SPECIALIST MATHEMATICS DI: THE

MATHEMATICS OF TENNIS
BY TONY NGO

INTRODUCTIONS

Tennis is a racquet sport that can be played one versus one (singles) or
two versus two (doubles). In the case of tennis superstar Michael
Black and retiree Tony Pettas, the investigation will be based on the
rules of a singles game. Michael Black and Tony Pettas wish to
embark on an intense competitive tennis match one on one.

With the help of racquets, the players are able to exert a high
magnitude of force on the rubber ball and hit it over the net in the
middle, and into the opponent’s area.

A singular rally in a tennis match starts off with a “serve”, this is

where one player starts off with a ball and (is required to) hit it into
the service area of the opponent on the opposite side on its first
bounce.

The trajectory of the ball can be modelled with parametric equations.

Applications of vectors, differential calculus, and simultaneous
equations can be used to manipulate these parametric equations into a
“desirable serve” such that the server can assume an advantageous
position.

PART A - ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFIC MODEL GIVEN

While practising their tennis Michael serves the ball from the baseline down the centre line to Tony, such that the path is
x (t ) and y (t) , the horizontal and vertical distances in metres, t seconds after the serve. Also
represented by the equations for
x (t)=30t and y (t)=3 – 3 t – 4.9 t 2 t ≥ 0 sec .

Since the horizontal and vertical positions of the ball can be calculated with respect to time, the initial position of the ball is
given when no time has passed. Therefore, the initial position is given when t=0 . 0 is substituted into t for both parametric
equations.

For the initial horizontal position of the ball:

x ( 0 )=30∗0¿ 0

For the initial vertical position of the ball:

y ( 0 )=3−3∗0−4.9∗02¿ 3

Knowing that s ( 0 )= [ x ( 0 ) , y ( 0 ) ] , the displacement vector concerning the initial position of the ball is

s ( 0 )=[0 ,3 ]

In the context of the game, the ball was served 3 metres up from the ground and 0 metres from the baseline of the court.

The vector of the rate of change in vertical and horizontal displacements over time, or the velocity vector, can be found by
differentiating the parametric equations of the displacement of the ball in respect to time.
Given that v ( t )=[x ' ( t ) , y ' ( t ) ], differentiating x (t ) with respect to t gives:

x ( t )=30 t x ' ( t )=(1) 30 t 1−1 x ' ( t )=30 t 0 x ' ( t )=30

Differentiating y (t) with respect to t gives:

y ( t ) =3−3 t−4.9t 2 y ' ( t )=3 ( 0 )−( 1 ) 3 t 1−1−( 2 ) 4.92−1 y ' ( t )=3−9.8 t

Therefore, the velocity vector can be expressed as:

v ( t )=[30 , 3−9.8 t]

… and so, the (individual) horizontal and vertical speeds of the ball t seconds after Michael serves the ball can be found; hence,
the horizontal and vertical speeds of which the ball was served at can be found by substituting zero into t once again.

v ( 0 )=[30 , 3−9.8 (0)]v ( 0 )=[30 , 3]

The total velocity (resultant of the vertical and horizontal velocities) can be found by the modulus of the velocity vector.

|v ( 0 )|=√ 302 +32¿ √ 909≈ 30.15

Therefore, at the instant the ball is served, it travels at approximately 30.15 m s−1,

Remember that for a serve to be valid, the ball must pass over the net and land in the opposite service area, which is between
the net and the opposite service backline. The service backline is 6.401 metres away from the net, which means that the
horizontal displacement of the ball as it first lands: must be between x ( t )=11.887 (the position of the net) and
x ( t )=11.887 +6.401=18.288 metres.

Let the value of t for when the ball first lands be t land . This is when the ball is at ground level, meaning y ( t land ) =0.

