Turn the adjuster anti–clockwise
energised (when the to increase the set-point or clockwise to
compressor is started) will decrease it.
change state and open
allowing the coolant to enter
the airend. Lower Set-Point
Adjustment
• Remove the
transparent cover
• Turn the adjuster.
• The green pointer
5 SV Coolant Stop Valve will move.
• Turn the adjuster
anti–clockwise to
increase the set-
point or clockwise
to decrease it.
!
Note
The pressure switch scale is a guide only. Use the
machine pressure gauge to verify the upper and
lower set points.

Pressure Transducer Temperature Sensor

The loading and unloading set points are controlled A temperature sensor is installed to protect the
by the Intellisys which responds to the pressure airend and the coolant from
being sensed by the damage due to high
pressure transducer (newer temperature situations that
units). may occur. It works
concurrently with the
The pressure sensor Temperature Switch.
converts the pressure
measured into an electrical When the shutdown value
signal which is fed to the reaches 109oC, the Intellisys
Intellisys. will shut down the unit.
The pressure transducer Thermistors

monitors the package
The temperature devices employed are often NTC
discharge pressure, down
thermistors (negative temperature
stream of the aftercooler
coefficient). As the detected temperature rises, the
and moisture trap (if fitted).
thermistor resistance falls. The following table
Pressure Transducer
applies.
By the use of a solenoid valve and manifold block TEMPERATURE versus RESISTANCE
the pressure signal to the
0oC 32292Ω
transducer can be changed from
package discharge pressure to o
5C 25156Ω
sump pressure. o
10 C 19741Ω
The sump pressure is used to 15oC 15601Ω

ensure correct rotation on start 20 C o
12411Ω
up and also for checking the
o
cleanliness of the separator 25 C 9936Ω
element by monitoring pressure 30 C o
8003Ω
drop across it. The Intellisys will o
35 C 6482Ω
raise a warning when the
System Pressure
Measuring Point pressure drop is 12 psi. 40 C o
5276Ω
o
45 C 4321Ω
Temperature Switch
o
50 C 3555Ω
o
A temperature switch is installed to protect the 55 C 2940Ω
airend and the coolant from damage due to high 60 C o
2443Ω
discharge temperature. The switch is normally
closed and will open to shut the unit down when the 65oC 2040Ω
Alarm setpoint is reached (109oC or 118oC 70 C o
1711Ω
depending on the unit and control system). o
75 C 1441Ω
o
80 C 1219Ω
o
85 C 1035Ω
o
90 C 883Ω
o
95 C 756Ω
o
100 C 649Ω
o
105 C 560Ω
o
110 C 484Ω
115oC 421Ω
o
120 C 367Ω
Shut down at 109°C = 499 Ohms

Comparison of Energy Systems milliseconds which is sensed by the circuit breaker,

To understand this relationship, we can directly which then breaks the power supply.
compare electrical terms to a compressed air
terminology. Example: Transient currents are a normal occurrence when
switching from Star to delta, it can be as high as 8 x
Electricity Compressed Air Full Load Current and is present for milliseconds
only. Transient currents occur as extra power is
Mechanical to Compressed
Energy Mechanical Electrical to
Compressed Air to
require to bring the motor up to its maximum speed;
Conversion to Electrical Mechanical remember that when the Star contactor de-energises
Air Mechanical
the motor will start to slow as the voltage has been
Conversion Air tool, disconnected until the Delta contactor is energised.
Generator Motor Air End
Device nozzles, etc
Motor Rated Fuses are unaffected by Inrush or
Conductor Wires Wires
Hoses, Pipes, Hoses, Transient Currents and if correctly sized will never
etc pipes, etc operate unless a fault condition occurs.
Measure of
Volts Volts PSI PSI
Pressure Motor Theory
Rate of
Amps Amps cfm cfm
Motors convert electrical power into mechanical
Flow power. The 3 phase induction motor has a three
Rust, friction, Rust, friction, phase winding, each 120° apart, on a cylindrical
Restriction
to flow or Resistance Resistance
rough rough stator, energised from an external supply.
surfaces surfaces The rotor is cylindrical and carries a distributed
motion
binding, etc binding,,etc
winding which under running conditions is short-
circuited on itself. There are no external connections
Just as the amount of air available at the point of to the rotor, the rotor currents are caused by the
demand is determined by the size of the compressor voltage which is induced from the stator voltage.
and the size of the pipes, the amount of electrical The voltage and current flow in the stator windings
energy is determined by the size of the power produce a magnetic which rotates due to the
source and the size of the wires. alternating 3 phase voltage applied to the windings.
From this analogy, you can see that electrical terms
such as volts, amps and resistance are simply labels SSS M Range Dedicated Motors
similar to PSI, CFM and mechanical loses as used in
a compressed air system. The main drive motor is exactly matched to the
requirements of the SSR M Range compressor.
Torque and load requirements of the compressor are
Protection Devices - Incoming Power matched to specific design criteria that enabled the
Supply. SSR motor to develop peak efficiency and power
The protection device for the incoming customer factor at full load.
power supply must be rated correctly for the
maximum power and amperage for the compressor A. Frame
package. The protection device for the incoming Motor frame and brackets are of fabricated steel with
customer power supply is to protect against a short cast iron end shields. This provides maximum
circuit within the compressor package and not strength and rigidity for bearing support, uniform
overload protection. stator/rotor gap and flanged permanent alignment of
Motor Rated Fuses: - This is the recommended all mating parts.
protection device to protect against a short circuit The DE shield is Metric.
within the motor.
Circuit Breakers: - If selected they must be rated B. Electrical Design
correctly and have Magnetic Trips only with an Speed, torque and operating characteristics have
Instantaneous Delay Setting to prevent nuisance been designed to match the load of the compressor.
tripping during start-up. Thermal trips are not Motor efficiency and power factor have been
required as this protection is provided by the optimised to cover the entire capacity range of the
Ingersoll Rand starter cabinet. SSR compressor and are all rated at 46ºC ambient.
Nuisance tripping of circuit breaker can occur on
start-up when the compressor changes from Star
into Delta connection. When the connection of the
motor is changed a high transient current occurs for

