Plastic Pipes Plastic Pipes For Piping E

PETROJET THE PETROLIUM PROJECTS & TECHNICAL CONSULTATIONS COMPANY
Plastic Pipes
Plastic pipes for Piping Engineering issues
Mohammed Kamal Kamal Gaber
27/12/2016
Paper is introducing a research on thermoplastic pipes uses and design, as plastic pipes have been used widely
in many oil, water, and gas process plants and pipelines for many issues instead of metal pipes as their lower
cost, easier installation, and lighter weight than other metallic pipes.

Subjecct. Plaastic pipes for piping
p Engineerring issues
M.Kamall
ment.
Docum Reesearch
Pipiing and Pipelin
ne Design
Engineerr Date. 277/12/2016
A
MNI MBA Page. 1 of 47

Table of Contentts
1. INTRODUC
CTION 4
1.1 Backgro
ound 4
1.2 Principle
e Materials 5
2. SCOPE 5
3. LE PRODUCT
AVAILABL TS 5
4. PRINCIPLE
E USES 7
4.1. Rehabiilitation Tech

hnology 8
5. ADVANTAG
GES AND LIIMITATIONS
S 9
5.1. Advanttages 9
5.2. Limitatiions 9
5.3. Require
ements for successful de
esign 10
6. THERMOPLASTIC PIP
PING MATER
RIALS 11
6.1. Polyme
ers Definition
n 11
6.1.1. Chemicall geometry 11
6.2. Plasticss Compositio

on materials 12
6.2.1. Plastics Additives

A 12
6.2.2. Crystallin
ne materials 13
6.2.3. Thermoplastics Materrials 13
6.2.4. Cell classsification 14
7. COMMONL
LY USED TH
HERMOPLAS
STIC PIPES 14
7.1. Polyvin
nyl Chloride ((PVC) Pipe 14
7.2. Chlorin
nated Polyvin
nyl Chloride (CPVC)
( Pipe
e 17

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7.3. Polypro
opylene (PP)) Pipe 18
8
7.4. Acrylon ene-Styrene (ABS) Pipe

nitrile-Butadie 18
8
7.5. Polyeth
hylene (PE) Pipe
P 19
9
8. DESIGN AN
ND INSTALL
LATION 21
9. COMMON DESIGN
D AN
ND INSTALLA
ATION CON
NSIDERATIO
ONS 23
3
9.1. Internal Hydraulic P

Pressure 23
3
9.1. 1.Surge Pre

essure 24
4
9.2. Resista
ance to Vacu
uum and Exte
ernal Pressu
ure 27
7
9.3. Temperature Effectts 28

8
10. CONSIDER
RATIONS FO
OR ABOVEG
GROUND US
SES 29
9
10.1. Suppo
orts and Ancchors 29
9
10.2. Suppo
ort Spacing 30
0
10.3. Expan
nsion-Contra
action 31
11. CONSIDER
RATIONS FO
OR BELOWG
GROUND US
SES 33
3
11.1. Pipe-S
Soil System Parameters 34
4
11.1.1. The hoo

op stiffness parameter
p 35
5
11.1.2. The bed

dding stiffnes
ss parameterr 35
5
12. PE / METAL PIPE TRA

ANSATION FITTING
F 35
5
12.1. Example, Vendor Print for PE / Metal Transition Fitting 36

6
13. LINED PIPIN

PLASTIC-L NG FOR COR
RROSION RESISTANCE
E 39
9
13.1 History
y 39
9
13.2. METH ANUFACTURE

HODS OF MA 39
9
13.2
2.1. Liner Ma
anufacturing Processes for
f PTFE Lin
ners 39
9
13.3. Liner Materials 40

0

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13.3.1. Liner Ty
ypes 41
13.4 Installe
ed Cost Com
mparisons 41
14. INSTALLAT
TION 3
43
15. SOURCES OF ADDITIO

ONAL INFORMATION 43
3
ew Developm
15.1. On Ne ments 43
3
15.2. Public
cations Relatted to Standa
ards 44
4
15.3. Assoc
ciations 44
4
15.4. Codes
s 44
4
16. REFERENC
CES 46
6