∴ 3−3 t land −4.9 t 2land =0

∴−4.9 t 2land −3 t land +3=0

y (t) is a quadratic equation, meaning t land can be solved by using the quadratic formula:
2
−b ± √ b2−4 ac −(−3)± √ (−3 ) −4(−4.9)(3) 3 ± 9+58.8 3 ± 67.8
t land = t land = t land = √ t land = √
2a 2(−4.9) −9.8 −9.8
11.234 −5.2340
t land = ∨ t ≈−1.15∨0.534 ∵ t ≥ 0 ,∴ t land ≠ 3+ √ 67.8 ∴ t land = 3− √ 67.8 ≈ 0.534
−9.8 −9.8 land −9.8 −9.8

3− √67.8
This means that the ball first touches the ground at t= . This value can be substituted into the equation for x (t ) to
−9.8
find the horizontal distance at the point of the ball landing:

x ( t )=30 t x ( 3−−9.8
√ 67.8 =30 3− √ 67.8 ≈ 16.022
) ( −9.8 )
This value can be checked with the predetermined domain. Remember that the horizontal distance must be between
x ( t )=11.887 (the position of the net) and x ( t )=11.887 +6.401=18.288 metres. Since 11.887< 16.022< 18.288, the
serve is valid as it first lands within the service area.
The ball must pass over the net, which is, again, 11.887 metres away horizontally from the service line. Let the value for t for
when the ball passes over the net be t pass. Therefore:

x ( t pass ) =11.887

11.887
Now, t pass can be found. 30 t pass =11.887t pass=
30

For the ball to pass over the net, y (t pass ) must be over the given net height, which is 0.9 metres.

11.887 11.887 2 11.887 11.887

y ( t ) =−4.9 t 2−3 t +3 y ( 30 )
=−4.9
30 ( −3 ) (
30
+3y
30 ) (
≈ 1.042 )
This means that when the ball passes over the net, the ball is 1.042 metres off the ground, which is 1.042−0.9=0.142
metres above the net. With this, and the ball’s first landing being in the service area, the serve is ultimately valid.

ASSUMPTIONS:

It is assumed that the only forces that had acted on the ball was the natural gravitational acceleration of the Earth, and the
server’s racquet itself. However, in the real world, this is not true as there are factors such as air resistance and drag force that
will oppose the motion of the object. If they were considered in this model, then any distances in the trajectory, whether vertical
or horizontal, would have been lowered.

LIMITATIONS:

There were only two parametric displacement equations, meaning there were only two dimensions. Due to this, the validity of
the serve could not be properly determined, as the service area has a predetermined width, and the ball must land in this width
for it to be valid. The two existing parametric equations do not consider width; only length and height. Furthermore, a proper
game of tennis should involve running around from side to side and hitting the ball diagonally. Since there is a lack of a third
dimension, this cannot happen with the existing model and hence Michael and Tony cannot participate in a competitive of
tennis.

Though it was labelled as a ‘game’ of tennis, only the initial serve was considered. Adding more parametric equations which
dictate the motion of the ball after this initial serve could reduce this limitation.

PART B – ANALYSIS OF THE GENERAL MODEL

By removing the fixed coefficients/constants of the parametric equations in Part A, a general model of the motion of the ball can
be examined. The horizontal and vertical displacement equations of the ball are given by x ( t )= At + B and y ( t ) =a t 2 +bt +c
respectively, where A, B, a, b, c are constants, and t ≥ 0 . Again, since t represents the time in seconds, the displacement of the
ball can be found if given t .

Knowing that s ( 0 )= [ x ( 0 ) , y (0) ], the initial position, or the displacement vector of the ball when it is served ( t=0 ) is given by
substituting 0 into the parametric equations, similarly to Part A.

x ( 0 )=B y ( 0 )=cs ( 0 )= [ B , c ]

This means that the horizontal position of the ball as it is served is B metres, and the initial vertical position of the ball is c
metres.

Again, by differentiating the parametric equations of the displacement of the ball with respect to time ( t ), the velocity vector
(which is rate of change of displacement over time), and hence the velocity of the ball as it is served can be found, knowing that
v ( 0 )=[ x ' ( 0 ) , y ' ( 0 )] and v 0=¿ v ( 0 )∨¿.