C. Bearings
Ball bearings for the non drive end and roller or ball
bearings for the drive end provide dependable and
reliable service with both bearings being grease
lubricated.
D. Insulation
The SSR motor has class F insulation as standard.
That means it is rated at continuous duty for up to a
115ºC temperature rise over ambient temperature
of 46°C. However no SSR motor is ever applied for
a temperature rise over 89ºC, a difference of 26ºC.
The extra conservatism built into every SSR motor
means more reliability, increased life, and a much
more forgiving motor under adverse conditions.
E. Protection
Overload protection is provided by a thermal
overload which monitors the current draw of the
motor, Shutdown is 120% of setting.
Motor windings can also be protected against over

temperature by thermistors linked to a relay in the
starter panel, Shut down is at 160ºC (Class F
rating).

Short Test
Short Test
1 What is the purpose of the Motor Thermal Overload protection?
2 What is the current flow, if resistance is 20 ohms and applied voltage 24V?
3 What is the difference between a conductor and an insulator?
4 What is the relationship between voltage, current and resistance?
5 What is NTC?
6 What resistance would you expect at 37oC?
7 What is a slave relay?
8 What is 3 phase voltage supply?
9 What are the major differences between star/delta and direct on-line starting
methods?
10 What protective devices are often used on Rotary Compressor Packages?

Typical Compression System
Typical Compression Process .........................................................1
Why filter and dry compressed air? .................................................2
How to remove moisture and contaminants ....................................3
Why is relative humidity important? .................................................3
What creates moisture in compressed air? .....................................4
Filters and Dryers remove the contaminants ...................................4
Types of Filters ................................................................................4
Compressed Air Dryers....................................................................4 - 5
How to calculate the correct size dryer............................................5
Short Test...................................................................................6

Next the air is compressed. This is where the

In this section, you will learn pressure and temperature rise. The heat generated
• The typical compression process when air is compressed is called the heat of
compression. This heat is a by-product of
• Why compressed air must be filtered and dried
compressed air and is usually removed in a later
• Source of contamination process.
• How contamination increases operating costs
• How to select the correct filters and air dryers The Aftercooler cools the moisture laden discharge
to reduce costs air thereby removing 60 to 70% of the water from the
air. Without an aftercooler, the air system would be
• Types of filters
flooded with water. For example, a 28 kW air
• Types of Dryers compressor delivering 2.83m3/min (100 CFM) at 6.9
• barg (100 psig) can inject 68 litres (18 gallons) of
water per day into the air system.
Typical Compression Process After the air leaves the aftercooler, it goes to a
We will now look at a typical compression process, Moisture Separator, which is a device for removing
and see what happens in the transformation from moisture that was separated from the compressed
free air (atmospheric pressure) to compressed plant air in the cooler.
air.
Next the compressed air goes into an Air Receiver,
The typical system consists of the following a tank that holds the air that is discharged from the
components: - compressor. While acting as a storage reservoir, the
• Inlet air filter (installed on the unit or remotely) receiver also eliminates pulsations in the discharge
• Compressor Package line from reciprocating compressors, and also
provides a stable source of controlled air for
• Aftercooler (part of the compressor package or
compressor regulation.
installed remotely)
• Air Receiver From there the air goes to an Air Dryer that removes
• Air Filter water by either mechanical refrigeration or chemical
• Compressed air dryer
means. When you use mechanical refrigeration you
lower the temperature thereby lowering the
Firstly, the air goes into the inlet filter which removes dewpoint; so that no water will form in air lines or
materials such as dirt, abrasive dust, metal tools.
grindings, and other particles which could damage
the compressor and decrease its life.
Compressor package, includes Air Air Dryer

Inlet Air Filter and Aftercooler

Why filter and dry compressed Air?

