 Introduction

 What is structural design?

 Conventional vs. optimum structural design
 Wind load on buildings
 Structural forms (lateral load resisting systems)
 Rigid-frame and braced-frame
 Shear wall and coupled shear wall
 Wall-frame
 Outrigger
 Concluding remarks

2
 In a construction project, various designs are
required.
 Architectural design
 Structural design
 Building services (E & M) design
 Etc.
 What is structural design?

3
The capacity of the The effects (e.g.,
structure in bending moment)
resisting the effects induced by the actions
of actions. (e.g., wind load)

Rd  Ed
Design resistance  Design action effect

Design values: After the consideration of the reliability!!

4
 Loss of Failure of structure The structure
static or structural cannot function
equilibrium member (Stiffness)
(Stability) (Strength)

Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

5
 A design MUST:
 Fulfill all client’s requirements!
 A good design MUST have a balance among:
 Functional efficiency
 Value of money
 Long term maintenance costs
 Buildability
 Aesthetically pleasing
 Definition: Structural design is an optimization process of
all aspects of a client’s brief. It requires the integration of
all the requirements to produce a whole that is efficient,
economic and aesthetically acceptable.
6
 Structure is a
collection of
structural
elements for
safety transfer the
applied loads to
the foundation.
 Typical structural
elements are …

7
 Transfer of applied
actions (or loads) to the
foundation.
 What is the load path for
vertical load?
 What is the load path for
lateral load?
 For wind load from other
directions, is the
structure stable? Why?

http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/~/pmoze/esdep/master/wg14/toc.htm
8
 The main aim of structural design is to avoid structural failures.
 Structural failure is not only about collapse. When the structure
cannot function in the required way, it is failure.
 Overall stability failure (e.g., movement of retailing wall)
 Material overstress failure of individual members (e.g., crashing of
concrete and yielding of steel)
 Instability failure of individual members (buckling of members)
 Joint failure
 Functional failure (e.g., insufficient clearance due to large size of
structural elements)
 Serviceability failure (e.g., excessive deflection or vibration)
 Structural robustness for preventing progressive collapse
becomes more and more important.
9
 Building Regulations are part of the law of the land.
 In HK, we follow CAP123B Building (Construction)
Regulations.
 Codes of practice are guidance to help designers in
meeting the Building Regulations.
 In HK, we follow Codes of practice, Design manuals and
Guidelines published by the Buildings Department.
 [http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/index_crlist.html]

10
 The designer’s experience and
intuition can go into making
conceptual changes in the
system or to make additional
specifications in the procedure.
 The designer may find it
difficult to decide whether to
increase or decrease the size of
a particular structural element
to satisfy the constraints.

11
 This is a relatively new design
concept taking advantages of the
advances in computer technology.
 The design process (especially in the
design of the sizes of structural
elements) is formulated as an
constrained optimization problem.
 This optimization problem is then
solved by numerical minimization
algorithms to obtain a economical
and feasible design.

12
 Design the two
members (1 and 2)
truss with lengths 20
and 10 mm, respectively,
under the action of a
horizontal load F = 10 N.
 The design requirement
is that the horizontal
deflection at the joint
must be smaller than or  Given: E = 100 N/mm
equal to 0.1mm. (arbitrary selected for
easy calculation)
13
 By energy method (or matrix stiffness method), one can
calculate the horizontal displacement as:
8 1
 
3 A1 3 A2
 Arbitrary try A1 = A2 = 1 mm2, the displacement is 3mm,
which is 30 times larger than the design requirement.
 By conventional design method, one may try to increase
the area by 30 times.
 For a design A1 = A2 = 30 mm2, the displacement is 0.1mm,
which satisfy the design requirement.
 Is it a good design?
14
 The design variables are A1 and A2.
 To obtain an economical design, the total volume of
construction material is to be minimized. The objective
function is:
f  A1 , A2   20 A1  10 A2

 The constraint is the design requirement:

8 1
   0.1
3 A1 3 A2

 This is the optimization problem to be solved.