Differentiating x (t ) with respect to t :

x ( t )= At + B x ' ( t )= A

Differentiating y(t) with respect to t:

y ( t ) =a t 2 +bt +c y ' ( t )=2 at +b

Finding the velocity vector:

v ( 0 )=[ A ,2 a ( 0 )+ b ] v ( 0 )=[ A , b]

The horizontal velocity is A metres per second. The vertical velocity is b metres per second. Again, the total initial velocity can be
found via the modulus of vector v(0).

|v ( 0 )|=√ A2 +b 2
Hence, the speed of the ball as it is served is √ A 2 +b2 metres per second.
The parametric equations can be plotted into Desmos, with varying coefficients/constants such that the changes to the shape of
the trajectory are able to be investigated. Using the

x ( t )=30 t

y ( t ) =−4.9 t 2−3 t +3

To graph a parametric equation into Desmos, it is inputted like this:

( x (t ) , y (t ))
Both horizontal and vertical displacement equations are calculated with a common parametric t , hence it can be expressed into
Desmos as:

¿(30 t ,−4.9t 2−3 t +3)

In the context of the equations used for the general model:

 A=30
 B=0
 a=−4.9
 b=−3
 c=3

B and c are merely just horizontal and vertical translations of the equations (respectively), as they are constants with no
parametric attributed to it (no t ). c determines the
y -coordinate of where the trajectory starts, and B determines the x -
coordinates of where the trajectory starts.
Changing A:

Original A=30 Decreased A=10

Increased A=50
Here, it can be seen that A affects the horizontal displacement; in fact, A determines the magnitude of horizontal velocity
'
solely, with x ( t ) (the velocity vector) being equal to A . It can be seen that decreasing the horizontal velocity by 20 drastically
“compresses” the trajectory horizontally and reduces the horizontal distance; so much so, that it cannot pass over the net which
is shown by the red line. It can also be seen that increasing the horizontal velocity by 20 drastically “stretches” the trajectory
horizontally and increases the horizontal distance. All in all, A is the primary factor in deciding the horizontal velocity, and
hence, distance travelled by the ball.

Changing a:

Original a=-4.9 Decreased a=-6.9

Increased a=-2.9

It can be seen that a affects the vertical velocity of the ball, it takes a slower time to fall to the ground as a is increased, and a
faster time to fall to the ground as it is decreased. This is shown by the x -coordinate of the ball, as it lands, varying even though
the value of A (horizontal velocity) is unchanged from 30. This is because a is the value that is responsible for vertical
acceleration. The double derivative of y (t) , y ' ' ( t ), is equal to the vertical acceleration of the ball, which is equal to 2 a. This is
equal to the change in velocity over time. Since, in this case, a is negative, velocity is decreasing over time. As a gets closer to 0 ,
the less the velocity is decreasing over time, (and hence, the more the velocity stagnates), resulting in a much less steep curve.
As a decreases more, the more the velocity is decreasing over time, resulting in a steeper curve.

Changing b:

Original b=-3 Decreased b=-5

Increased b=1

It can be seen that b also affects the vertical velocity; similarly to a , the ball takes a slower time to reach the ground as b is
increased, and a faster time to reach the ground as b is decreased. As seen from y ' ( t )=2 at +b , in terms of velocity, b is a
constant value that affects the vertical velocity. From inspection of the graphs with b=−3 and b=−5, it is deduced that the
velocity, and hence, y '(t ), is negative at all instances from the serve to landing, as the graph is decreasing. As b is decreased to
−5, the more that the magnitude of the (negative) velocity is increased, hence the ball travels faster vertically and cannot pass
over the net. As b is increased to 1, it can be seen that there are points where the velocity is positive, as b adds positively to the
velocity equation. When the velocity is negative, the b makes it so the velocity is closer to 0 , making the ball fall slower.

The coach is trying to improve Michael’s game by increasing the initial speed of the ball by up to 5 kph and the height of the ball
toss by up to 10cm. Since, in the context of the parametric equations, where one unit is equal to a metre and t is time in
seconds, these values must be converted into their respective correct units. In order to convert km/hour to meters/second, the
value must be divided by 3.6:

5 km/h ÷ 3.6 ≈1.3889 m/s

Centimetres is converted into metres by dividing by 100.