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1. INTRODUC
CTION
Plastics pip
ping are mad
de from either of two ba
asic groups of synthetic materials, tthermoplastic
c and thermosetting.
Thermoplas
stics can be
e softened and
a reshape
ed repeatedlyy by the ap
pplication of heat. In co
ontrast therm
mosetting
materials are
a irreversib
bly set, or cured,
c or hardened into a permanen
nt shape du
uring factory manufacturre. Once
hardened in
nto their fina
al shape, the
ermosetting products
p can
nnot be softe
ened and the
erefore may not be resh
haped by
heating.
Thermoplas
stic materialss include min
nimal reinforrcements, wh
hereas therm
mosetting ressins are almo
ost always combined
with reinforrcements (su
uch as glass
s fibers) and sometimes fillers (such o produce structurally in
h as sand) to ntegrated
composite constructions
c s.
1.1. Backgrround
The first the

ermoplastic tubes
t were made
m in Gerrmany during
g the 1930s from a PVC copolymer. Thermoplas
stics pipe
nited States in 1940 from
was first manufactured commerciallly in the Un m cellulose a yrate (CAB) and was
acetate buty
used by The Southern California Ga
as Company
y for distributting natural gas.
g Volume
e production commenced
d in 1948
when PE pipe
p was firs
st offered forr non-code-rregulated wa
ater service applicationss. ABS and PVC pipe were
w first
commerciallly made in the United States in 1949
1 and 1950, respec
ctively. Durin
ng the 1940
0s and 1950
0s many
fundamenta
al advancess were intro
oduced in polymer
p che
emistry, matterials formu
ulation, and product fa
abrication
technology,, which laid the foundattion for the thermoplasti
t cs pipe indu
ustry. Improvvements in these
t areas are still
continuing. However, th
he start of th
he evolution
n of thermop
plastics piping as engine
eering materials is considered to
n place in 19
have taken 950 when an
a American Society forr Testing and Materials (ASTM) gro
oup for plasttics pipe
standardiza
ation was orrganized. So
oon thereafte
er the first ASTM
A stand
dards coverin
ng materials
s, test metho
ods, and
piping prod
ducts began to be issue
ed. At prese
ent over 180
0 ASTM sta
andards defiine plastic piping,
p plastiic piping
materials, te
est methods, and recommended prac
ctices for join
ning and installation. Num
merous plastics piping sttandards
have also been
b issued b
by other orga
anizations.
1.2. Princip
ple Materials
s
Thermoplas
stics accoun
nt for the lio
on’s share of plastics used for piiping. During
g 1989,overr 95 percen
nt of the
approximate on pounds (3.75 million
ely 7.5 billio n metric ton
ns)of plastics
s that went into pipe, conduit, and
d fittings
consisted of
o thermoplas
stics.1Polyviinyl chloride (PVC) acco
ounted for ab
bout three-qu
uarters of all thermoplas
stic pipe.
The second
d most widelyy used therm
moplastic is polyethylene
p e (PE), accou bout a 15 perrcent share, followed
unting for ab
by acrylonittrile-butadien
ne-styrene (A
ABS), represe
enting aboutt a 4 percent share. The balance about 6 percent consists
of special-p
purpose ma
aterials, such
h as chlorin nyl chloride (CPVC), crross link ed
nated polyvin dpolyethylene
e (PEX),
polybutylene (PB), polyypropylene (P
PP), and varrious fluorina
ated polymerrs, Principlelyy polyvinylide
ene fluoride (PVDF).

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In 1955, tottal U.S. Ship
pments of the
ermoplastic pipe
p were les
ss than 40 million
m pound
ds (18,000 metric
m tons). By
B 1998,
the rate of shipments
s ha
ad increased
d almost 200 fold, and it is
s still growing.
More footag
ge of thermo
oplastic pipe is now bein
ng installed tthan that of all
a other type
es of piping materials co
ombined.
However, th
he total dolla
ar value of in
nstalled therm
moplastic pip
pe is second
d to and onlyy about one-q
quarter of th
hat of the
leading matterial, steel.3
3 this is beca
ause the Prin er sizes. But the very
nciple use of thermoplastics piping is in the smalle
successful track record in these siz
zes has been leading to increasing acceptance
a and use of the
t larger dia
ameters,
which curre
ently comprisse the fastestt growing segment. As off this writing, thermoplasstic pipe is av
vailable throu
ugh NPS
60 (DN1500
0) for pressure uses and NPS 108 (D
DN 2700) for sewer and drain
d applicattions.
2. SCOPE
This Paperr reviews th

he Principle properties and
a uses of thermoplas
stics piping, discusses its advantages and
nts general and basic information on materialls, propertie
limitations, and presen es, standardization, design, and
installation. This informa
ation is inten
nded to guide
e the reader in evaluating
g the applica
ability of therrmoplastics piping
p for
an intended
d application; in choosing
g the approp
priate material and produ
uct; and in itts proper design and ins
stallation.
References
s are provided for more detailed inform
mation and fo
or further guidance on th
hese and rela
ated subjects
s.
3. AVAILABL
LE PRODUCT
TS
Plastics pipe and fittings

