Engineering Failure Analysis 118 (2020) 104822

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Investigation of snow-induced collapse in Bozüyük market

T
Fikrat ALMahdia, , Adem Doğangüna, Fatih Gençb, Waheed Rasekha,
⁎

Mehmet Ömer Timurağaoğlua

a
Bursa Uludağ University Civil Engineering Department, 16059 Bursa, Turkey
b
FGS Engineering, Bursa, Turkey

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Heavy snowfall and frost are common phenomena in some areas of Turkey. Since it is an active
Snow seismic region, most engineering efforts focus on the impact of seismic loads. Meanwhile, the
Steel evaluation of structural and non-structural damages caused by snow loads are less of a concern.
Roof collapse Depending on region geographical characteristics, snow is considered one of the most critical
TS 498
loads, especially in the case of large spans industrial structures, sport facilities and malls. This
TS EN 1991-1-3
study investigates the snow induced failure of Bozüyük Market in Turkey. An evaluation of the
Push-down analysis
attributed reasons behind the reported collapse is provided. To investigate the critical regions of
the structural systems, a finite element model has been generated, linear and nonlinear static
push-down analysis are carried out for the collapsed portion of the structure of interest. The snow
load calculations are compared in regard to national standards TS 498 and TS EN 1991–1-3. It
has been found that the construction defects were the primary reason behind the partially failure
of the investigated roof. The paper highlights the urgent need to upgrade the national standards
regarding snow loads to go along with the changes in snowfall density and frequency due to
accelerated climate change.

1. Introduction

Extreme snowfall can cause a partial damage in the roof or may even a complete failure of structures. The snow induced damages
can be attributed to many factors including extreme snow fall, accumulating snow on the roof, surcharge load due to wind-snow
drifting, rain-on-snow mixes, and finally the design and construction deficiencies. Although, the snow induced failures are worldwide
notified, the reported learned lessons and investigations related to this field of interest can be considered less of a concern. The snow
induced failures can result in significant economic and societal impacts on businesses and communities as well. For instance, the
March 1993 snowstorm resulted in $200 million damages and caused business disruption in the southeastern United States [1]. In
March 2003, a most ever devastating blizzards occurred in Denver Colorado and the surrounding area. The registered economical and
societal losses were huge. According to the rocky mountain insurance information association, the personal claims from the storm
surpassed $93 million. This is along with buildings which were totally collapsed or unsafe to enter with significant structural damages
[2].
Most critical cases are noticed in industrial and market structures as well as shopping facilities [3]; where large span steel roofs
are constructed. If there is a defect in the design or details, these roofs will be heavily damaged or even destroyed. These damages,
which are usually local such as house roof damages, often lead to complete roof collapse. If the market roof falls down in peak times,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fikratalmahdi1@gmail.com (F. ALMahdi), adogangun@uludag.edu.tr (A. Doğangün).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2020.104822
Received 29 November 2019; Received in revised form 6 August 2020; Accepted 10 August 2020
Available online 14 August 2020
1350-6307/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. ALMahdi, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 118 (2020) 104822