10 cm÷ 100=0.1 m

It is known that c is the factor that affects the vertical initial position of the ball; in other words, this determines the height of
the initial ball toss. Initially, c is equal to 3.

y ( t ) =a t 2 +bt +c

By substituting in c=3.1 , 0.1 or 10 cm above the original c , the equation will now satisfy the desired initial serve.

y ( t ) =a t 2 −bt +3.1

5
As discussed previously, the initial ball must be increased by a magnitude of m/s , to increase the initial speed by 5kp/h.
3.6
5
is added to the value of the speed of the ball found in Part A and then rearranged to find either y '(0) or x ' (0):
3.6

5 2 2 5
|v ( 0 )|=√ 909+
3.6
∴ √( x ( 0 ) ) +( y ( 0 ) ) = √909+ 3.6
' '

2 5 2 2
'
¿∴ ( y ( 0 )) = ( √ 909+
3.6 )
−( x ' ( 0 ) )

In this case, it was decided that the original horizontal equation will be used, and only the vertical equation will be changed to
achieve the conditions desired. Since the horizontal velocity is known to be 30 from Part A, and the general equation can be
used as a substitute for y '(0) to find its constants:

2 5 2 ( )2 2 5 2 2 5 2
∴ ( y ' ( 0 )) = ( √ 909+
3.6 )
− 30 ∴ ( y ' ( 0 )) = ( √ 909+
3.6 )−900( a ( 0 )+ b ) = ( √ 909+ )
3.6
−900

5 2 5 2
∴ (b) ¿
2
( √ 909+
3.6) −900∴ b=±
√( √ 909+
3.6) −900b ≈ ± 9.730

The initial speed is unaffected by the value of variable a , thus the original value can be used. A set of parametric equations
which can yield the desired conditions of Michael’s coach is as follows:

y ( t ) =−4.9 t 2 ± 9.730 t+3.1 x ( t )=30 t

To see if the changes to the parametric equation were effective and that the coach’s criteria was met, the new height and speed
are double-checked and compared with the original.

Original height of the ball toss (Part A):

y ( 0 )=−4.9 ( 0 )2−3(0)+ 3 y ( 0 )=3

The original height of the ball at serve was 3 metres above the ground. For the new equation:

y ( 0 )=−4.9 ( 0 )2 ± 9.730(0)+3.1 y ( 0 )=3.1

The new height of the ball at serve is 3.1 metres, 0.1 or 10 cm above the original. The criteria regarding the height of the ball
toss is met.

Original initial speed:

 2 2
|v ( 0 )|=√ ( x ' ( 0 ) ) + ( y ' ( 0 )) ¿ √ 302 +32¿ √ 909≈ 30.15 m/s
New initial speed:

2 2
|v ( 0 )|=√ ( x ' ( 0 ) ) + ( y ' ( 0 )) ¿ √(30)2 +(9.8 ( 0 ) ± 9.730)2¿ √(30)2 +(± 9.730)2≈ 31.538 m/s
Overall change in initial speed:

5
¿ 31.538−30.15¿ 1.388≈ m/s as required.
3.6

To determine the b of equation y (t) (it currently has two values, ± 9.730), the new parametric equation is checked with both
values of b in order to deduct which value of b allows the ball to travel over the net and land inside the service area. If both
values are invalid, the parametric equation will be changed accordingly to fit the criteria. As the net is at a distance of 11.887
metres horizontally from the service line, the ball will cross the line when x ( t )=¿ 11.887.

11.887
x ( t )=11.88730 t=11.887t= t ≈ 0.396
30

Given that the net is 0.9 metres high, y ( t ) must be above 0.9 at the moment t ≈ 0.396 such that the ball is successfully able to
cross the net.

For b=−9.730 :

11.887 11.887 2 11.887 11.887

y ( t ) =−4.9 t 2−9.730 t+3 y ( 30 )
=−4.9
30 ( −9.730) 30
+3y( 30 ) (
≈−1.62 )
Since −1.62<0.9, the ball does not clear the net with this value of b , and hence this particular parametric equation is
invalidated.

As the ball’s bounce occurs when y ( 0 )=0 ,the quadratic formula is used to find the value of t when the first bounce occurs (as
it can also be defined as a root of the quadratic equation)

2 2
−b ± √ b2−4 ac 9.730 ± √ (−9.730 ) −4 (−4.9)(3.1) 9.730−√ (−9.730 ) −4 (−4.9)(3.1) t ≈ 0.279
x= t= t 1= 1
2a 2∗−4.9 2∗−4.9

The value of t at the first bounce is ≈ 0.279 seconds after the ball toss. This value of t can then be used to calculate the
horizontal distance of the first bounce, in order to determine whether or not the ball lands in the service area. Knowing that
11.887 ≤ x (t)≤18.288 must be true in order for this to occur:

x ( t )=30 t x ( 0.27 )=30 ( 0.27 )¿ 8.1

As this value of x (t ) is outside of the domain, the ball does not land in the service area. The parametric equation with this value
of b is entirely invalid.