s are availab
ble in a vast array
a of mate eters, wall thiicknesses, and designs. For non-
erials, diame
pplications special wall constructions
pressure ap c s are offered
d—such as double
d wall, ribbed, and foamed core
e—which
are designe
ed to more ec
conomically achieve a de
esired longitu
udinal and diiametrical pip
pe stiffness.
Most of the
ese productss are covere
ed by nation
nal standards. Table 1.1
1, which listss common standards
s th
hat cover
Principle co
ommercial products, also
o identifies each producct’s primary application and gives th
he range of nominal
sizes coverred by the sttandard. As the updating g and the writing of new product standards is a dynamic
g of existing
ongoing pro
ocess, the re
eader is advis
sed to contact standardss-issuing orga
anizations fo
or the latest status.
s The American
A
Society for Testing and
d Materials (A
ASTM),*for example,
e eac
ch year upda
ates a volum
me of it's ‘‘An
nnual Book of
o ASTM
Standards’ ‘which inclu
udes all of itts current sttandards covering plastiics piping. The
T Plastics Pipe Institu
ute (PPI)
publishes a periodically
y updated re
eport, PPI TR
R-5, which includes a co
omprehensivve listing of North Ameriican and
Internationa
al Standardss Organizatio
on (ISO) stan hermoplastics piping. There are also
ndards on th o many comm
mercially
available piping appurte
enances, suc
ch as identifiied in Table D3.1, that are
a fabricated
d from plastics but which
h are not
covered by any national standard. In
n addition, some pipe an
nd fitting man and their disttributors can custom-
nufacturers a
fabricate co
omponents th
hat may or may
m not be shown
s in pro
oduct catalog
gs. These sp
pecials includ
de manholes
s for both
infrastructurre and indus
strial applicattions. Fabric
cated fittings intended forr pressure se
ervice are offten reinforce
ed by an
overwrap with
w a glass-fiber thermosetting resin composite.
c

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Table 1.1
Piping ma
aterial Subject product,
p or Principle
e
Nomin nal
and prod
duct abbreviaated title of applicattions
sizes
standard
d standardd
range((in)
ABS,PP and
d PVC
ASTM D331
11 D
DWV fittings patterns 1¹⁄₄– 8 Drain, waste vent
ABS and PV
VC
ASTM D268
80 A
ABS and PVC sewer pipe off composite wall 4–15 Sewer drain
construc ction
ASTM F409
9 ble and replac
Accessib ceable tube an
nd 1¹⁄₄– 1¹⁄₂ Drain, waste vent
fittings
ASTM F480
0 Thermopplastic water well
w casing 2–16 Water-well ca
asing
ASTM F149
99 Coextrud
ded, composite DWV pipe 1¹⁄₄–
–8 Drain, waste vent
CSAB181.5 Coextrud
ded ABS/PVC
CDWV pipe 1¹⁄₄–
ABS,PVC&C
CPVC
ASTM F148
88 Coextru
uded composiite pipe 2–1
12 Drain, waste & vent;
sewer
ABS
ASTM D1527 ABS Pipe, Schedules 40
0and80 Coldwater; in
ndustrial
¹⁄₈–1
12
ASTM D2
2282 ABS Pipe, dimension rattio series ¹⁄₈–12 Coldwater; in
ndustrial
ASTM D2
2468 ABS Socke
et fittings, Sch
hedule 40 ¹⁄₈–8
8 Coldwater; in
ndustrial
ASTM D2
2661 ABSDWV pipe and fittings Drain, waste & vent
1¹⁄₄–
–6
ASTM D2
2750 y conduit and fittings
ABS Utility f 1–6 Electrical du
uct
ASTM D2
2751 ABS Sewe
er pipe and fittings 3–12 Sewer drain
ASTM F6
628 ABS Foam
m core DWV 1¹⁄₄–
CSAB181.1 ABSDWV pipe and fittings 1¹⁄₄–

PA
ASTM F1
1733 on fittings for polyamide pip
Butt heat fusio pe Gas distrribution
1/2 – 48
CSAB13
37.12 Polyamide piiping systems for gas servicce 1/2 – 8 Gas distribu
ution

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Table 1.1
Piping matterial and Subject product, Nomminal ple

