CHAPTER 4

Image Measurements and Refinements

4-1 Introduction
The solution of most photogrammetric problems generally requires some type of photographic
measurement. For certain problems the measurements may simply be the lengths of lines between
imaged points. However, rectangular coordinates of imaged points are the most common type of
photographic measurement, and they are used directly in many photogrammetric equations.
Photographic measurements are usually made on positives printed on paper, film, or glass, or in
digital images manipulated on a computer. They could also be made directly on the negatives;
however, this is seldom done because it can deface the imagery, and it is important to preserve the
negatives for making additional prints. It is common, however, to make digital scans directly from the
negatives, thus avoiding additional expense associated with making positive prints.
Equipment used for making photographic measurements varies from inexpensive, simple scales
to very precise and complex machines that provide computer-compatible digital output. These various
types of instruments and the manner in which they are used are described in this chapter. Because of
several effects, there will be systematic errors associated with practically all photographic
measurements. The sources of these errors and the manners by which they are eliminated are also
discussed in this chapter.

4-2 Coordinate Systems for Image Measurements

For metric cameras with side fiducial marks, the commonly adopted reference system for
photographic coordinates, is the rectangular axis system formed by joining opposite fiducial marks
with straight lines, as shown in Fig. 4-1. The x axis is usually arbitrarily designated as the fiducial line
most nearly parallel with the direction of flight, positive in the direction of flight. The positive y axis
is 90° counterclockwise from positive x. The origin of the coordinate system is the intersection of
fiducial lines. This point is often called the indicated principal point, as discussed in Sec. 3-4; for a
precise mapping camera it is very near the true principal point. For the most precise work, since the
lines joining opposite fiducials are not exactly perpendicular, the fiducial marks serve as control
points from which the photo coordinate axis system can be determined.
FIGURE 4-1 Photographic coordinate system based on side fiducials.

The position of any image on a photograph, such as point a of Fig. 4-1, is given by its rectangular
coordinates xa and ya, where xa is the perpendicular distance from the y axis to a and ya is the
perpendicular distance from the x axis to a. Similarly, the photographic position of image point b is
given by its rectangular coordinates xb and yb.
It is very common for aerial cameras to have eight fiducials installed, in both side and corner
locations. Figures 1-2, 1-6, and 1-7 show this fiducial mark configuration. The photographic
coordinate system in this case is still defined as in Fig. 4-1. Eight fiducials enable somewhat more
accurate corrections to be made for systematic errors in measured image coordinates.
On digital images, coordinates are often expressed as row and column numbers of individual
pixels. If pixel dimensions are known, the dimensionless row and column values can be converted to
linear measurements. Note that for many common image manipulation programs, pixel coordinates
are given in the order of column (abscissa) followed by row (ordinate). This results in a “left-handed”
coordinate system, which may lead to problems in certain calculations.
Rectangular coordinates are a very basic and useful type of photographic measurement. They are
used in many different types of computations. As an example, they can be used to calculate the photo
distances between points by using simple analytic geometry. Photographic distance ab of Fig. 4-1, for
example, may be calculated from rectangular coordinates as follows:

(4-1)

4-3 Simple Scales for Photographic Measurements

There are a variety of simple scales available for photographic measurements. The particular choice of
measuring instrument will depend upon the accuracy required for the photogrammetric problem at
hand. If a low order of accuracy is acceptable, an ordinary engineer’s scale may prove satisfactory.
Engineer’s scales, as shown in Fig. 4-2, are available in both metric and English units and have several
different graduation intervals so as to accommodate various nominal scales. Precision and accuracy
can be enhanced by using a magnifying glass and the finest set of graduations, as long as suitable care
is taken in aligning and reading the scale.
FIGURE 4-2 Metric (top) and English (bottom) engineer’s scales.