many people may be injured or even die. In an industrial steel structure, the situation can be worse if valuable machines there become
inoperable. Therefore, snow-induced damages can cause serious life and financial losses with the later possibly lasting for many
years. It is found that in thousands of incidents around the world, snow accumulates after a heavy snowfall resulting in heavy
damages in structures and leading to partial or total collapse; where hundreds of people were injured and dozens died. Geis et al. [4]
carried out a study to investigate the snow induced failures in the united states and worldwide as well. The authors reported that 37%
of 1029 snow induced damaged buildings in the United States were of metal/steel construction in the time between 1979 and 2009.
Meanwhile, 53% of 91 worldwide buildings were metal/steel. The main cause of failure incidents were reported as extreme snowfall,
rain and snow mixes, and construction problems.
In 2004, another international collapse was reported in Germany. The snow induced failures in Bad Reichen hall Ice-Arena were
attributed to errors in structural calculations, deficient construction, as well as lack of maintenance [5]. On 28 January 2006, the
Katowice fair steel building collapsed in Poland. The roof was built as truss elements, and it was rested on 6 internal and 66 perimeter
columns in addition to perimeter walls. The engineering inspections revealed that the total collapse was due to the errors in ar­
rangement of the structure, deficient strength, the rigidity of main structural elements, and the overloading action of thick ice snow
layer [6]. In the spring of 2006, a roof collapsed under an extreme snow load over a vegetable market area in the Basmanny
Marketplace in Russia, killing at least 56 people [7]. In February 2010, snow induced damages were reported in many buildings in
Mid-Atlantic and New England states. Among them were an ice rink and corporate jet hangars at both Manassas Regional and Dulles
International Airports in Virginia [8].
Significant snow and frost disasters have also occurred in China in recent years. In 2005 Wei-hai of China was struck by a
devastating snowstorm. On that account, 16% of steel structures suffered substantial damages, and most of them were light-weight
steel structures. Two years later, in 2007 Tientsin of China encountered a snow disaster. Consequently, a significant number of roofs
of light-weight steel structures were collapsed. The damaged structures were workshops, warehouses, and markets. One year later in
2008 the south region of china was struck by a 50-year return period heavy snowstorm and most of the collapsed structures were
made up of steel [9].
Every year heavy snowfall in Turkey causes life and financial losses as well as heavy injures. In addition to being an active seismic
area, many snow induced damages are reported almost every year in Turkey; especially in the Eastern black sea region. In 2006,
Durmaz and Daloğlu developed a normalized 50-year ground snow load map for the eastern black sea region in order to provide an
update precise values of the ground snow loads in that region, hence to accurately estimate the roof snow load [10]. The authors
examined the results of their study along with the national standards. They concluded the shortage in the national TS 498 code which
provides unsafe design ground snow loads for most of the residential centers. According to the authors, the most fatal damage can be
expected in steel structures, where the potential error of the national standards TS 498 cannot even be tolerated using the factor of
safety which is provided via the national standards [11]. It was reported that in the case of steel roofs with a relatively less dead load
comparing with the design gravity loads; the dead load plus snow load would be designed with low safety factors. Hence, they cannot
resist the overloads caused by extreme snowfall [12]. In January 2015, the western regions of Turkey such as Bursa and its vicinity
were struck by a heavy snowfall. Although no life loss was registered, many losses were reported in vehicles, roofs of markets and
buildings especially those with long span roof such as factory buildings where the roof partially or completely collapsed. Some
examples of snow-induced failures of roofs are: the central market in Inegöl, the sport facility and a fuel station in Keles District, a
300-person capacity wedding hall, and a fuel station in Yenişehir District. There was also a significant loss in livestock where the
barns collapsed in Inegöl, Orhaneli, and Büyükorhan districts. on 25 October 2015, lateral buckling failures of laterally unrestrained
steel cantilever roof of a tribune with slender cross section were attributed to the snow induced damages in Turkey. The collapsed
structure is located in eastern part of Turkey. The failure was attributed to the extreme snowfall, inadequate section properties, and
deficient construction [13]. On the 1st of January 2016, hail protection canopies of a major car dealership collapsed due to snowfall
in Istanbul, Turkey. The site inspections and results of numerical analysis manifested that the hail protection canopies collapsed due
to a combination of improper design assumptions in regards to the extreme snow load. The indigent design and inefficient con­
struction of structural members as well as structural connections were demonstrated to be major reasons behind the reported collapse
[14].
It is worthy pointing the important role of snow risk assessment at the national and international level as well. Hence, the need to
upgrade the hazards related codes to satisfy the annually changing of natural hazards due to the accelerating climate change. One
example is the efforts of the federal emergency management agency (FEMA) team to assess the structural performance of four schools
in the Greater-Boston and Southern New Hampshire area. Due to deficiencies in the design process, the roofs of four schools were
collapsed in 2014–2015 winter under snow load. As a result FEMA P-957 report was developed including provisions and re­
commendations related to the snow induced damages of structures [15]. The presented review of literature herein confirms that the
snow induced damages bring out fatal problems that go beyond mere structural damages or disturbances in business.
This paper provides another case study of a steel roof collapse of a closed market in Bozüyük district, Bilecik city, in 2015. First of
all, the collapse mechanism of the steel roof system and the reasons behind it are investigated by evaluating the damages occurred
after the catastrophe. Later, using SAP2000, a finite element numerical model of one truss steel girder in the collapsed portion of the
steel roof of Bozüyük Closed Marketplace is generated, analysed, and evaluated according to the national standards TS 498 and TS EN
1991–1-3.