Princip
product sta
andard ated title of standard
or abbrevia s sizes
s range (in) applica
ations
PE
ASTM D210
04 PE pipe, Sc
chedule 40, ID
I based 1⁄2–6 Cold water,
w industriial
ASTM D223
39 PE pipe, dim
mension ratio
o series, ID based
b 1⁄2–6 Cold water;
w industriial
ASTM D244
47 PE Pipe, Sched
dules 40 & 80 1/2–12 Cold water;
w industriial
ASTM D260
09 Plastic inse
erts fittings fo
or PE pipe 1/2–6 Cold water
w
ASTM D268
83 PE fittings, socket fusion type 1/2 - 4 Cold water;
w natural gas;
ASTM D273
37 PE tubing 1/2 –2 Cold water
w
ASTM D303
35 mension ratio
PE pipe, dim o series 1/2 –6 Cold water;
w industriial
ASTM D326
61 PE fittings, butt fusion ty
ype 1/2 –48 Cold water;
w natural
4. PRINCIPLE
E USES
Thermoplas a routinely used for much common pressure and no pressurre application
stics piping are ns. Approxim
mately 80
percent of the
t newly in
nstalled main
ns and 90 pe
ercent of the
e services fo
or gas distrib
bution are made
m of PE. Over 90
percent of rural water distribution mains
m and over
o 40 perccent of municipal mains are made of
o PVC. Mos
st of the
meter piping
smaller-diam g installed for agricultura
al and turf irrrigation is made primarilyy from PE and
a PVC. CP
PVC and
PEX piping are increasingly used fo
or hot/cold wa onstruction. In oil and
ater distributiing piping for residential and other co
gas producttion, significa
ant quantities
s of PE pipe o convey water and well g
e are used to moplastics piping are
gases. Therm
also freque
ently used fo
or commercia
al and indus a for conveyying chilled and process
strial applicattions such as s waters,
aqueous so
olutions of corrosive
c che
emicals, slurries, foods, and substa
ances that must
m remain uncontamin
nated by
metallic ions.
More than half the tonnage of all thermoplasti

t c pipes goe
es into no prressure usess. Over 85 percent
p of th
he newly
nderground b
installed un building sewer connectio
ons are made of PVC. PVC
P also acccounts for a similar share of the
ection mains in sizes NP
sewer colle PS 4 through
h 18 (DN 10
00 through 450).
4 About 80 percent of new sing
gle-family
dwellings uttilize either PVC
P or ABS drain, waste
e, and vent (DWV) piping
g. Most drain
nage systems
s, including those
t for

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building fou
undations, leaching fields
s, agriculture
e, and road cconstruction now consistt of thermopllastics piping
g, mostly
PE and PVC
C. And both PVC and PE
E are increas
singly used fo
or larger diam
meter sewers d culverts. One of the
s, drains and
faster grow
wing applicatiions is the use
u of PE and PVC pipe
es of profile
e wall constructions for drainage,
d pa
articularly
alongside and
a under ro
oadways (se
ee Fig. 1.1). Another is the rehabilittation of olde
er sewers, drains,
d and pressure
pipelines by
y the insertio
on of new PE
E or PVC pipe
es.
Fig. 1.1
4.1. Rehabilitation Tec

chnology
In one reha
abilitation tec
chnology a PE
P or PVC pipe
p is deform
med when manufactured
m d into a ‘‘U’’ shape
s appro
oximately
one-half the
e diameter of
o the host pipe. At the in
nstallation sitte, the ‘‘U’’ deformed pipe is pulled th
hrough the damaged
d
host pipe and then reformed by a combination
c o heat and pressure
of p to tightly
t fit the shape of the host pipe (see
( Fig.
1.2)
Fig. 1.2

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5. ADVANTAG
GES AND LIIMITATIONS
S
A number of
o important performancee advantages
s have spark
ked the wide spread adoption of therrmoplastics piping
p for
so many pre
essures and no pressure
e uses.
5.1. Advantage
es
 The most universally recognized