The air that is compressed comes from the
environment. Without treatment, compressed air
contains contaminants, which can harm industry
processes. Air filters and dryers are intended to
reduce or eliminate the contaminants from the
environment and to save money.
Wet, dirty compressed air costs money by:

¨Robbing the system of useful power
• Air lines rust and leak
• The power and efficiency of air tools
decreases
Ïncreasing maintenance and repair expenses
• Lubricants wash out of air tools
• Solid particles abrade wear surfaces
¨Contributing to product rejects
• The colour/adherence of paint spraying is
affected
• Product spoilage in food processing is
promoted
There are two general types of contamination:

• Ambient contamination from gases such as CO
and CO2, dust, organic particles of pollen, seeds
and bacteria and relative
humidity.
• Contamination can also come from
the compressor oil vapour, pipe
scale and rust, particles from
general wear and tear of the
compressor.
All contaminants cause maintenance costs to go

up and production efficiency to go down.
Maintenance Costs
and Downtime
Maintenance go up.
Costs and Downtime
Production
Production Efficiency goes
Efficiency

How to remove moisture and contaminants For water at 100oC (212oF), the saturation pressure
is 1 bar (14.7 psia) and for water at 1 bar (14.7 psia),
Aftercoolers are a good first step. They lower the the saturation temperature is 100oC (212oF). For a
compressed air temperature to safe, usable levels pure substance there is a definite relationship
and remove up to 70% of the water vapour; between saturation pressure and saturation
however, the air is still saturated. A further drop in temperature. The higher the pressure, the higher the
temperature will cause additional condensation to saturation temperature.
occur in downstream air lines.
The graphical representation of this relationship
Air dryers remove the water vapour and low the between
dew point temperature of compressed air. This temperature and
prevents liquid water from forming downstream, but pressure at
Pressure
does not eliminate all the entrained contaminants. saturated
conditions, is
Separators and filters remove the liquid water, and called the “vapour
solid and gaseous contaminants that adversely pressure curve”.
affect the air system The vapour/liquid 1 bar
mixture is at
Drains discharge the accumulated water and liquid saturation when Temperature
contaminants from various points throughout the air the conditions of 100oC
system. pressure and
temperature fall on
the curve.
Why is relative humidity important?
Humidity is important because it affects: The air’s capacity for water vapour increases as air
• Discharge temperature from air-cooled temperature increases. Air with a temperature of
compressors. 30oC can hold more than three times as much water
• Corrosion of ferrous components in the system. vapour as air at 10oC. This relationship can be seen
on the Temperature-Water Vapour Curve.
Humidity
Is the amount of moisture (water vapour) in the air. It
can be expressed as absolute humidity or relative
humidity.
Absolute Humidity
Is the mass of water vapour divided by a unit volume
of air.
Relative Humidity
Is the amount of water vapour present in the air
divided by the maximum amount that the air could
contain at that temperature.
Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage. The

relative humidity is 100% if the air is saturated with
water vapour and 0% if no water vapour is present in
the air.
Saturation
The term saturation defines a condition in which a Dew Point
mixture of vapour and liquid can exist together at a This is the temperature below which the water
given temperature and pressure. vapour in the air will begin to condense.
The temperature at which vapourisation (boiling)

starts to occur for a given pressure is called the
saturation temperature or boiling point. The pressure
at which vapourisation (boiling) starts to occur for a
given temperature is called the saturation pressure.

What creates moisture in compressed air? Types of filters

Compressed air contains a certain amount of water
vapour depending on the Interception Filters:
temperature and the percentage of Particles are trapped by the fibres in
saturation. the filter media. The element must
be replaced when the filter media is
Vapour condenses as the air full.
temperature cools.
Dew Point is the point at which the Coalescing
water vapour turns to a liquid. We Minute particles and
can see this in a fog, on cold water liquids are trapped in the
pipes in hot weather, and on a glass filter element, where they
with a cold drink. coalesce to form
droplets, which run to the
Did you know that bottom and are drained
one cubic meter of away.
atmospheric or
compressed air at Absorption
20°C and 100% These filters trap liquid
relative humidity vapour and are excellent
contains 17 grams for removing fine
of water vapour? lubricant vapours as well
as odours.
Filters and Dryers remove the contaminants