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Table 1
The roof shape coefficients and roof snow load values.
TS EN 1991–1-3 (2007) Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

1 23 23 – –
2 23 23 – –
µ1 ( 1) 0.8 – – –
µ1 ( 2) 0.8 – – –
µ2 ( ) – 1.41 – –
– – 23 23
µ1 – – 0.8 –
µ3 – – – 1.52
S (kN/ m̂ 2) 0.81 1.43 0.81 1.54

2. Snow Loads according to national standards

2.1. Snow loads calculation according to TS-498-1997 (case 1)

According to the national standards TS 498 (1997) [16], the effective snow load (kN) over 1 m2 of an inclined roof in a region with
unpreventable snowfall can be calculated as follows:
For > 30°, Pk = m.Pk0 . Thus,
30
Pk = 1 Pk0
40 (1)

Where Pk presents the effective snow load (kN/ ), presents the slope of the roof (degree), Pk0 presents the original snow load (kN/
m2
m2 ), and m is the scaling factor. However, when < 30°, Pk is obtained as follows Pk = Pk0 .
The values of Pk0 depends on the height of the structure from the sea level and the snow zone are provided in Table 1, as shown in
snow map, see Fig. 1. The fourth snow zone has the maximum potential height of accumulated snow. Considering the Bozüyük
Market, the effective snow load is equal to the original snow load since = 23° < 30°. It is located in the third snow zone at a height
of 740 m above sea level. Therefore, the value of effective snow load can be taken as Pk = 1.01 kN/m2 [16].

2.2. Snow load calculation according to the national standards TS EN 1991–1-3 (2007)

Snow loads are thoroughly discussed in Euro-code 1 [17], which is accepted as a national Standard [18]. According to this
standard, the design also takes into account that snow mass can be lumped differently on the roof. Roof characteristics or other
factors that cause the snow mass to lump differently on the roof can be summarized as follows: roof shape, thermal properties, surface
roughness, the degree of temperature which is generated under the roof, proximity of neighbouring buildings, surrounding terrain,

Fig. 1. Snow map of Turkey [16].

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Fig. 2. Roof shape coefficients and roof snow load values for cylindrical roof, cases 2 and 3.

and local meteorological climate characteristics. The most common reasons are wind, temperature change, and precipitation (rain or
snow) [19]. In "TS EN 1991–1- 3 (2007)", snow loads on roofs (S) shall be determined as follows:

(a) For the persistent/ transient design cases, S = µi Ce Ct Sk .

(b) For accidental design cases where exceptional snow load is the accidental action, S = µi Ce Ct SAD .
(c) For accidental design cases where exceptional snow drift is accidental action, S = µi Sk .

Where, µi is the coefficient of snow load shape. Sk is the characteristic value of snow load on the ground. SAD is the design value of
exceptional snow load on the ground for a given location. Ce is the exposure coefficient. Ct is the thermal coefficient.
The shifted roof of Bozöyük Market is cylindrical and multi span. So, Ce = 1, Ct = 1, and Sk = 1.01 kN/m2 . The roof shape coef­
ficients and roof snow load values in regards to the national standards TS EN 1991–1-3 (2007) are provided in Table 1 and Figs. 2 and
3.
The inspection of the collapsed roof has been done 2 months later after the catastrophe. Thus, there was no chance to specify any
information regarding the wet snow. When the roof collapsed, the thickness of the snow on the ground was 75 cm. According to TS
EN 1991–1-3 provisions, the weight per unit volume of snow is 2.0 kN/m3 . The snow load on the ground was calculated as Pk0 =
Sk0 = 1.50 kN/m2 . The implemented values of snow load are estimated according to different load cases such as TS498 (Case 1) and
TS EN 1991–1-3 (Case 2, Case 3, Case 4, Case 5).

3. Description of the collapsed Bozüyük Closed Marketplace

Fig. 4 presents a 3D view of the Bozüyük Closed Marketplace as a whole. However, the analyzed model of interest is limited to one
steel truss girder of the collapsed portion of the roof.
The construction of ”Bozüyük” Closed Marketplace has been approved on 30th April, 2008. It was built as a single storey of
70.00 m x 198.55 m plan. The foundations and columns constituting the structural system were constructed as prefabricated re­
inforced concrete system and the roof as a vault steel system. The steel roof system is 70 m long. Thus, it was spanned by a truss
girders system. It consists of three 20 m wide space vault truss system and a single inclined truss in the transverse direction (see

Fig. 3. Roof shape coefficients and roof snow load values for cylindrical roof, cases 4 and 5.

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Fig. 4. The roof of single-story Bozüyük Market.

Fig. 4). The space purlin system was chosen with 9 m axle intervals. The vault steel trusses are supported on the prefabricated gusset
columns at + 6.00 m elevation. Reinforced concrete prefabricated columns are 50 cm × 50 cm square section. The gusset columns
which support the vault steel truss have dimensions of 40 cm x 50 cm. Using a steel plate, the roof is connected to the gusset columns
by means of 4 16 anchors (four bars 16 mm in diameter). The roof top cover is made up of double layers of metal sheet with stone
wool between the two layers. The weight of this roofing material is 0.15 kN/m2. The joints and the connections of the steel roof are
welded. A view of the market prior to the structural system demolition is shown in Fig. 5. The geometric properties of steel chords
which were used in the main trusses and purlins are given in Table 2.