15
 To express in standard optimization format, we have:
 Minimize:
f A   20 A1  10 A2
 Subject to:

g A  
8 1
  0.1  0
3 A1 3 A2

1 mm 2  A1  100 mm 2 and 1 mm  A2  100 mm

2 2

 where  A1 
A 
 A2 
16
 For this simple example, one may solve this optimization
problem analytically.
 Assuming that the design requirement is activated in the
constrained minimization, we have:
8 1 A1
  0 .1  A2 
3 A1 3 A2 0.3 A1  8

 Substitute it into the objective function, we have:

f  A1   20 A1  10 A1 0.3 A1  8
1

17
 By calculus:
df  A1 
 20  10 A1 0.3 A1  8 0.3  100.3 A1  8  0
2 1

dA1

 1.8 A12  96 A1  1200  0

100 50
 A1   A2 
3 3
or A1  20  A2  10 (rejected)

18
 The optimum design is: A1 = 33.33 mm2 and A2=16.67 mm2.
 The corresponding volume of required construction
material is:
 100 50  100 50 2500
f ,   20  10   833.33 mm3
 3 3 3 3 3

 When compared to the result of convention design: A1 =

A2= 30 mm2 (with volume 900 mm3), the optimum design
method results in a design with lower cost in construction
materials.

19
20
 80
volum
e = 14
00
70
volum
e = 13
00
60
volum
e = 12
00
50
volum
e = 11
00
2

40
A

volum
e = 10
00
30
volum
e = 90
0
20
volum
e = 80
0
10
volum
e = 70
0
0
28 30 32 34 36 38
A1
21
 80

70

60

50
2

40
A

30 volum
e = 833
.3333
8/(3A1 )+1/(3A 2 ) < 0.1
20

10

0
28 30 32 34 36 38
A1
22
 Expressing the optimum structural design in standard
optimization formulation:
 subject to: min f  x  Total volume of structural
x
members

 where: gi  x   0, for i  1, ,m Strength and stiffness

design requirements
h j  x   0, for j  1, ,p Other design
requirements
xkl  xk  xku , for k  1, ,n Limitation in structural
member dimensions
x   x1 xn  Dimensions of structural
T
x2
members
23
 Sensitive to the quality of the computer model of the
target structure.
 Formulate a design problem into an optimization problem
is not easy (i.e., define the design variables, the objective
function and the corresponding design constraints).
 Discrete optimization algorithm is usually needed.
 The optimization problem is nonlinear and there is no
guarantee the solution to be the global optimum.
 Computational time required!

24
 What are the important factors to be considered in the
design of tall buildings?
 Architectural criteria
 Building services
 Strength and stability (this is controlling for low-rise)
 Stiffness and draft limitation* (this is essential for tall building)
 Creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects
 Foundation settlement and soil-structure interaction

25
 Deflections (serviceability limit states) must first be
maintained at a sufficiently low level to allow the proper
functioning of non-structural components, such as
elevators and doors.
 Large deflection will:
 Generate excessive cracking and consequent loss of stiffness
 Distribute load to non-load-bearing partitions, infills, cladding
 The structure must be sufficiently stiff to prevent dynamic
motions becoming large enough to cause discomfort to
occupants, or affect sensitive equipment.

26
 w

The primary function of a building

w0
 w

is to safely transfer the vertical load

2w0
w

at each floor to the foundation. 3w0

w

 If the effects of horizontal load is w

neglected, the effect of vertical load

…
w

increases linearly with respect to w

the building height (story number w

N). w

w
Nw0

27
 P

Unavoidable, buildings are

L
 P

subjected to lateral load, such as

L
P

wind load and seismic load.

L
P
L

 The effect of horizontal load P

L

increases with respect to the P

L

building height MUCH FASTER!

P
L
P
 For tall building design, horizontal P
L

load controls (or deflection P

L

control)! L

P  L   P  2L   P  NL   PL 1  2   N

 PL
 N  1 N
2
28
 This is known as the
Premium for height
as defined by Fazlur
Khan (1969).
 To develop
horizontal-force
resisting system
became an
important topic in
tall building design.