When greater accuracy is desired, a device such as the glass scale of Fig. 4-3 may be used. Glass
scales have fine graduations etched on the bottom surface and are equipped with magnifying eyepieces
which can slide along the scale. Glass scales of the type shown in Fig. 4-3 can be obtained in either 6-
or 12-in length with either millimeter graduations (least graduations of 0.1 mm) or inch graduations
(least graduations of 0.005 in). With a glass scale, readings may be estimated quite readily to one-
tenth of the smallest division, but these scales cannot be used to lay off distances.

FIGURE 4-3 Glass scales for photographic measurements. (Courtesy Teledyne-Gurley Co.)

4-4 Measuring Photo Coordinates with Simple Scales

The conventional procedure for measuring photo coordinates when using an engineer’s scale generally
consists of first marking the photo coordinate axis system. This may be done by carefully aligning a
straightedge across the fiducial marks and lightly making a line with a razor blade, pin, or very sharp
4H or 5H pencil. Rectangular coordinates are then obtained by direct measurement of the
perpendicular distances from these axes. Use of glass scales is generally not warranted when this
method of marking axes is used, since the enhanced precision and accuracy of the scale are
overshadowed by the errors associated with marking the axes.
If the points whose coordinates are to be measured are sharp, distinct points, they may need no
further identification. If not, they may be identified with a small pinprick. This should be carefully
done under magnification, however, because systematic error will be introduced into measured photo
coordinates if points are erroneously marked.
It is important to affix the proper algebraic sign to measured rectangular coordinates; failure to
do so will result in frustrating mistakes in solving photogrammetry problems. Points situated to the
right of the y axis have positive x coordinates, and points to the left have negative x coordinates.
Points above the x axis have positive y coordinates, and those below the x axis have negative y
coordinates.

4-5 Comparator Measurement of Photo Coordinates

For direct measurement of film, the ultimate in photo coordinate measurement accuracy can be
achieved with precise instruments called comparators. While no longer in common use, these
instruments are so named because they compare the photographic positions of imaged points with
respect to the measurement scales of the devices. There are two basic types of comparators,
monocomparators and stereocomparators. Monocomparators make measurements on one photograph
at a time and with stereocomparators, image positions are measured by simultaneously viewing an
overlapping stereo pair of photographs. Comparators are used primarily to obtain precise photo
coordinates necessary for camera calibration and for analytical photogrammetry. Their accuracy
capability is typically in the range of from 2 to 3 micrometers (μm).
The usual approach for measuring photographic coordinates with a comparator is to measure the
coordinates of all image points as well as all fiducial marks. Then an affine or other two-dimensional
coordinate transformation is performed in order to relate the arbitrary comparator coordinates to the
axis system related to the fiducials. Example C-3. (of App. C) illustrates the procedure using a two-
dimensional affine transformation.
Traditional monocomparators are no longer being manufactured today, although specialized
devices are still being produced for limited markets. A more versatile device, the analytical
stereoplotter, is commonly used to perform the function of both monocomparators and
stereocomparators when working directly with film. Analytical stereoplotters are described in greater
detail in Chap. 12.
Although monocomparators are generally very precise, small systematic errors do occur as a
result of imperfections in their measurement systems. The magnitudes of these errors can be
determined by measuring coordinates of a precise grid plate and then comparing the results with
known coordinate values of the grid plate. The overall pattern of differences (errors) can be modeled
with polynomials in a manner similar to that described in Sec. B-11. Measured photo coordinates can
then be processed through the polynomial to effectively eliminate the systematic errors of the
comparator.