4. Structural analysis

According to the field inspections, the main collapse started in the steel truss girders. Thus, the finite element model has been
generated for one steel truss girder of the collapsed portion of interest using SAP2000 as shown in Fig. 6. The detailed model for steel
truss girder is shown in Fig. 7. In order to ensure that the drift of the roof was designed accurately, linear and nonlinear push down
analysis are carried out considering the load cases in regard to TS 498 and TS EN 1991–1-3. Since the failure of the system is induced
because of construction defects in steel truss girders, three dimensional model is not included in the finite element analyses hence, it
is only given to visualize the system as a whole.
Tensile tests for steel elements were carried out on samples from the collapsed roof in Gebze laboratories of national Standarts
Institution (TSE). According to the results of mechanical test which showed that the minimum tensile strength was 359 MPa and the
minimum yield strength was reported as 298 MPa. The steel bearing system is selected to be St 37 of 235 MPa yield strength and
360 MPa tensile strength, as recommended in the codes. The allowable tension stress was 141 MPa.

Fig. 5. An inside view of Bozüyük Market before collapse.

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Table 2
Geometric properties of steel elements.
Sections of steel elements used in the main truss

Cross section Outer diameter (mm) Thickness (mm)

Top chord (3″) 88.9 5
Bottom chord (4″) 114.3 5
Top horizontal elements (2 1/2″) 76.1 4
Diagonal (2 1/2″) 76.1 4
Sections of steel elements used in purlins
Cross section Outer diameter (mm) Thickness (mm)
Top chord (1 1/4″) 42.4 4
Bottom chord (1 1/2″) 48.3 4
Top horizontal elements (3/4″) 26.9 3
Diagonal (1″) 33.7 3.25

Fig. 6. Finite element model of market structure.

Fig. 7. Finite element model of steel trusses.

4.1. Linear analysis

As shown in Fig. 8, in general, no deficiencies are detected in the design and detailing of the roof elements except the top chords in
the middle of the steel truss girder. In regards to the top middle chords, the yield stresses exceed the maximum allowable value.
Hence, this region form the initial failure of truss girder. According to the national building code for steel design TS 648 [20], the
maximum allowable vertical displacement is L/300, where L presents the length of the span. Thus, the maximum allowable dis­
placement for the truss girder in the discussed case study can be obtained as 20/300 = 0.067 m. Table 3 shows the values of max
displacement which occur in different nodes for different load conditions. The results show that the values of maximum displacement
do not exceed the recommended maximum allowable displacement.

4.2. Non-linear static push-down analysis

In order to detect the critical chords, as well as to investigate whether the collapse was induced due to improper cross sections and
material properties or due to construction defects; non-linear static push-down analysis is carried out under self-weight and uniformly
increasing vertical live loads. For nonlinear analysis, ASCE 41–13 auto-plastic hinges are modelled at both ends of all truss elements
[21].
Linear analysis reveals that the maximum displacement occurs under load case 1 for 1.5 (kN/ m̂ 2) snow load on the ground. Thus,
nonlinear static push-down analysis is carried out considering load case 1. Fig. 9 shows that the plastic hinges form first in the bottom

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F. ALMahdi, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 118 (2020) 104822

Fig. 8. Roof stresses under maximum permanent and moving loads.

Table 3
Maximum displacements under different load conditions for linear analysis.
Snow load on the ground (kN/ Provisions Load case Max displacement Q (mm) Max displacement G+Q (mm)
m2)

1.01 TS498 Case -1 10.18 11.69

TS EN Multi inclined-no accumulated Case -2 8.16 9.67
1991-1-3
Multi inclined- accumulated Case -3 9.41 10.92
Cylindrical-no accumulated Case -4 8.76 10.07
Cylindrical- accumulated Case -5 9.7 10.58

1.5 TS498 Case -1 15.11 16.62

TS EN Multi inclined- no Case -2 12.12 13.63
1991-1-3 accumulated
Multi inclined-accumulated Case -3 13.97 15.48
Cylindrical-no accumulated Case -4 13.01 14.32
Cylindrical-accumulated Case -5 14.4 15.15

Fig. 9. Plastic hinges of the collapsed steel girder.

right and left border chords of the steel truss girder. The generated forces exceed the critical buckling capacity. The maximum tensile
bearing capacity of the support anchors 4 16 is 189 kN. The results of nonlinear analysis are at the marginal values. However, if
there are 3 16 only in some supports, the case will even be worse.