• General purpose filters remove Compressed Air Dryers
liquid in droplet form and solid
particles of pollen, dust, and There are three major types of dryers:
bacteria.
• Refrigeration
• Specialised absorption filters
• Desiccant
eliminate specific vapours and
odours. • Chemical
• Centrifugal compressors have

Refrigeration Type:
compressed air that spins
around the outer shell where • Compressed air passes through
heavier solids and liquids a heat exchanger
separate and collect at the • The air is cooled to 2-3ºC by a
bottom and are drained away. refrigeration system
A moisture separator is used on • Water is condensed as the
these compressors. temperature is lowered
Cross section of a
compressed air filter • Condensed water is separated
from the air and drained away
• The resulting air will stay dry unless it cools in the
pipework to a temperature lower than it reached
in the dryer
When the air is compressed,

the volume of water vapour in
the air is unchanged. A higher
temperature keeps the water in
a vapour form.
By producing a cold surface in
contact with the compressed
air, the water vapour
condenses and is then removed. This dries the air.

Desiccant Dryers How to calculate the correct size dryer

• Compressed air passes Once the appropriate drying system has been
through one of two vessels selected, you determine the actual conditions under
which contains a desiccant which the dryer will be operating.
material.
• Moisture is adsorbed in to the • Flow capacity (scfm, Nm3/hr, Nm3/min, I/sec)
desiccant like a sponge o
• Pressure dew point ( F, C)
o
collects water. 2
• Inlet air pressure (psig, bar, kg/cm )
• When the desiccant is nearly o o
saturated the airflow is • Inlet air temperature ( F, C)
o o
diverted to the other tower. • Ambient or cooling water temperature ( F, C)
• The saturated tower is then • Maximum allowable pressure drop (psig, bar,
regenerated by heat or dry kg/cm2)
compressed air. •
• The DEWPOINT is below • Dryer rating data should be checked against
freezing (-40º C). operating conditions.
Chemical Filters (Dryers)

• Chemical Absorption
• Operates by absorption of
moisture into salt
• Only viable at low pressure
• Low purchase cost
• Expensive to operate
• Not offered by I-R

Short Test
Short Test
1 Why must compressed air be filtered and dried?
2 What is the maximum amount of water vapour contained in 1m3 of air at 25oC?
3 What are some sources of contamination?
4 What are the different types of dryers?
5 How does contamination increase operating costs?

Glossary

Glossary
Absolute Pressure Air Emissions

Absolute pressure is the arithmetic sum of gauge Defined as “the presence in the ambient atmosphere
and atmospheric pressures. This is total pressure of substances put there by the activities of man in
measured from absolute zero. It must be used in all concentrations sufficient to interfere directly or
calculations involving the basic gas laws. indirectly with his comfort, safety, heat, or with the
full use of enjoyment of his property.”
Absolute Temperature
Absolute temperature is the temperature of a body Air Receiver
referred to the absolute zero, at which point the A large tank (cylinder) that holds an air supply that
volume of an ideal gas theoretically becomes zero. allows a compressed air system to meet a larger-
On the Fahrenheit scale this is -459.67ºF; on the than-average demand for air.
Celsius scale it is -273.15ºC, on the Kelvin scale
it is 0oK. Altitude
The height of a point measured vertically above the
Absolute Micron Rating sea and is important when considering SCFM
Of an oil filter is a single pass test and is usually because the air is less dense and the barometric
obtained by passing fluid containing glass beads pressure decreases.
through a flat sheet of the filter material. Any beads
that pass through are captured and measured. The thin air also impacts the cooling of electric
motors and when higher than 7,500 feet above sea
ACFM - Actual Cubic Feet per Minute level, the motors are typically de-rated in
(also m³/min actual) horsepower.
Refers to the volume of air exiting the compressor
package. This is actual air delivery referred to inlet Ambient Temperature
conditions. The volume is based on the pressure, The shade air temperature in the vicinity of the
temperature, and humidity conditions of the intake machine, but unaffected by it, or by other non-
air. pertinent sources of radiated heat. It shall be
measured in a clear space, away from machine
Compressors are normally rated in ACFM and waste air and compressed discharged air. This
generally speaking, changes in inlet pressure, requirement comes from the tendency of
temperature and humidity do not greatly affect the compressors to locally heat the air in vicinity of the
ACFM rating of a positive displacement compressor. machine.
Absorption Atmospheric
The processof attracting one substance into the Having to do with the atmosphere. For example,
mass of another, so that the absorbed substance "atmospheric conditions" refer to conditions in the
disappears physically. atmosphere.
Adiabatic Process Axial Flow Compressor