4-6 Photogrammetric Scanners

Photogrammetric scanners are devices used to convert the content of photographs from analog form (a
continuous-tone image) to digital form (an array of pixels with their gray levels quantified by
numerical values). These concepts were introduced in Sec. 2-12. Once the image is in digital form,
coordinate measurement can take place in a computer environment, either through a manual process
involving a human operator who points at features displayed on a computer screen, or through
automated image-processing algorithms. A number of photogrammetric quality scanners are
available, however their manufacture has greatly declined due to increased use of digital cameras.
They vary in approaches taken in the digital conversion (or quantization); however, their fundamental
concepts are the same. It is essential that a photogrammetric scanner have sufficient geometric and
radiometric resolution as well as high geometric accuracy.
The notions of geometric and radiometric resolution were previously discussed in Sec. 2-12.
Geometric or spatial resolution of a scanner is an indication of the pixel size of the resultant image.
The smaller the pixel size, the greater the detail that can be detected in the image. High-quality
photogrammetric scanners should be capable of producing digital images with minimum pixel sizes
on the order of 5 to 15 μm. This roughly corresponds to the resolution threshold of typical aerial
photographs under actual flight conditions. Radiometric resolution of a scanner is an indication of the
number of quantization levels (corresponding to image density differences) associated with a single
pixel. Minimum radiometric resolution should be 256 levels (8-bit) with most scanners being capable
of 1024 levels (10-bit) or higher.
The geometric quality of a scanner can be expressed by the positional accuracy of the pixels in
the resultant image. If a digital image is to produce the same level of accuracy as is attainable by
using film images and a comparator, the positions of the pixels in the digital image need to be at the
same spatial accuracy. Hence, the geometric positional accuracy of a high-quality photogrammetric
scanner should be at the 2- to 3-μm level. Measurements from scanned photos is similar to those using
a comparator. As noted in Sec. 4-5, coordinates of image points and fiducial marks are measured, but
in this case as rows and columns in the scanner coordinate system. Then a two-dimensional coordinate
transformation is performed as in Example C-3, to produce photo coordinates related to the fiducials.

4-7 Refinement of Measured Image Coordinates

The preceding sections of this chapter have discussed instruments and techniques for measuring photo
coordinates. Procedures have also been described for eliminating systematic errors in the
measurements and for reducing the coordinates to the photo coordinate axis system. These photo
coordinates will still contain systematic errors from various other sources, however. The major
sources of these errors are

1. (a) Film distortions due to shrinkage, expansion, and lack of flatness; (b) CCD array distortions
due to electrical signal timing issues or lack of flatness of the chip surface
2. (a) Failure of photo coordinate axes to intersect at the principal point; (b) Failure of principal
point to be aligned with center of CCD array
3. Lens distortions
4. Atmospheric refraction distortions
5. Earth curvature distortion

Corrections may be applied to eliminate the effects of these systematic errors. However, not all
corrections need to be made for all photogrammetric problems; in fact, for work of coarse accuracy
they may all be ignored. If, for example, an engineer’s scale has been used to make the measurements,
uncertainty in the photo coordinates may be so great that the small magnitudes of these systematic
errors become insignificant. On the other hand, if precise measurements for an analytical
photogrammetry problem have been made with a comparator, all the corrections may be significant.
The decision as to which corrections are necessary for a particular photogrammetric problem can be
made after considering required accuracy versus magnitude of error caused by neglecting the
correction.
4-8 Distortions of Photographic Films and Papers
In photogrammetric work, true positions of images in the picture are required. Photo coordinates
measured by any of the previously discussed methods will unavoidably contain small errors due to
shrinkage or expansion of the photographic materials that support the emulsion of the negative and
positive. In addition, since photogrammetric equations derived for applications involving frame
cameras assume a flat image plane, any lack of flatness will likewise cause errors. These errors can
also be categorized as film distortions, and they are generally the most difficult to compensate for,
due to their nonhomogeneous nature. Photo coordinates must be corrected for these errors before they
are used in photogrammetric calculations; otherwise, errors will be present in the computed results.
The magnitude of error in computed values will depend upon the severity of the film distortions,
which depends upon the type of emulsion support materials used and the flatness of the camera platen.
Most photographic films used to produce negatives for photogrammetric work have excellent
dimensional stability, but some small changes in size do occur during processing and storage.
Dimensional change during storage may be held to a minimum by maintaining constant temperature
and humidity in the storage room. The actual amount of distortion present in a film is a function of
several variables, including the type of film and its thickness. Typical values may vary from almost
negligible amounts up to approximately 0.2 percent.
Paper media are generally much less stable than film. Whether the images are photographically
reproduced or are printed from a scanned image, paper copies often require corrections to measured
distances in order to produce satisfactory results.