5. Evaluation of snow-induced damages in Bozüyük market

According to AFAD (Ministry of Interior Disaster And Emergency Management Presidency) authorities, the approximate collapsed
area is 10 thousand meter square out of 13.5 thousand meter square the total area of the Bozüyük market place. Fig. 10 shows 3D
view of the collapsed steel roof where several parts of the roof collapsed. As shown in Fig. 11, the middle part of the truss girder was
broken. Some of the collapsed trusses were separated from their supports as shown in Fig. 12 below. Figs. 13 and 14 show the chords
which were ruptured at the mid span. Failure has occurred in the welded joints of the bottom chords of most broken trusses as well as

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F. ALMahdi, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 118 (2020) 104822

Fig. 10. Top view of collapsed Bozüyük Market under heavy snow load.

Fig. 11. Collapsed roof under heavy accumulated snow load.

Fig. 12. Collapsed trusses separated from their supports.

in chords of weak cross-sections. On the other hand, the shift of the roof resulted in severe bending on the concrete columns. Fig. 15
shows the observed damages in the prefabricated concrete columns due to the effect of the induced bending.
In summary, the design and construction deficiencies resulted in weak cross section due to the welded connections in the mid span
of the upper and bottom truss chords belts. These weak sections played a key role in the failure mechanism. The collapse of the roof
can be interpreted by two phases as shown in Fig. 16. In the first phase the top welded joints along with the welded connections at the
mid span of the bottom chords around the center of the steel truss girder underwent a rupture due to tension loads which were
induced by the extreme snowfall. In the second phase, the main steel truss girders split into two separated parts after the occurrence
of the rupture. The separated parts of the girders induced an extra bending forces on the supports (columns) as shown in Fig. 15-a,
hence the 4 16 anchors which connect the steel truss girders to the gusset columns failed to resist these extra bending forces. then,

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F. ALMahdi, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 118 (2020) 104822

Fig. 13. Broken bottom chords in steel truss.

Fig. 14. Bottom portion of broken steel trusses.

Fig. 15. Views of the bending induced damages in the prefabricated concrete columns.

the 4 16 anchors ruptured, see Fig. 17. Consequently, the supported columns tended to fracture inside the steel truss girder, see
Fig. 18. However, if there is any wall under the steel truss, the wall reverse the bending behavior of the supported columns to fracture
outside as shown in Fig. 15-b.

6. Conclusion

Based on the field inspections and numerical analyses, the following conclusion can be drawn and these recommendations can be
made:

(a) The investigated structure herein was subjected to a prime snow load that exceeded the TS 498 recommended value. As a natural
hazard, snowfall may exceed the load values which are specified in the national standards. Thus there is an urgent need to

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F. ALMahdi, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 118 (2020) 104822

Fig. 16. Failure mechanism of the collapsed steel roof.

Fig. 17. Split of steel trusses out of their supports (prefabricated concrete columns).

Fig. 18. Field observation for the failure mechanism of steel roof.

upgrade the regulations which are related to the natural hazards. For example, the structures designed using the (Geographic
information system) GIS-based snow load map is most durable against the imperfections of snow load in the region [22].
(b) The results of linear and nonlinear analyses show that TS EN 1991–1-3 standard seems to be more detailed than TS498 standards
in regards to snow load in Turkey.
(c) In terms of displacement, the linear analysis reveals that the Bozüyük Market is safe but with a marginal limit values. Meanwhile,
considering stresses, the top middle chords exceed the yield stress. The critical elements seem to be at the top middle chords of
the steel truss girder. Considering push-down analysis, plastic hinges are formed at the corner supports as well as at the mid span
of analyzed girder. As a result, the analyses findings come in the same line with the damage evaluation and satisfy the proposed
failure mechanism.
(d) The inspection of broken elements indicates that the failure occurred in the welded joints and connections, thus the failure in the
supports coincides with the major shatter in the anchors. Those field inspections come in the same line with the results of the

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performed push down analyses herein where the broken elements experience limit state values. Other local construction defects
were observed in some elements due to partial corrosion there.
(e) Due to the impact of accelerating global climate change on the frequency, activity, and pattern of snowfall, there is an urgent
need to do annually inspection on the unengineered structures as well as the structures of high risk portability of failure due to
extreme snowfall.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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