Adiabatic process is one during which there is no An air compressor that accelerates air along the
heat added to or removed from the system. compressor shaft, causing the air to be compressed.
Adsorption Barometer
The attraction and adhesion of gases and liquid An instrument used by weather forecasters and
molecules to the surface of a solid. scientists to measure air pressure at any given
moment for a particular place. Air pressure is usually
Aftercooler measured in millibars or in inches of mercury.
A cooler installed at the outlet of an air compressor
to decrease the temperature of air after it leaves the Barometric pressure
compressor and to liquefy condensate vapours. Is the absolute atmospheric pressure existing at any
given point in the atmosphere. It varies with altitude,
Afterfilter moisture and weather conditions
An air filter designed for high-efficiency removal of
fine dust after leaving the dryer. Boyle's law
States that the volume of a gas, at constant
temperature, varies inversely with the pressure

Glossary
Brake horse power (BHP) Compression efficiency

Break horse power is the maximum rate at which an Is the ratio of the theoretical work requirement to the
engine can do work as measured by the resistance actual work required to compress and deliver air at
of an applied brake. the required pressure.
Compression Ratio
Breathing Air Is the ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the
Compressed air, specially treated to meet various absolute inlet pressure and when discussing screw
breathing air requirement standards. Not all compressors, there are two compression ratios to be
compressor systems can produce breathing quality understood; built-in (design) and operational.
air.
The built-in compression ratio is fixed and a function
British Thermal Unit of the airend design. The pressure is generated
BTU. The amount of heat required to raise the within the housing by the rotors before they turn past
temperature of one pound of water one degree the discharge port to release the air/oil mixture. In a
Fahrenheit under set conditions of temperature and typical single stage airend, the internal pressure will
pressure. be approximately 100 psi (6.89 bar) regardless of
the pressure within the receiver into which it is
Capacity discharging.
The capacity of any compressor is the quantity of
gas actually delivered when operating between The operational compression ratio is the ratio
specified inlet and discharge pressures. between the absolute inlet pressure and whatever
absolute pressure the airend discharge port is
Casing working against at any particular time.
The outer containment vessel of a compressor. The As an example: with an atmospheric pressure of
pressure containing stationary element that encloses 14.7 psia (1.01 bar) and a discharge pressure of 125
the rotor and associated internal components of the psig (8.62 bar), the operational compression ratio is
compressor including inlet and discharge approximately 9.5:1. However, if the atmospheric
connections. pressure remains at 14.7 psia but the airend
discharge pressure increases to 150 psig (10.34
Centrifugal compressor bar), the operational compression ratio is now
A dynamic compressor. A machine in which air or 11.2:1.
gas is compressed by the mechanical action of
rotating vanes or impellers imparting velocity and Condensate
pressure to the air or gas. In a centrifugal Water created from condensed water vapour.
compressor, flow is in a radial direction. Air enters
the compressor through the machine mounted inlet Constant speed control
control valve and flows to the first stage where the The unit that runs continuously and matches air
impeller imparts velocity energy to the air. The air supply to demand, by loading and unloading the
then proceeds through a diffuser section which compressor.
converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. A
multistage centrifugal compressor is a machine Control Air
having two or more of these stages. Air suitable for the operation of pneumatic
instruments and controls. Control air must be very
Charles’ law clean, cool, and dry.
States that the volume of a gas, at constant
pressure, varies directly with the absolute Coolant
temperature Fluid cooling agent. Ingersoll Rand uses branded
coolants called Ultra Coolant and Ultra Plus for
Check valve contact cooled rotary compressors.
A valve that permits flow in one direction only
Coolant cooler
Compressor A device to remove heat from the coolant (lubricant,
A mechanical device that causes an increase in oil) prior to re-injection in a rotary compressor.
pressure by executing a force on a gas
Compressed air
Air under pressure greater than that of the
atmosphere.

Glossary
CTD Cold Temperature Difference Dryer

Also known as the approach temperature. Often A device designed to remove water in compressed
represents the efficiency of the cooler. It is the air systems. Several types of dryers are
difference between inlet temperature of the cooling available, including refrigerated and desiccant.
medium and discharge temperature of the medium
being cooled.. For example for the oil cooler on a Dual control
rotary compressor it is the difference between inlet A control system of the compressor that tries to
air temperature to the cooler and discharge maximize compressor efficiency by matching air
temperature of the coolant. delivery and air demand by loading and unloading
the unit. .
Cylinder
The principle component of a reciprocating Dynamic Compression
compressor that contains the piston, inlet and The compression of air with continuous flow due to
discharge valves, and packing around the piston rod. the interaction between a vane and air.
Dalton's law Eccentricity