For b=9.730 :

11.887 11.887 2 11.887 11.887

y ( t ) =−4.9 t 2+ 9.730t +3 y ( 30 )
=−4.9
30 ( )
+ 9.730
30 (
+3 y
30 ) (
≈ 6.086 )
Since 6.086> 0.9, the ball is successfully able to clear the net with this value of b .

Again, the quadratic formula can then be employed in order to solve for t for b=9.730 .
 2 2
−b ± √ b2−4 ac 9.730 ± √ (−9.730 ) −4 (−4.9)(3.1) −9.730− √ ( 9.730 ) −4 (−4.9)(3.1) t ≈ 2.257
x= t= t 1= 1
2a 2∗−4.9 2∗−4.9

For b=9.730 , the first bounce occurred ≈ 2.257 seconds after the ball was tossed.

This value of t can then be used to calculate the horizontal distance of the first bounce, in order to determine if it lands in the
service area. Knowing that 11.887 ≤ x (t) ≤18.288 must be true in order for this to occur:

x ( t )=30 t x ( 2.257 )=30 ( 2.257 )¿ 67.71

As this value of x (t ) is outside of the domain, the ball does not land in the service area. The parametric equation with this value
of b is invalid. Since changing the vertical displacement equation y (t) evidently does not work, y ( t ) is left in its initial form
with the same coefficients, and x (t ) is then modified.

5 2 2 5 2 5 2 2
|v ( 0 )|=√ 909+
3.6
∴ √ ( x' ( 0 ) ) + ( y ' ( 0 ) ) = √ 909+
3.6
'
(
∴ ( x 0 ) = √ 909+
( )
3.6 )
−( y ' ( 0 ) )

5 2 5 2 2
∴ A 2= ( √ 909+
3.6) −(2 a(0)+b)2∴ A 2= ( √ 909+ )
3.6
−b

Using the original value of b :

5 2 5 2
2
(
∴ A = √ 909+
3.6 )
−(−3)2∴ A=
√( √ 909+
3.6 )
−(−3)2∴ A ≈31.3 955

Therefore:

y ( t ) =−4.9 t 2−3 t+3.1 x ( t )=31.3 955 t

This new parametric equation is double-checked again. The height of the serve is already known to fit the criteria, so only speed
is checked.

Original initial speed:

2 2
|v ( 0 )|=√ ( x ' ( 0 ) ) + ( y ' ( 0 )) ¿ √ 302 +32¿ √ 909≈ 30.15 m/s
New initial speed:

2 2
|v ( 0 )|=√ ( x ' ( 0 ) ) + ( y ' ( 0 )) ¿ √(31. 3955)2+(9.8 ( 0 ) −3)2¿ √(31.3 955)2 +(−3)2≈ 31.538 5 m/s
Overall change in initial speed:

5
¿ 31.538−30.15¿ 1.388≈ m/s
3.6

The remodelled equation is tested for whether or not the serve will make it over the net & land within the service area:

The net is at a distance of 11.887metres horizontally from the service line, this means that the ball will cross the line when
x ( t )=¿ 11.887.

11.887
x ( t )=11.88731. 3955t=11.887 t= t ≈ 0.37 862
31.344
The net is given to be 0.9 metres high, in order for the serve to clear the net successfully, y ( t ) >0.9 , at the moment
t ≈ 0.37925 .

11.887 11.887 2 11.887 11.887

y ( t ) =−4.9 t 2−3 t+3.1 y ( 31.3 955 )
=−4.9 (
31.3 955
−3.5 )
31.3 955 (
+3.1 y
31.3 955) (
≈ 1.2617 )
Since 1. 2617>0.9, the ball is able to clear the net when modelled with this equation.