r a
advantage is the piping
g’s virtual frreedom from
m attack by ambient wa
ater and
moisture. Thermoplasti
T cs piping are
a not subject to surfa
ace attacks in any wayy comparable to the ru
usting or
environmen
ntal corrosion
n of metals.
 stics, being nonconductors, are imm
Thermoplas mune to the
e electroche
emical-based
d corrosion process induced by
electrolytes such as acid
ds, bases, and salts. In addition,
a plas
stics pipe ma
aterials are n
not vulnerable
e to biologica
al attack.
ermoplastics are not sub
In sum, the bject to corro
osion in most environme
ents in both
h abovegroun
nd and unde
erground
his has resulted in negligible costs for mainten
service. Th nance and external
e prottection such as painting
g, plastic
coating, galvanizing, ele
ectroplating, wrapping, an
nd cathodic protection.
p
 Another Prrinciple adva
antage offere
ed by therm
moplastics is
s their lowerr specific grravity, which
h results in ease of
handling, sttorage, and installation, as well as in lower tra
ansportation costs. The smooth pipe
e surfaces yield
y low
ors and very low tendenc
friction facto cy to fouling. They also offer
o very goo
od abrasion rresistance, even
e when co
onveying
slurries thatt can rapidly abrade hard
der materials.
 High deform
mation capacity without fracture—orr strain abilitty (Janson)—
—is another important performance
p feature,
particularly for undergro
ound service
e. In respons
se to earth lo
oading, burie
ed flexible pip
pes deform (deflect)
( and
d thereby
activate add
ditional and substantial
s support
s from the surrounding soil. Th
his capability to activate additional
a su
upport by
deformation
n results in a pipe-soil structure tha
at is capablle of supporrting earth ffills and surfface live loa
ads of a
magnitude that
t could fra
acture strong
ger but less stainable
s materials.
 Thermoplas
stics piping, particularly
p in
n the sizes under
u around
d NPS 18 (DN
N 450), can be competittive in cost to piping
of other ma
aterials. In the
t oplastic swilll oftentimes overcomes a first-cost disadvantag
larger sizes, thermo ge when
consideratio
on is given to
o their lower operating an
nd maintenan
nce costs an
nd longer life..
5.2. Limitations
s
 The Princip
ple limitationss of thermoplastics arise from their re
elatively low strength and
d stiffness and greater sensitivity
of mechanic
cal propertiess to tempera
ature.
 As a result, their prima
ary use is fo
or gravity and lower-presssure applica
ations at ne
ear ambient temperatures. Some
plastics qua
alify for hot water servic
ce, and there aterials that can be use
e are some specialty ma ed to close to
t 300_F
(149_C).

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Notwithstan
nding these rrestrictions, thermoplastic
t cs piping sattisfy the perfformance req
quirements fo
ora very broa
ad range
of applicatio
ons.
5.3. Requirrements for successful design
Successful design with thermoplastiics requires recognition o

of their viscoelastic naturre. These ma
aterials do no
ot exhibit
the relative
ely simple sstress/strain relationship that is cha
aracteristic of Duration of loading, as well as
o metals. D
temperature onment, can have a profo
e and enviro ound effect o
on their stres ure strength, ultimate
ss-strain response, ruptu
acity, and other enginee
strain capa ering properties. The extent
e to wh
hich duration
n of loading
g, temperatu
ure, and
environmen
nt influence ultimate mechanical pro
operties varie
es not only from one class of therm
moplastic ma
aterial to
another (for example, between PV
VC and PE) but can als
so significan me generic material,
ntly differ within the sam
depending on the spec
cific nature of
o the polym
mer (e.g., mo
olecular weig ar weight distribution, degree of
ght, molecula
branching, and extent o
of copolyme
erization with
h other mono
omers), the type and qu olymer additives and
uantity of po
modifiers, and
a the proc
cessing cond
ditions. Thes
se factors m
must be recognized when
n characteriz
zing the eng
gineering
properties of
o thermopla
astic piping, particularly
p w
when definin er temperature limits;
ng allowable stress, strain, and uppe
and it goes without say
ying that for effective des
sign and installation, the
ey must be g
given conside
eration by th
he piping
ns creator, designer,
specification d and
d user.
Compared to
t traditional piping mate
erials, thermo
oplastics hav
ve high coeffficients of the
ermal expans
sion and con
ntraction.
For examplle, the therm
mal expansio
on rate can be
b from 6 to
o 10 times greater than that
t al pipe. This must be
of meta
recognized both in desiign and insta
allation, particularly for a ultant piping reaction
aboveground applicationss where resu
may require se of expansion loops or pipe supportts. For above
e frequent us eground piping more atte
ention may also
a need
to be given
n to proper pipe
p restrain
nt because the
t low mas
ss of thermo
oplastics provides less in
nertia agains
st piping
movements
s that may be induced en changes in the fluid flow velo
d by sudde ocity. Additio
onally, abov
veground
thermoplasttics should b
be positioned
d or protected
d against pos
ssible accide
ental mechan
nical damage
e.
Since therm
moplastics a
are combustiible, their us
se in certain
n locations may
m be limitted by fire safety
s conce
erns and
regulations.. Constructio
on and building codes address
a thesse concerns through varrious requirements, inclu
uding the
placing of thermoplasticcs piping ins nt walls and chases and the use of fire
side suitable fire-resistan f stops wh
hen pipe
penetrates through
t such
h structures.