States that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is The measure of how far a rotor is out-of-round or
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the how much bow is in the shaft. It can be measured
constituent gases. The partial pressure is the with an air gap-type detector or with a proximity
pressure each gas would exert if it alone occupied probe.
the volume of the mixture.
Enthalpy
Desiccant Enthalpy (heat content) is the sum of the internal
Moisture absorbing chemical, usually silica gel or and external energies.
activated alumina.
Entropy
Desiccant Dryer Entropy is a measure of the unavailability of energy
A type of dryer that uses a desiccant to remove in a substance.
moisture from compressed air.
FAD
Dew Point Free air delivery. Air at the atmospheric conditions of
Dew point of air is the temperature at which the the site and unaffected by the compressor. Flow is
water vapour in a space (at a given pressure) will measured at the discharge valve of the compressor,
start to condense (form dew). after the aftercooler, the water separator and built in
check valve in reference to the inlet conditions.
Diffuser Capacity and power consumption can be corrected
A component of centrifugal compressors that is to certain standard for example ISO 1217 standard
located after an impeller. The diffuser converts reference conditions: Ambient temperature = 20°C,
velocity head to pressure head. Ambient pressure = 1 bar(a), Relative humidity =
0%, Cooling water/air = 20°C.
Discharge Volute
Spiral-shaped casing that is designed to convert Filter efficiency
velocity energy to pressure energy. The ability of a filter to remove specified test
contaminants under specified test conditions from a
Double-Acting Compressor specific test fluid, air, gas or liquid. Expressed as a
A compressor in which two functions are performed percentage of the quantity of test contaminant
with each stroke of a piston: the intake of air on one introduced into the inlet of the filter test system
side of the cylinder and the compression of air on
the other side. Fire Point
The temperature at which vapours will continuously
Drain valve burn.
A device designed to remove surplus liquid from the
compressed air system. First law of thermodynamics
The amount of work done on or by a system is equal
Dry Bulb Temperature to the amount of energy transferred to or from the
Dry bulb temperature is the ambient air temperature. system.

Glossary
Flash Point Impeller

Refers to the temperature at which oil will give off The rotating element of a centrifugal compressor
vapours that will ignite briefly when exposed to a that develops velocity head.
flame.
Friction Inlet Filter
Surface resistance to relative motion, which slows A device that removes impurities from air before it
down movement and causes heat enters a compressor.
Full load Instrument air

Achieved when the air compressor is running at full A quality of compressed air for use with pneumatic
RPM with a fully opened inlet and discharge, instruments and controls. (usually dry and free from
delivering the maximum volume at the rated contaminants)
pressure
Intercooler
Heat of compression A cooler used to cool air that leaves one
Almost all the input energy in the form of electricity is compression stage before it enters another
rejected in the form of heat. Heat can be recovered compression stage. Only found in multi-stage
by the customer in the form of hot air or water. If the compressors. Reduces temperature, volume and
heat is not recovered, then you must have liquefies condensable vapours.
ventilation.
Irreversible Process
Heat Transfer Coefficient (K) (See Process, Irreversible)
A property of a material that indicates how well the
material conducts heat. Isentropic Process
(See Process, Isentropic)
Hertz (Hz)
The electrical term for a cycle. ISO
International Organization for Standardization
Humidity
Isothermal compression
Humidity deals with moisture (water vapour) in the
Is a compression in which the temperature of a gas
atmosphere.
remains constant
Irreversible Process
Isothermal Process
Irreversible process is one in which a portion of the
Isothermal process is one in which there is no
original system energy is dissipated and cannot be
change in temperature.
returned to the system through its own operation.
The system and/or surroundings cannot be returned
Latent Heat
to their original state.
Heat added to or removed from a substance that
does not result in a change in temperature of the
Isentropic Process,
substance. This only occurs when the
Isentropic process is one wherein the entropy
substance is in the process of changing phase to or
remains constant.
from a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
ICFM - Inlet Cubic Feet per Minute
Latent Heat of Condensation
Indicates the volume of air drawn into the
The amount of heat lost when a substance changes
compressor inlet. The volume is based on the
from a vapour to a liquid.
pressure, temperature and humidity conditions of the
intake air and may not be 100% of FAD as machine
Latent Heat of Evaporization
losses are excluded.
The amount of heat that causes a substance to
change from a saturated liquid to a vapour.
Ideal gas
Is a gas that follows the perfect gas laws without
Limiting Ambient Temperature (LAT)
deviation. There is no such thing, however it is the
The highest ambient temperature in which the
basis from which calculations are made and
compressor can operate at full load without
corrections applied
exceeding the limiting temperature.