The ball’s bounce occurs when y (t)=0:

Using the quadratic formula: first bounce is when t ≈ 0.5147

This value of t can then be used to calculate the horizontal distance of the first bounce, to determine if the ball lands in the
service area at the first bounce. Knowing that 11.887 ≤ x (t) ≤18.288 :

x ( t )=31.3437 t x ( 2.257 )=31.3437 ( 0.5147 ) ¿ 16.13

As this value of x (t ) fits in the domain, it therefore lands in the service area. Since this parametric equation fits both criteria of
being ‘in’ and also the coach’s criteria, it is valid.

Instead of standing on the centre line to serve, Michael now stands 2 m along the base line from the centre line. He wishes to
find the maximum and minimum length of his serve if it is to land on the opponent’s service area back line. To better visualise
this scenario, the initial blue print is used.

On the tennis court diagram, there is point A, which is 2 metres to the left of the
centreline. This is Michael’s position; this is where the ball is served. It must land
on the opposite side (both horizontally and vertically) of the court, as well as it
landing on the backline. The points showing the minimum and maximum lengths
the ball can land on are shown by
B1 and B2 respectively. In other words, the

distance of is the minimum length, and the distance of is the maximum

A B1 A B2

length. To simplify this, two rough sketches are drawn with the known measurements (not to scale):

The unknown maximum and minimum lengths can simply be found by using Pythagoras theorem; the triangles are right angled.

MINIMUM LENGTH:
 2
22 +18.2882=| A B1|

√ 22+ 18.2882=¿ A B 1∨¿

| A B1|≈18.397 m
The minimum length that can be travelled by the ball is 23.658 metres.

MAXIMUM LENGTH:

( 2+4.115 )2 +18.2882=¿ A B2∨¿

√ 6.1152 +18.2882=|A B 2|
| A B2|=19.283 m
The maximum length that can be travelled by the ball is 19.283 metres.

As shown by the calculations above, it is evident that the distance between Michael and the centreline is a factor that affects the
required service length to the backline of Tony’s service area. As Michael continues to serve further from the centreline and
along the base line, the maximum and minimum serve length also increases.

It is irrelevant on which side Michael is standing on – as the serve is required to be diagonal and to land on the opposite side
both lengthwise and width-wise. The maximum and minimum distances to Tony’s service area backline would remain the same
if Michael switched sides.

PART C: IMPROVING OR MODIFYING THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL

MODIFICATION OF MODEL: DIFFERENT GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION, Z-AXIS,

Michael and Tony have been abducted from Earth and temporarily placed on Mars by Martian tennis fans who are eager to
spectate a tennis match in person. Due to the environmental changes between Earth and Mars (namely gravity) Michael is
forced to modify his serve in order to adapt to the weaker gravitational pull of Mars. He, again, must meet the criteria that the
ball will travel over the net and land in the opposite service area.

However, due to the lower gravitational acceleration, it will be immensely more difficult to land the
serve in the service area as it is so close, so Martians have changed the rules to land in the new
service area which is between and . as shown in Figure 1. This is also
x=18.288 x=23.744
because Martians do not know the sport very well.

Assuming no air resistance and wind speed, change in gravity only affects the vertical
displacement/velocity; the vertical acceleration is equal to the value of gravitational acceleration in
the respective planet. This is evidenced by the vertical displacement equation in Part A; the double
derivation of the equation (which is equal to the acceleration) is -9.8, the negative value of Earth’s
gravitational acceleration.

y ( t ) =3−3 t−4.9t 2 y ' ( t )=−3−9.8 t y ' ' ( t )=−9.8 Figure 1: New service area

However, Mar’s gravitational acceleration is 3.711 , so the double derivation of the new
m . s−2
vertical displacement equation must equal to -3.711. This value is then integrated twice to acquire the new equation of y (t).

−1
'
y ' ' ( t )=−3.711 y ( t )=∫ −3.711 dt y ' ( t )=−3.711 t +b y ( t ) =∫ −3.711 t+b dt y ( t ) = 3.711t 2 +bt+ c
2
y ( t ) =−1.8555t 2 +bt + c
b and c can be found by creating two true equations and then solving them simultaneously.