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6. THERMOPLASTIC PIP
PING MATER
RIALS
ers Definitio
6.1. Polyme on
The term po
olymer (from
m the Greek poly,
p meanin
ng ‘‘many,’’ and
a mer mea
aning ‘‘unit’’) is used to denote the long-chain
or network structure of macromolec
cules that arre produced either natura
ally or that a
are made by
y man. The latter are
referred to as
a synthetic polymers. Po
olymers whic
ch are the ba
ase material for plastics a
are oftentime
es termed res
sins.
Polymers used for engineering appllications con

nsist of relativ
vely long mo
olecules in orrder to yield satisfactory levels of
m strength, du
longer-term uctility, and to
oughness.
Molecule siize is denote

ed by molec
cular weight,, which is th
he sum of th asses of all the elements in the
he atomic ma
molecule. Since
S all the
e molecules in a polyme
er are not off the same size,
s the deg
gree of polym
merization is
s usually
expressed by
b the polym e molecular weight. The nature of the distribution
mer’s average n of molecula
ar sizes also
o bears a
significant influence on a number off physical an
nd mechanica
al properties
s. Thermopla
astics used fo
or piping app
plications
tend to be of relativelyy high molec
cular weight (generally over
o 100,000
0) and of rellatively narro
ow molecula
ar weight
distribution.. However, the molecula
ar weight can
nnot be so la
arge as to re
esult in a me
elt viscosity so high as to
t hinder
proper fabrication of the
e end produc
ct. Another molecular
m strructural para
ameter is the
e length and frequency of
o shorter
molecular chains
c that o
occasionally branch out from the ma
ain polymer chain. Thesse branches help determ
mine how
closely the polymer mo n lie next to each other, which has an influence
olecules can e on the pollymer’s phys
sical and
mechanical properties. The length and
a frequenc
cy of polyme
er branches may be con
ntrolled by co
onditions of chemical
c
atalysts use
reaction, ca ed, and by the copolym
merization with
w other th
han the Principle mono
omer. For example,
e
polyethylene pipe polym
mers are in fa
act copolyme
ers of ethylene with sma
all amounts o n monomers such as
of other olefin
propylene, butene, pen
ntene, and hexene.
h Altho
ough the am
mount of oth
her monomers used is lo
ow, and the
ereby the
polymer stilll falls under the classific
cation of poly
yethylene, it is enough to
o modify the
e polymer’s molecular
m strructure—
Principlely the
t number of short bran
nches along the linear m
molecular chains—and th
hereby exertt significant influence
on engineering propertie
es. Many commercial po
olymers, inclu
uding polypro utylene (PB), are also
opylene (PP)) and polybu
olymers.
partial copo
6.1.1 Chemicall geometry
emical geom
Che metry, some
etimes referrred to as polymer arch
hitecture, alsso helps de
etermine the relative
phy
ysical arrangement of mo
olecules to on
ne another a
and, thereby, the polymerr’s physical properties.
p Generally,
the long molecu
ules in polym
mers tend to align
a themse
elves near ea mmetry analogous to
ach other in a random sym
aghetti in a bowl. This random arra
spa angement is referred to as the amo
orphous state. The prox
ximity of
poly
ymer molecu
ules to one another and
d their phys
sical entanglement givess rise to me
echanical forrces that

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greatly accountt for a polym
mer’s mecha
anical prope
erties. PVC and ABS arre polymers that are es
ssentially
amorphous matterials.
6.2. Plastic
cs Composittion materia
als
Plastics are
e compound
ds of resinss and additivves. As pre
eviously expllained, plasttics are diviided into tw
wo broad
categories, thermoplastics and the
ermosets. Since thermop
plastics are capable of being softened by hea
ating and
hardened by
b cooling, tthey can be shaped into articles by
y operations
s such as m
molding or extrusion, wh
hich take
advantage of
o this capab
bility.
6.2.1. Plastics Additives
ditives are incorporated into a thermo

Add oplastics com
mposition to achieve
a speccific purposes during fa
abrication
or service.
s The
e precise na
ature and am
mounts of th
hese additives depends on the plas
stic and its inherent
properties; the processing method used to convertt it to a finis
shed article; and any desired modific
cation of
properties to acchieve certain
n aesthetic, performance
p e, or economic objectivess.
e main kinds of additives that may be

The e used in therrmoplastic piiping compossitions includ
de the followiing:
 zers. To prottect the plasttic against th

Heat stabiliz hermal degra
adation, particularly during processing
g.
 Antioxidants
s. To protectt against oxid
dation during
g processing and when in
n service.
 Ultraviolet screens
s o protect against ultraviole
or sttabilizers. To et radiation in sunlight du
uring outdoorr storage
and weathe
er-exposed service.
 Lubricants. To facilitate
e and impro
ove fabricatiion by reducing viscositty and lesse
ening frictional drag
through dies and other surfaces.
s
 Pigments. To
T give the product
p a disttinctive colorr.
 Processing aids. To fa
acilitate mate
erial mixing and fusion during
d proce
essing and thereby
t optim
mize the
ation of mate
homogeniza erial and its properties.
p
 Property mo
odifiers. To enhance
e a pa
articular prop
perty such as
s impact stre
ength or flexib
bility.
 Fillers. Mos
st often used to reduce volume cost; however, fille
ers may also
o be used to increase stifffness or
to modify prrocessing ch
haracteristics
s.
Add
ditives are e
essential com
mponents of most thermoplastic piping composittions. They facilitate pro
ocessing,
enh
hance certaiin properties
s, give a product
p a distinctive appearance and color, an
nd provide required
protection durin
ng fabricatio
on and service. There a
are only a few
f thermop
plastics [e.g.., certain flu
uorinated