29
 “Wind effects on structures” is a very sophisticated
science. Wind codes adopted the quasi-static wind load,
which is a significant simplification of the real situation.
The “wind load” given in the code only provide a mean for
carrying out the structural design.

(extracted from Mendis et al. 2007)

30
 • 3-second
mean (gust)
wind speed
• 10-minute
mean wind
speed
• 1-hour
mean wind
V  z, t   V  z   v  z, t 
speed

http://www.climate.washington.edu/stormking/StormRanksASOSadjusted.html
31
 Different wind code consider different mean wind profiles.

V  z  The exponent () is determined
 
Vr  zr  empirically (based on measurement).

• Different
terrains have
different mean
wind profiles.
• HK has only
ONE terrain!!
(extracted from Mendis et al. 2007)
32
 The design wind pressure at a given height z can be
calculated from the design wind speed at that height vz
(m/s) as:
1
qz   vz2
2

 where  is the density of air = 1.2 kg/m3 in HK wind code.

 Different wind codes use different design wind speed. In
HK, the 3 second gust wind speed is used.
 When you are required to use an overseas Wind Code to
do design, you MUST be very careful (try not to do this)!

33
• Check if the target building needs dynamic analysis!

34
35
36
 x

37
 The force coefficient Cf = Ch  Cs
 where Ch is the height aspect factor (from Table D1) and
Cs is the shape factor (from Table D2).

38
39
40
41
 Calculate the design base shear
and bending moment due to
wind (in both directions).
 This is a 6-story building (4m
story height).
 There are 3 bays along x and 5
bays along y (6m bay width).

42
 Lateral load (wind and seismic actions) is essential for tall
building, and the design of an appropriate lateral load
resisting system is the responsibility of structural
engineers.
 Various structural forms of lateral load resisting system
are first briefly introduced, and the corresponding analysis
will be covered one by one in the following weeks.

43
 This kind of buildings is formed by a series of frames, which consists
of rigidly connected beams and columns.

44
 Rigid frame resists horizontal load by the bending action
of beams and columns. Beam-column connections must
be rigid.
 The construction cost for
connections increases.
 Structural behavior depends
very much on the
workmanship of the joints.
 Relatively weak horizontal
force resistance.
 This is called sway frame.

45
 Bracing system (steel) is very
effective to resist horizontal load.
This kind of building frames is
usually called non-sway frames.
 However, braces usually block the
view.

46
 The bracing system acts as a
vertical cantilever truss to provide
lateral resistance to the building.
 The diagonal members (i.e.,
braces) work together with the
beams (or girders) to form the
“web” of the vertical truss.
 The columns act as the “chords”.
 Steel braces are usually designed
as tension members (like cables).

47
 Various types of
bracing systems.
 The eccentric
types make it Single diagonal Vertical Eccentric
possible to have bracing K-bracing K-bracing
openings, but they
are less efficient
from the structural
viewpoint.
Double diagonal Horizontal Eccentric
bracing K-bracing diagonal bracing

48
 Panels are infilled by
brickwork or blockwork.
 The infill behaves as a
strut along its compression
diagonal.
 The infills serve also as
external walls or internal
partitions.
 It can be used for
buildings up to 30 stories

49
 Under seismic
load, the infills
may introduce
large shear
force onto the
column due to
the horizontal
component of
the equivalent
strut.

50
51
52
 The in-plane stiffness of shear wall
is very high (much higher than
rigid-frame)!
 Each shear wall works as a vertical
cantilever.
 Under the rigid floor action,
individual shear walls can be
linked together.
 If the wall arrangement is not
symmetrical on plan about the
axis of loading, the twisting effect
must be considered.
53
 Coupled shear wall
consists of two or more
shear walls in the same
plane connected at the
floor levels by coupling
beams (i.e., lintel beams).
 The horizontal stiffness of
the coupled walls is much
greater than if the walls
acted as a set of separated
vertical cantilevers.