4-9 Image Plane Distortion

The nominal amount of shrinkage or expansion present in a photograph can be determined by
comparing measured photographic distances between opposite fiducial marks with their corresponding
values determined in camera calibration. Photo coordinates can be corrected if discrepancies exist,
and the approach differs depending on the necessary level of accuracy. For lower levels of accuracy
(corresponding to measurements with an engineer’s scale on paper prints) the following approach may
be used. If xm and ym are measured fiducial distances on the positive, and xc and yc are corresponding
calibrated fiducial distances, then the corrected photo coordinates of any point a may be calculated as

(4-2)

(4-3)

I n Eqs. (4-2) and (4-3), x′a and y′a are corrected photo coordinates and xa and ya are measured
coordinates. The ratios xc/xm and yc/ym are simply scale factors in the x and y directions, respectively.
This method is also appropriate for images that have been subjected to substantial enlargement or are
being measured with arbitrary coordinates, for example, an image from a digital camera having a CCD
frame width of 20 mm printed at a width of 150 mm on a sheet of paper. If the precise dimensions of
the CCD frame have been determined through calibration, a correction factor based on Eq. (4-2) can
be computed. In another case, a digital image may be imported into a Computer Aided Drafting
(CAD) drawing. In this case the coordinates of the CAD drawing may be completely arbitrary and
need to be related to a calibrated reference in order to obtain correct measurements. Equations (4-2)
and (4-3) can be used by making CAD-unit measurements of the calibrated distances and applying the
correction factors to subsequent measurements.

Example 4-1
For a particular photograph, the measured x and y fiducial distances were 233.8 and 233.5 mm,
respectively. The corresponding x and y calibrated fiducial distances were 232.604 and 232.621 mm,
respectively. Compute the corrected values for the measured photo coordinates which are listed in
columns (b) and (c) in the table below.

Solution From Eq. (4-2),

Each of the measured values is multiplied by the appropriate constant above, and the corrected
coordinates are entered in columns (d) and (e) of the table.

For high-accuracy applications, shrinkage or expansion corrections may be applied through the x
and y scale factors of a two-dimensional affine coordinate transformation. This method is particularly
well-suited for analytical photogrammetric calculations. This procedure is described in Sec. C-6, and a
numerical example is presented.

4-10 Reduction of Coordinates to an Origin at the Principal Point

It has been previously stated that the principal point of a photograph rarely occurs precisely at the
intersection of fiducial lines or at the center of a CCD array. The actual coordinates of the principal
point with respect to the calibrated xy photo coordinate system of the camera are xp and yp, shown in
Fig. 3-18. These coordinates specify the principal point location about which the lens distortions are
most symmetric.
Photogrammetric equations that utilize photo coordinates are based on projective geometry and
assume an origin of photo coordinates at the principal point. Therefore it is theoretically correct to
reduce photo coordinates from the measurement or photo coordinate axis system to the axis system
whose origin is at the principal point. Manufacturers of precision mapping cameras attempt to mount
the fiducial marks and camera lens so that the principal point and intersection of fiducial lines
coincide. Normally they accomplish this to within a few micrometers, and therefore in work of coarse
accuracy using engineering scales and paper prints, this correction can usually be ignored. For precise
analytical photogrammetric work, it is necessary to make the correction for the coordinates of the
principal point. The correction is applied after a two-dimensional coordinate transformation (e.g.,
affine) is made to the coordinates measured by comparator or from a scanned image. The principal
point coordinates xp and yp from the camera calibration report are subtracted from the transformed x
and y coordinates, respectively. Most appropriately, the correction for the principal point offset is
applied in conjunction with lens distortion corrections.