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poly
ymers such as polyviny
ylidene fluoriide (PVDF)] that do nott require the
e incorporatiion of some
e type of
add
ditive becaus
se they already have suffficient natura
al thermal sta
ability and ag
ging and wea
athering resis
stance.
The
e precise natture and qua
antities of add
ditives that can
c be used for piping co
ompositions are
a delimited
d by their
effe neering properties, such as rigidity, impact stren
ect on engin ngth, chemiccal resistanc
ce, creep res
sistance,
rupture strength
h under long
g term loading, and fatigu
ue endurance. For exam
mple, the use of an inorga
anic filler
can
n compromisse the natura
al resistance
e of polymers ong acids orr bases. Also, too much filler, or
s to very stro
use
e of a filler o
of a coarser grade, or its inadequa
ate dispersio
on can introd
duce physic
cal discontinu
uities, or
inte
ernal faults, tthat can com
mpromise long term stren
ngth, ductility e endurance. Another
y, toughness,, and fatigue
ample is the excessive use of liquid
exa d stabilizers or lubricantts, which ten
nds to plastiicize the pla
astic and
thereby make it less creep
p-resistant an
nd more sen
nsitive to tem
mperature. Additionally,
A the
t propertie
es of the
se polymer used
bas u in a pla
astics piping
g composition
n are not on
nly determine
ed by the ch
hemical elem
ments, or
atoms, from wh
hich the pollymer is made, but are also profou
undly influenced by the specific geo
ometrical
angement by
arra y which the
e polymer’s atoms are combined
c to
o form a ma
acromolecule
e. A most im
mportant
ctural parameter is the length of the
molecular struc e molecular chain. The longer the chain,
c the larger and
avier the molecule.
hea
6.2.2. Crystallin
ne Thermop
plastics matterials
Cerrtain other ppolymers, such as PE, PP, P PB, and PVDF, are partly crysta alline materials. Portionss of their
polyymer chainss organize th hemselves in n close and very
v well ord
dered arranggements callled crystallite
es; other
porrtions lie in the amorpho ous regions. The strong ger physical bonds in th he well-ordeered, closelyy packed
crysstalline regio
ons have sig gnificant influence over mechanical properties ssuch as stre ength, stiffne
ess, and
toughness. The n and the size and natu
e extent of crystallization
c ure of the crrystalline reg
gions, as weell as the
nature of the intterconnectivity network ofo molecules running from m one crysta
alline region to another can all be
mewhat contrrolled by tailo
som oring molecu ular architectture.
6.2.3. Thermop
plastics Materials
Cerrtain other ppolymers, such as PE, PP, P PB, and PVDF, are partly crysta alline materials. Portionss of their
polyymer chainss organize th hemselves in n close and very
v well ord
dered arranggements callled crystallite
es; other
porrtions lie in the amorpho ous regions. The strong ger physical bonds in th he well-ordeered, closelyy packed
crysstalline regio
ons have sig gnificant influence over mechanical properties ssuch as stre ength, stiffne
ess, and
toughness. The n and the size and natu
e extent of crystallization
c ure of the crrystalline reg
gions, as weell as the
nature of the intterconnectivity network ofo molecules running from m one crysta
alline region to another can all be
som
mewhat contrrolled by tailo oring molecu ular architectture.
Thee many posssible variations in polymer structurre, combined with the different typ pes and amounts of
addditives that ca
an be used, result in a great diversityy of plastic co
ompositions,, even within
n a particular polymer
group such ass polyvinyl chloride (PV VC) or poly yethylene (P PE). The de efining and classifying of such
commpositions iss, understand
dably, not a simple task.. The primary y standard plastic
p materrial specificattions are
ued by the American Society for Testing
issu T and Materials (A ASTM). The first ASTM standards classified
c