Glossary
Load factor Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)

Ratio between the compressor rated capacity and A value derived from the heat transfer coefficients of
the customers required capacity. It is unwise to all materials through which heat must be transferred
select a compressor, which exactly matches in a heat exchanger. This value indicates how well
maximum demand. One more tool or an air leak will the heat exchanger transfers heat.
result in loss of pressure.
Polytropic Process
Modulating control Polytropic process is one in which changes in gas
Compressor controls will run the compressor at characteristics during compression are considered.
varying loads to accommodate demand variations by Piston
modulating the inlet valve. Running a compressor at The component that moves back and forth in the
less than full load results in a drop in compressor cylinder that compresses the air in a reciprocating
efficiency and thus an increase in operating costs. compressor.
MPV Positive- Displacement Compression

Minimum Pressure Control Valve is used Compression that occurs when a quantity of air
predominantly on contact cooled rotary compressors occupies a space and is mechanically reduced.
and it is a combination minimum pressure valve and Such compression results in a corresponding
check valve. increase in pressure.
Moisture Separator Pour Point

A device used to remove liquid moisture from steam The lowest temperature at which a liquid remains
in a boiler or from compressed air. pourable. (meaning it still behaves as a fluid)
Molecules Prefilter
Molecules are the tiny particles, which form various An air filter used for its high efficiency to remove fine
substances. For example, air is composed of many oil mist, water, and dirt after leaving the compressor.
billions of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide
molecules. Pressure
Pressure is the force exerted on an object by
Multi-stage Compressor something else. For example, when pressing a tack
A compressor in which the air is compressed in into the wall, you are exerting pressure on the wall
several stages. through the tack.
Nm³/min Process
This refers to cubic meters of air at normal A process occurs whenever the system undergoes
conditions of 1.013 bar, 0°C and dry (0% RH). Mass either a change in state or an energy transfer at a
flow under all conditions of operation, essential to steady state. (See State)
have competent selection (frequently
misunderstood) this is critical for process Reciprocating Compressor
applications. A compressor that relies on the back-and-forth
motion of a piston within a cylinder to compress air.
Nominal micron rating
The nominal micron rating usually means the filter Relative Humidity
can capture a given percentage of particles of the Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual water
stated size. For example, a filter might be said to vapour in the air compared to the maximum possible
have a nominal rating of 98%, 10 microns. vapour at the same temperature. Usually expressed
in percent.
Oil free compressor
Oil-free: The term generally applies to the condition Reversible Process
of the air either when it leaves the compressor, or Reversible process is an ideal process that may be
after filtration. An oil-free compressor will have no stopped and made to retrace its steps and restore to
lubrication on the compression side of the machine. the system or surroundings all work and heat
However this may not result in oil-free compressed previously removed. It is frictionless.
air.

Glossary
Safety Valve There are regulations and standards of some

A device used to quickly relieve excessive pressure countries which require a service factor.
in air systems. The NEMA and EEMAC Standards, for instance,
require for TEFC motors (IP 44) a service factor of
Saturation 1.0 and for ODP motors a service factor of 1.15.
Saturation occurs when the vapour is at the Sometimes it can happen, that customers require
dewpoint or saturation temperature corresponding to other service factors. In these cases special
its partial pressure. A gas is never saturated with a measures are necessary.
vapour. The space occupied jointly by the gas and
vapour may be saturated, however. Isentropic Process,
Isentropic process is one wherein the entropy
Saturated Vapour Pressure remains constant.
Is the pressure existing at a given temperature in a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
closed vessel containing a liquid and the vapour A type of surface heat exchanger that uses tubes
from that liquid after equilibrium conditions have and tube sheets to separate the two fluids in the
been reached. It is dependent only on temperature shell.
and must be determined experimentally. The
condition in which air at a specific temperature Single-Acting Compressor
contains all the water vapour it can hold occurs at A compressor in which gas or air is only compressed
100% relative humidity. on the forward stroke of the pinion.
SCFM - Standard Cubic Feet per Minute Single Stage Compression

Refers to the volume of air produced by the Occurs when atmospheric pressure is increased to
compressor at a set of conditions agreed on by both final discharge pressure in one step, or stage, of
the buyer and the seller. Typically (but not always) compression.
SCFM conditions are listed as 14.7 psia, 60°F and
0% humidity. Remember at inlet temperatures Slippage
higher than 60°F and altitudes higher than sea level, This refers to the compressed air lost due to in-
air is dense. Accordingly, more ACFM will be efficiency in the design of the compressor. In a
required to produce a specified SCFM. reciprocating compressor, some of the air will seep
back past the gaps in the piston rings. In a screw
Sensible Heat compressor, some air will slip back through the
Heat added to or removed from a substance that small gaps which exist between the screw
changes the temperature of the substance. compressor rotors. This loss is called slippage
Service Factor Specific Humidity