4-11 Correction for Lens Distortions

As described in Chap. 2, lens distortion causes imaged positions to be displaced from their ideal
locations. The mathematical equations that are used to model lens distortions are typically comprised
of two components: symmetric radial distortion and decentering distortion. In modern precision aerial
mapping cameras, lens distortions are typically less than 5 μm and are only applied when precise
analytical photogrammetry is being performed.
Symmetric radial lens distortion is an unavoidable product of lens manufacture, although with
careful design its effects can be reduced to a very small amount. Decentering distortion, on the other
hand, is primarily a function of the imperfect assembly of lens elements, not the actual design.
Historically, metric aerial mapping cameras had significantly larger amounts of symmetric radial lens
distortion than decentering distortion. Traditional camera calibration procedures provided information
regarding only the symmetric radial component. For instance, an early approach used by the U.S.
Geological Survey was to indicate radial distortion values for each of the angles of the
multicollimator (see Sec. 3-11). The radial distortion value was the radial displacement from the ideal
location to the actual image of the collimator cross, with positive values indicating outward
displacements. The approach used for determining radial lens distortion values for these older
calibration reports was to fit a polynomial curve to a plot of the displacements (on the ordinate) versus
radial distances (on the abscissa). The form of the polynomial, based on lens design theory, is

(4-4)

In Eq. (4-4), Δr is the amount of radial lens distortion, r is the radial distance from the principal point,
and k1, k2, k3, and k4 are coefficients of the polynomial. The coefficients of the polynomial are solved
by least squares using the distortion values from the calibration report. To correct the x, y position of
an image point, the distance r from the image point to the principal point is computed and used to
compute the value of Δr from Eq. (4-4). This is done by first converting the fiducial coordinates x and
y, to coordinates and , relative to the principal point, by Eqs. (4-5) and (4-6). Then Eq. (4-7) is used
to compute the value of r to use in Eq. (4-4).

(4-5)
 (4-6)

(4-7)

After the radial lens distortion value of Δr is computed, its x and y components (corrections δx
and δy) are computed and subtracted from and , respectively. The δx and δy corrections are based
on a similar-triangle relationship, as shown in Fig. 4-4. By similar triangles of that figure

FIGURE 4-4 Relationship between radial lens distortion and corrections to x and y coordinates.

from which

(4-8)

(4-9)

The corrected coordinates xc and yc are then computed by

 (4-10)

(4-11)

Example 4-2
An older USGS camera calibration report specifies the calibrated focal length f = 153.206 mm and
coordinates of the calibrated principal point as xp = 0.008 mm and yp = –0.001 mm. The report also
lists mean radial lens distortion values given in columns (a) and (b) of the table below. Using these
calibration values, compute the corrected coordinates for an image point having coordinates x =
62.579 mm, y = –80.916 mm relative to the fiducial axes.

Solution Compute r values (in meters) in column (c) by the following equation (see Fig. 4-5):

FIGURE 4-5 Illustration of radial distance r as it relates to focal length f and field angle θ.

For example, for the field angle, θ = 7.5°,

Using the least squares method presented in Sec. B-11 (see Example B-6), the following k values were
computed.
Compute the distance from the principal point to the image point, using Eqs. (4-5), (4-6), and (4-7).

Given this value for r and the k coefficients, compute Δr by Eq. (4-4):

Compute δx and δy by Eqs. (4-8) and (4-9), respectively.

Compute corrected coordinates xc and yc by Eqs. (4-10) and (4-11), respectively.

Lens design in modern aerial mapping cameras has evolved to such a level that symmetric radial
lens distortion is of the same order of magnitude as decentering distortion, and camera calibration
reports have been adapted to accommodate this change. For example, the mathematical model used in
the current USGS calibration procedure, known as the Simultaneous Multi-camera Analytical
Calibration (SMAC), computes both symmetric radial and decentering distortion parameters directly
by least squares. Principal point coordinates and focal length are also determined in the solution. The
USGS camera calibration report lists polynomial coefficients for symmetric radial lens distortion (k0,
k1, k2, k3, k4), and decentering distortion (p1, p2, p3, p4). It also gives calibrated principal point
coordinates (xp, yp). To compute coordinates (xc, yc) corrected for these systematic errors, the
following equations are used:

(4-12)
 (4-13)

(4-14)

(4-15)

(4-16)

(4-17)

In Eqs. (4-12) through (4-17), and are coordinates of the image relative to the principal point
as computed by Eqs. (4-5) and (4-6), respectively; r is the radial distance from the image to the
principal point as computed by Eq. (4-7); k0, k1, k2, k3, and k4 are coefficients of symmetric radial lens
distortion from the calibration report; p1, p2, p3, and p4 are coefficients of decentering distortion from
the calibration report; δx and δy are the symmetric radial lens distortion corrections to and ,
respectively; and Δx and Δy are the decentering distortion corrections to and , respectively.

Example 4-3
The parameters of a current USGS camera calibration report are given in the following table. Using
these calibration values, compute the corrected coordinates for an image point having coordinates x =
–47.018 mm, y = 43.430 mm relative to the fiducial axes.

Solution Compute , , and r by Eqs. (4-5), (4-6), and (4-7), respectively.

Compute symmetric radial lens distortion corrections δx and δy, using Eqs. (4-12) and (4-13),
respectively.

Compute decentering distortion corrections Δx and Δy, using Eqs. (4-14) and (4-15), respectively.

Compute the corrected coordinates xc and yc, using Eqs. (4-16) and (4-17), respectively.

4-12 Correction for Atmospheric Refraction

It is well known that density (and hence the index of refraction) of the atmosphere decreases with
increasing altitude. Because of this condition, light rays do not travel in straight lines through the
atmosphere, but rather they are bent according to Snell’s law (see Sec. 2-2), as shown in Fig. 4-6. The
incoming light ray from point A of the figure makes an angle α with the vertical. If refraction were
ignored, the light ray would appear to be coming from point B rather than from point A.
Photogrammetric equations assume that light rays travel in straight paths, and to compensate for the
known refracted paths, corrections are applied to the image coordinates.
FIGURE 4-6 Atmospheric refraction in aerial photography.

I n Fig. 4-6, if a straight path had been followed by the light ray from object point A, then its
image would have been at a′. The angular distortion due to refraction is Δα, and the linear distortion
on the photograph is Δr. Refraction causes all imaged points to be displaced outward from their
correct positions. The magnitude of refraction distortion increases with increasing flying height and
with increasing α angle. Refraction distortion occurs radially from the photographic nadir point1
(principal point of a vertical photo) and is zero at the nadir point. Atmospheric refraction in tilted
photographs is treated in Sec. 10-16.
The usual approach to the atmospheric refraction correction is based on the assumption that
change in the refractive index of air is directly proportional to change in height. Starting with the
incident angle of the light ray at ground level, Snell’s law can be solved continuously along the ray
path for each infinitesimal change in angle due to refraction. When all the infinitesimal changes are
summed, the total is proportional to the tangent of the incident angle. (Derivation of the relationship
involves the solution of a differential equation, which is beyond the scope of this text.) The
proportionality constant is based on the values of the refractive indices at ground level and at the
camera position, which are related to elevation. The relationship that expresses the angular distortion
Δα as a function of α is

(4-18)
In this equation, α is the angle between the vertical and the ray of light, as shown in Fig. 4-6, and K is
a value which depends upon the flying height above mean sea level and the elevation of the object
point. There are several different approaches to calculating a value for K, with most assuming a
standard atmosphere. A convenient method, adapted from the Manual of Photogrammetry, is to
compute K by

(4-19)

In Eq. (4-19), H is the flying height of the camera above mean sea level in kilometers, and h is the
elevation of the object point above mean sea level in kilometers. The units of K are degrees.
The procedure for computing atmospheric refraction corrections to image coordinates on a
vertical photo begins by computing radial distance r from the principal point to the image, using Eq.
(4-20). In this equation, the x and y image coordinates do not necessarily need to be related to the
principal point since the error due to the assumption of vertical photography far overshadows any
error which would be introduced.