EQUATION 1
Remember, for the serve to be counted as valid, it must travel over the net and land in the service area. More specifically, to
make Tony run around the court more often, Michael will serve such that the ball will land on the backline, which is 23.744
metres away from him. The original x (t ) from Part A can be used, as the gravitational acceleration only acts vertically and
doesn’t affect horizontal velocity. x (t ) can be equated to 23.774 in order to find where the ball lands:

30 t land =2 3 .774

2 3 .774
t land =
30

23.774 23.774
Hence, the ball lands
30
seconds after it is served. When the ball lands, it is a ground level, meaning y (30
=0. )
Therefore:

y ( 23.774
30 )
=0

2 3.774 2 2 3 .774
−1.8555 ( 30 ) (+b
30 )
+ c=0

2
23 .774 2 3 .774
( 30 )
b+c=1.8555
30 ( )
EQUATION 2
23.774
The time at which the ball passes over the net can simply be found by halving as the net is halfway across the court.
30

11.887
t pass=
30

The ball must pass over the net; more specifically, 10 cm over the net which 0.9 high. Therefore, y ( 11.887
30 )
=1 .

y ( 11.887
30 )
=1

11.887 2 11.887
−1.8555 ( 30 ) (+b
30 )
+ c=1

2
11.887 11.887
( 30 )
b +c=1+1.8555
30 ( )
Now that two equations with two unknowns are found, they can be solved simultaneously using a graphic calculator:

b=−0.3181326081

c=1.417369829

Therefore:

y ( t ) =−1.8555t 2−0.3181326081 t+1.417369829

Now that both the new equations of x (t ) and y (t) are retrieved, the trajectory of the ball can be plotted into Desmos (as
parametric equations). Below is a picture of the graph with y (t) on the y -axis and x (t ) on the x -axis.

Note that y=0 is ground level. The orange line is the trajectory of the ball modelled by the parametric equations. The red line is
representative of the net; this was made by allowing a function f (x) to equal 11.887, which is halfway through the court, and
setting a range {0≤ y <0.9 } to establish its height of 0.9 metres. This is further proof the serve is valid, as the trajectory of the
ball is shown to pass 10 cm over the net and land on the backline (which is part of the service area).

ADDING Z-AXIS, SPIN

x and y dimensions were taken into account. This is impractical in the real
One key limitation in Part A and B was that only the
world; players regularly move from edge to edge of the tennis court, and without a z dimension, this is not possible.
Furthermore, the validity of serves is also dictated by the service area’s width. This means that, even considering the calculations
above, whether the serve is valid or not is unknown. Henceforth, a z dimension will be added. The diagram in the introduction is
shown in the z and x axis, so the distances between features on the court can easily be applied.

Michael decides that he will apply a spin on the ball as he serves, making the ball travel to the right initially but then curve to the
left, landing on the intersection of the backline and centre line. This will trick Mr. Pettas into moving into the wrong direction,
and Michael will score a point. Michael will do this for every serve, eventually winning the whole match. To better visualise this
scenario, the tennis court is plotted in Desmos with the z dimension in the y -axis, and the x dimension on the x -axis, with the
help of the blueprint measurements.

The
red
lines
are
the
tennis
court

boundaries excluding the two alleys, and including the centreline. The blue line is the net, and the area shaded purple is the
service area. (This is essentially the blueprint rotated 90 ° clockwise). The origin, (0, 0, 0) is the intersection of the centreline and
backline on Michael’s side.

The spin of the ball will allow the ball’s trajectory in the z -dimension to assume a parabolic shape. Therefore, z (t) can be
expressed as a general quadratic equation with constants a , b and c .

z ( t )=a t 2 +bt + c

Once again, simultaneous equations can be employed to find a , b and c , by setting some “rules” for the ball’s trajectory. This
time, there needs to be three equations.

EQUATION 1
The number of seconds that it takes for the ball to land is:

23.774
t land =
30

Since the ball is supposed to land on the intersection of the backline and centerline, and the centerline is at y=0 or, in this
case, z ( t )=0¿ , z ( t land )=0.

z ( 23.774
30 )
=0

23.774 2 23.774
( 30 ) (
a+
30
b+ c=0 )
EQUATION 2
For the ultimate trick/bait, the ball will seemingly direct towards the right when served, but then when it passes over the net, it
will change directions. This means that there is a local maximum of the parabola at the point where it passes over the net,
'
meaning z ( t pass ) =0

z ' ( t )=0

2a ( 11.887
30 )
+b=0

EQUATION 3

When the ball passes over the net, it must pass y=−2, or z ( t )=−2, to make the ball’s trajectory stay completely in the court
and to be made more realistic.