54
 Coupled shear wall structures are very popular for hotels.
 Walls can be used to separate rooms (or apartments).

55
 A combination of shear
walls and rigid frames.
They are linked by the
rigid floor action!

56
 In common design practice, it is assumed that:
 Shear walls or cores resist all lateral loading, and
 Frames take gravity loading only.
 Shear walls tend to deflect in a flexural configuration, and
rigid frames tend to deflect in a shear mode.
 In a wall-frame structure, shear walls and rigid frames are
constrained to adopt a common deflected shape by
horizontal rigidity of beams and slabs.
 The walls and frames interact (especially at the top) to
produce a stiffer structure.

57
Shear walls Rigid-frame Shear wall-frame
58
 If RC must be used, shear wall is
the best solution for resisting
horizontal load.
 It is usually used as the lift core
(or called core wall).
 Example: 311 South Wacker
Drive (75 stories), Chicago, USA.
 This system is efficient for
buildings up to 70 stories with
carefully arrangement of the
shear walls.

59
 The tube is formed by closely spaced columns joined by
deep beams at the perimeter of the building!

60
 A well-known and typical example
of framed tube building is the
World Trade Center, which
collapsed on 11 September 2001.

61
 The lateral load is entirely resisted by the tube.
The gravity load is shared between the tube
and interior columns.

62
 The tube works like a hollow section.
 Under lateral actions, the perimeter
frames aligned in the loading direction
act as the “webs” while those normal
to the loading direction act as the
“flanges”.
 The close spacing of columns is
unacceptable at the entrance level.
Therefore, they are usually merged (or
terminated on a transfer beam) a few
stories above the base.

63
64
 The framed-tube system is almost perfect! Except …
 The non-uniform longitudinal displacement of the flange
results in a non-uniform axial stress distribution. This is
the well-known “shear lag” effect.
 The shear lag effect
reduces the efficiency of
the system by increasing
the stress concentration
at the flange web
junction.

65
 By adding diagonal bracing to the
tube faces, the shear lag effects
can be eliminated.
 The spacing of columns can be
increased.
 Typical example is the John
Hancock Centre at Chicago (100
stories, 344 m height).

66
 The bracing system can be
provided using steel.
 For reinforced concrete
tube, the bracing system
can be provided by
omitting windows in
appropriate positions.

67
 Integrating several tubes
(usually with different
height) together.
 The internal “web” helps in
eliminating the shear lag
problem.
 The reduction in floor area
at the top also help in
increasing the total building
height.
 The bundled-tube usually
works with outrigger.
68
 This structural form consists of
a central core (braced frames
or shear walls) with horizontal
cantilever trusses or girders
(“outrigger”) connecting the
core to the outer columns.
 This is one of the most
efficient lateral force resisting
systems.
 Most of the supertall buildings
adopted this approach.

69
70
CTF Finance Centre Shanghai World Financial Center
71
 International Commerce Centre

72
73
 When the central core is
rotated due to lateral load, the
tension and compression axial
forces in the outer columns
against the rotation through
the outrigger.
 The efficiency can be increased
by using multilevel of
outriggers.
Compression

74
 The interaction between the
outriggers at different levels
help in reducing the horizontal
deflection of the system
significantly.

75
 The disadvantage of this
system is that several
floors of the building
MUST be reserved to
work as a “outrigger”
truss!
 The mechanical floors will
do!
 In other floors, the
usable floor area is large!

76
 Burj Khalifa, Dubai with 828 m height and 160
stories. [Bundled tube + outrigger]

77
78
79
80
 Floor plan of typical office buildings.

81
 Floor plan of typical residential buildings.

82
 The basic concepts of conventional and optimum design
methods were introduced.
 Basic calculation of wind load on building is covered. More
detail use of HKWC2004 will be introduced in Part 3 of the
course.
 Particular considerations in tall building design were
covered.
 A selected list of structural forms for lateral force resisting
systems commonly used in tall (or supertall) building
design is discussed.
 Detail analysis of each structural form will be given in the
following weeks.
83
Thank you!!

84