(4-20)

Also from Fig. 4-6,

(4-21)

The values of K and tan α from Eqs. (4-19) and (4-21), respectively, are then substituted into Eq. (4-
18) to compute refraction angle Δα.

(4-22)

The radial distance r′ from the principal point to the corrected image location can then be
computed by

(4-23)

The change in radial distance Δr is then computed by

(4-24)

The x and y components of atmospheric refraction distortion corrections (δx and δy) can then be
computed by Eqs. (4-8) and (4-9), using the values of x and y in place of and , respectively. To
compute corrected coordinates x′ and y′, the corrections δx and δy are subtracted from x and y,
respectively.

Example 4-4
A vertical photograph taken from a flying height of 3500 m above mean sea level contains the image a
of object point A at coordinates (with respect to the fiducial system) xa = 73.287 mm and ya = –
101.307 mm. If the elevation of object point A is 120 m above mean sea level and the camera had a
focal length of 153.099 mm, compute the x′ and y′ coordinates of the point, corrected for atmospheric
refraction.

Solution Compute r by Eq. (4-20).

Express tan α by Eq. (4-21) and solve for α.

Compute K by Eq. (4-19).

Compute Δα by Eq. (4-22).

Compute r′ by Eq. (4-23).

Compute Δr by Eq. (4-24).

Compute δx and δy by Eqs. (4-8) and (4-9), respectively.

Subtract the corrections δx and δy from x and y, respectively to obtain corrected coordinates x′ and y′.

4-13 Correction for Earth Curvature

Traditionally, in analytical photogrammetry, corrections were commonly applied to measured photo
coordinates to compensate for the effects of earth curvature. The rationale for this notion is that
elevations of points are referenced to an approximately spherical datum (i.e., mean sea level) whereas
photogrammetric equations assume that the zero-elevation surface is a plane. In addition, if horizontal
coordinate systems such as state plane coordinates (see Sec. 5-6) are used in object space, the axis
system is also curved, although it is curved primarily in only one direction (either east-west or north-
south). It has long been recognized that the practice of making earth curvature corrections to measured
photo coordinates is not theoretically correct. However, it has also long been accepted that using the
correction generally leads to more accurate results than ignoring it, particularly in determining
elevations.
The primary problem with the earth curvature correction is that because of the nature of map
projection coordinates, correcting photo coordinates for earth curvature will degrade the accuracy of
either X or Y object space coordinates, depending upon the map projection used. For example, when a
UTM projection (see Sec. 5-6) is used, application of earth curvature corrections will yield more
accurate elevations and Y values, but will degrade X values because the UTM projection does not
curve in the X direction.
The proper approach, which avoids the need for any sort of earth curvature correction, employs a
three-dimensional orthogonal object space coordinate system. One such coordinate system is the local
vertical coordinate system described in Sec. 5-5. By using a local vertical coordinate system for a
project, earth curvature ceases to be a distorting effect. Instead, the curvature of the earth will simply
be a natural characteristic of the terrain, and it will be resolved in the same manner as any other
topographic feature.

4-14 Measurement of Feature Positions and Edges

Up to this point in the chapter, measurement of image distances and coordinates of points have been
discussed in a general context. Now we will consider some of the characteristics of features to be
measured, namely points and edges. Since a “point” must be visible on an image in order to be
measured, the feature must have finite size. Small round objects such as manhole covers will appear
as nearly ideal point features as long as the scale of the image is not too large. Under magnification or
image zoom, the edges of the object will appear to be somewhat indistinct although the center can still
be identified to a high precision as shown in Fig. 4-7. If this manhole appears in another image, its
center will be a repeatable measurement point whereas its edges may not.
FIGURE 4-7 Zoomed-in view of a manhole with cross-hair at center.