Also named Overload Factor Specific humidity is the ratio of weight of water
Often a “Service Factor is indicated on the name vapour in an air- vapour mixture to the weight of dry
plate of the motor. This means that the motor can be air. It is usually expressed as pounds of vapour per
permanently overloaded. The maximum admissible pound of dry air.
rated output of the motor is calculated as follows:
Specific Power Consumption
Padm. = PN x Service Factor A quick and easy way of comparing compressor
Whereby: efficiencies. The total package power is divided by
the actual volume delivered at a specified pressure.
Padm. = admissible rated output It is usually expressed as " X " HP per 100 cfm or ‘Y”
PN = rated output of the motor kW per Cu Meters/hour
When operating continuously the motor with the
maximum admissible rated output normal operating State
conditions including the required tolerances are to State of a system (or part thereof) is its condition at
be considered, i.e. maximum coolant temperature, an instant of time as described or measured by its
rated voltage and rated frequency. properties.
The maximum permissible temperature rise can
sometimes be exceeded by 10K, by some motor Stroke
manufacturers. Each complete movement of the piston along the
length of the cylinder in a reciprocating air
compressor.

Glossary
Trap
A device that allows moisture to flow out of
components without allowing air or other gases to
escape.
Two Stage Compression

Occurs when the final discharge pressure is
developed using two steps. The first step increases
atmospheric pressure to approximately 30 psig
(20.7 bar) before being raised to the final discharge
pressure of approximately 125 psig (8.61 bar) in the
second stage.
A two-stage rotary airend improves performance by
reducing the pressure differential across the
leakage paths within the rotors and at the discharge
end plates.
Unload
The air compressor continues to run, but no air is
delivered to the system
Unloaded horsepower
The power that is consumed when operating in an
unloaded condition.
Valve
A component that is used to control the flow of
fluids through piping systems. Globe, gate,
butterfly, needle, and plug are all types of valves.
Viscosity
Property of a fluid demonstrating its resistance to
flow.
Volume
The space that contains an object. In the case of air
(or a gas) the volume of the container will tell you
the volume of the air. Volume is typically measured
in litres or millilitres.
Wet Bulb Temperature

Wet bulb temperature is used in psychrometry and
is the temperature recorded by a thermometer
whose bulb has been covered with a wetted wick
and whirled on a sling psychrometer. Taken with
the dry bulb, it permits determination of the relative
humidity of the atmosphere.
Wind
Wind is the movement of air from a higher pressure
zone to a lower pressure zone. This phenomenon
can be observed while opening a bottle of soda, the
compressed gas in the soda bottle escapes as the
bottle is opened which causes a small wind around
the opening for a second.


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Compressor Training

Ingersoll Rand Compressors

Electricity (Basic Theory)

The typical compression system

Rev. Nov 2007

Proprietary Notices and Disclaimer

CONFIDENTIAL AND TRADE SECRET INFORMATION. This manual contains confidential

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 3

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual

Always wear safety equipment that is appropriate

General work place safety:

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 1

Head protection Eye Protection

A Hardhat must be fitted properly and comply with

Webbing squarely 1 inch Clearance

You are uncertain about atmospheric conditions.

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 2

Electrical Hazards There have been suggestions that the maximum

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 3

General electrical safety: !

General pipe system safety: Whisper 10 to 20

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 4

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 5

9 After all tools have been removed from the

10 Restore the energy-isolating devices back to the

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 6

4 What is the purpose of lockout/tagout (LO/TO)?

5 What does Lock out / Tag out mean to you?

9 Describe some articles of clothing that are unsafe in an industrial workplace.

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 7

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual

In this section, you will learn Amusement parks

Why do we compress air?

Transmission of power for pneumatic tools. Molding, etc.

Basic Compressor Operation

A reciprocating air compressor

Type 30 Air Compressor,

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 1

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 2

The blowpipe is still used today, but is, of course, inadequate in

Compressed air technology very nearly ceased before it started.

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 3

The air compressor developed quickly from this point

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 4

1913 AD Centrifugal pumps added. First centrifugal compressor built.

1933 AD Two stage air cooled portable developed

1947 AD The first “big drill” built

1948 AD Centrifugal compressors transport natural gas

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 5

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 6

1 Name five processes where compressed air is used

2 What are two general groups of air compressors?

3 Rotary Compressor can be classified as a dynamic compressor

4 Centrifugal Compressor is a dynamic compressor which converts velocity into

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 7

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual

Rotary such as:

Ingersoll Rand Compressors

Reciprocating such as:

Oil Free Sierra Compressor

PET Star Reciprocating Compressor

Nirvana - Variable Speed Rotary Compressor

Compressor Fundamentals Training Manual Page 1