11.887 2 11.887
( 30 ) (
a+
30
b+ c=−2 )
23.774 23.774 2 23.774
z (
30
=a
30 ) (+b
30
+ c=0 ) ( )
Now, with all three equations, it can be solved simultaneously (via a graphics calculator) to find the equation of z (t).

23.774 2 23.774
( ) ( )
{
a+ b+ c=0
30 30
11.887 2 11.887
( 30
a+ ) (
30
b+ c=−2 )
11.887
2a (
30
+b+0 c =0)
a=12.73878417

b=−10.09506183

c=0

Therefore:
z ( t )=12.73878417 t 2−10.09506183 t

Henceforth, z (t) and x (t ) can be represented parametrically on the tennis court diagram, as well as z (t) and y (t) .

x (t ) AND z (t) ON THE X AND Y AXIS RESPECTIVELY – BIRDS EYE VIEW

The orange line represents the trajectory of the
ball. It can be seen that the ball is (deceivingly)
initially travelling to the right and then changes
direction when it passes over the net, travelling to
the left and landing on the intersection of the
centreline and backline. With this, Michael and
Tony are able to embark in a competitive game of
tennis and satisfy the Martians; except, it is not
really a competitive game because Michael is able
to serve this exact same way every time, hence, winning the match with Tony on no points whatsoever.

x ( t ) AND y (t) ON THE X AND AXIS RESPECTIVELY – SIDE EYE VIEW

y (t) AND z (t) ON THE X AND Y AXIS RESPECTIVELY – FRONT EYE VIEW (FROM TONY’S SIDE)
From Tony’s side, the right of the x -axis is positive. This is not the case on

Michael’s side.

CONCLUSION

Two parametric equations, x (t ) and y (t), were given as the basis for this investigation. They were representative of the two-
dimensional trajectory of the ball serve in regards to its vertical displacement (height, y (t) ) and its horizontal displacement
(lengthwise of the court, x (t )). With known measurements from the tennis court blueprint, and the knowledge of the legal
boundaries of a serve, the trajectory of the serve was proven to be valid. Using differential calculus, these displacement
equations could be derived into velocity equations, and hence, the initial velocity of the serve could be found. Variables of these
parametric equations could be modified in order to satisfy any basic changes made to the serve, e.g. increasing speed or
increasing height.

In investigating these parametric equations, it was found that there were various limitations which hindered this model from
translating into a real-world tennis match. Firstly, there were only two displacement equations, meaning there were only two
dimensions. Due to this, the validity of the serve could not be properly determined, as the service area has a predetermined
width. Naturally occurring factors such as air resistance were not addressed in Part A and B, and the ball is assumed to have
travelled through a vacuum with only the force of the gravitational acceleration of Earth acting on it.
All calculations were done with the help of a graphics calculator; though accurate, is would make all values rounded to 9 or 10
digits. This created slight imprecision errors; for example, if a quadratic equation was set to meet at x=3 , it may have not met
exactly at that point and would have deviated by a very slight amount.

In Part C, a new equation for y ( t ) was able to be created based on the different gravitational acceleration of Mars, and the
initial criteria of passing over the net and landing in the service area. This was able to be graphed on Desmos. Part C also
addressed the key limitation of Part A and B, which was the lack of a third dimension. A parabolic curve representing an anti-
clockwise spin in the new z dimension was able to be created, and graphed using Geogebra on a 3D axis.

However, apart from the limitation of a lacking third dimension, Part C did not address any other assumptions or limitations such
as air resistance, making it still very unlikely for this model to translate into the real world. Also, it is unknown whether a
parabolic curve is actually representative of a spinning object’s trajectory in the real world; physics concepts are seldom
explored throughout the whole investigation, further hindering its ability to be of use to tennis/physics professionals. Also, the
fact that the tennis match is performed on Mars makes it even more impractical in the real-world, where all tennis matches
happen on Earth.

An investigation that could lead on from this could:

 Investigate the effect on various real-life physics concepts on the trajectory of an object apart from gravitational
acceleration
 Investigate the trajectory of a ball affected by air resistance.