In a situation where a point feature is designated to be at the angle point of a painted chevron
target, it is important to use the intersections of the centerlines of the stripes rather than the outside or
inside corner as the point. Edges that may appear clear and sharp at a glance will become blurred and
indistinct when viewed under magnification as shown in Fig. 4-8. In this figure, it would be difficult
to precisely place cross-hairs on the corner of the chevron, but the centerlines of the stripes can be
identified precisely.
FIGURE 4-8 Zoomed-in view of a chevron target with cross-hair at the intersection of centerlines of
stripes.

In many cases it is necessary to measure edges, particularly when mapping features in an area. It
is then important to make a best estimate of where the true edge of the feature is located. A certain
amount of error can be expected in the measurement due to blurred edges. For example, consider
measuring the lengths of the stripes of the chevron in Fig. 4-8. It is very difficult to identify the
precise location of where the paint meets the underlying pavement.

References
Abdel-Aziz, Y. L.: “Asymmetrical Lens Distortion,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote
Sensing, vol. 41, no. 3, 1975, p. 337.
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Manual of Photogrammetry, 5th ed.,
Bethesda, MD, 2004, chaps. 3 and 10.
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Problems
4-1. Assume that photo coordinates of points a and b of Fig. 4-1 are xa = 57.62 mm, ya = 67.15 mm,
xb = 22.07 mm, and yb = –49.50 mm. Calculate photo distance ab and radial distances oa and ob.

4-2. Repeat Prob. 4-1 except that the photo coordinates are xa = –71.66 mm, ya = 47.82 mm, xb =
81.43 mm, and yb = 6.05 mm.

4-3. Name and briefly describe the various systematic errors that may exist in photographic
coordinates.

4-4. Calculate the acute angle (to the nearest 0.001°) of intersection of fiducial lines for a camera of
the type shown in Fig. 4-1 if comparator measurements of the fiducial marks on a calibration “flash
plate” were as follows:

4-5. Repeat Prob. 4-4, except that the following flash plate measurements were taken:
 4-6. If the intersection of fiducial lines of the camera of Prob. 4-4 defines the principal point
exactly, what are the x and y photo coordinates of the four fiducial marks in the photo system?
Assume that the x and y photo coordinate axes are parallel to the comparator axes.

4-7. Repeat Prob. 4-6, except that it applies to the data of Prob. 4-5.

4-8. On a paper-print positive, the measured x distance between fiducials (1 and 3) was 224.9 mm
and y between fiducials (2 and 4) was 223.5 mm. These x and y distances determined in camera
calibration were 225.433 and 225.693 mm, respectively. Using the method of Example 4-1, calculate
shrinkage-corrected coordinates of points a, b, and c whose coordinates were measured on the paper
print as follows:

4-9. Repeat Prob. 4-8, except that the measured x distance on a paper-print positive between
fiducials 1 and 3 was 225.64 mm and y between fiducials 2 and 4 was 225.83 mm; the calibrated
distances between these same fiducials were 224.282 and 224.155 mm, respectively; and measured
photo coordinates of points a, b, and c were as follows:

4-10. A recent USGS camera calibration report yielded the parameters given in the following table.
Using these calibration values, compute the corrected coordinates (to the nearest micrometer) for an
image point having coordinates x = 73.952 mm and y = 98.155 mm relative to the fiducial axes.
4-11. Repeat Prob. 4-10, except that the coordinates, with respect to the fiducial system, of the image
point are x = –78.090 mm and y = –57.688 mm.

4-12. The photo coordinates listed below have been corrected for film and lens distortions. The
camera that took the photography had a focal length of 151.942 mm, the flying height above mean sea
level (MSL) was 8530 m, and the average elevation of the terrain was 310 m above MSL. Calculate
the photo coordinates (to the nearest micrometer) corrected for atmospheric refraction using the
method of Example 4-4.

4-13. Repeat Prob. 4-12, except that the camera lens had a focal length of 88.916 mm, flying height
above MSL was 4250 m, the average terrain elevation was 170 m above MSL, and the photo
coordinates were as follows:

_____________
1 The photographic nadir point is defined in Sec. 10-3.