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plasstic materialss by a ‘‘Type
e, Grade, an nd Class ‘system in acco ordance with
h three key properties.
p H
However,
with
h the growin ng need to better
b definee plastic matterials by more than jusst three prop
perties, a nu
umber of
AST TM standard ds have adop pted a cell classification system wheereby each o
of a number of
o primary properties
is given
g a prope
erty cell number dependin ng on the prooperty value.
6.2.4. Cell classification
All the
t resultantt property cell numbers (tthere can be as many as
s needed) are
e then listed in a specified order.
Forr example in accordance e with the ceell classification system of

o ASTM D3 3350, ‘‘Stand
dard Specific
cation for
Polyethylene Plastics
P Pipe and Fitting Materials,’’ Class 2344 424 polyethyylene designates a mate erial with
properties that fall
f within the
e following ra
ange of value es:
operty
Pro Require
ement
Den
nsity: Cell 2 of
o property 1 [0.926 to 0.9
940 g/cm3]
Melt index: Cell 3 of

o property 2 [_0.4 to 0.15
5 g/10 min]
xural modulu
Flex us: Cell 4 of
o property 3 [80,000 to _110,000
_ psi,, 550 to760 MPa]
M
Ten
nsile strength
h at yield: Cell 4 of
o property 4 [3000 to _35
500 psi, 21 to
o _24MPa]
Ressistance to slow crack Cell 2 of wths: hrs, when using

o property 5 [50 percent max failure after 24grow
testt method B, Condition
C C]
Hyd
drostatic dessign basis Cell 4 of
o property 6 [1600 psi orr 11 MPa] at 23_C
Alth
hough this ne ewer cell-typ
pe format is a major imprrovement in classifying
c and specifying
g piping matterials by
a broader
b array
y of significa
ant property and performmance chara acteristics, itt may not always be su ufficiently
deffinitive predicctor of longe
er-term perfo
ormance prop perties. The manufacture er may havee to be conssulted for
furtther information. For example, two PE E materials w
with the same ASTM material cell cla assification may
m have
ength under long-term loading that re
stre esponds sommewhat differrently to increeasing temp
perature, or to
o fatigue
load ding, or to ch
hemical environments.
A brief
b description of the major
m materrials used fo
or thermopla astics piping follows. The e Principle standard
s
pipiing products made from these
t materiials, and theiir application
ns, are identiffied in Table
e 1.1. Nonsta
andard or
spe
ecialty piping products are
e also offere
ed from thesee materials.
7. COMMONL
LY USED TH
HERMOPLAS
STIC PIPES
7.1. Polyvin
nyl Chloride
e (PVC) Pipe
e
e water and drainage sys

PVC is used for potable stems. It is o
one of the most
m widely u
used of the plastic
p pipes.. It has a
low pressurre and tempe
erature rating
g and very po
oor resistancce to solvents
s.

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In its virgin state PVC is s a transluce
ent, colorlesss, rigid polymmer. When PVCP was firstt commercia alized it was softened
by the addition of plastiicizers, and the resultantt compositions were prim marily used in the manuffacture of such items
as luggage e, upholstery y, garden ho ose, wire co oating, floor tiles, and laboratory
l tu
ubing. Subsequent adva ances in
extrusion an nd molding e equipment, and
a in the av vailability of more
m effectiv
ve stabilizer a
and lubricatio
on additives,, allowed
for the extrrusion of the e much morre viscous, rigid compossitions which h are the only ones suitable for piping. To
differentiatee these new wer UN plastticized comp positions from m the early plasticized versions
v the
ey were iden ntified as
UPVC, or rigid
r PVC. Th hese designations are still
s often use ed. Of the coommonly ava ailable therm
moplastics, riigid PVC
offers the highest
h strength and stiffn
ness at the least
l volume e cost, whichh accounts fo or its having become the e leading
plastic mate erial for both
h pressure and non-pressure piping. Major uses include wate er mains; irriigation; drain
n, waste,
and vent (D DWV); sewag ge and draina sing; electric conduit; and
age; well cas d power and communicattions ducting g. PVC is
available in a much broa ader range of
o pipe sizes and wall thic cknesses, fitttings, valvess, and appurttenances tha an in any
other plastic c.
PVC piping is joined primarily by twwo techniques s, solvent ce

ementing and d elastomericc seals. Althoough it can be
b joined
by thermal fusion,
f its me
elt viscosity is
i too high fo
or making reliably strong joints under field conditio
ons.
PVC piping g is made on nly from rigid compound ds containing g no plasticiizers and relatively sma all quantities of other
ingredients.. To minimiz ze adverse effects on long term strength and chemical re esistance, minimal
m quan ntities of
additives arre used in prressure pipe e compounds s. To improvve impact strrength for co onduit and otther applications that
may be sub bject to mech hanical abus se, small quaantities of sollid polymeric
c impact mod difiers (but no
ot plasticizerrs, which
are generallly liquids) are sometime es incorporatted into the composition. When imprroved stiffness is desired d, filler—
generally veery finely divvided calcium
m carbonate— —is added. Combinations
C s of these an
nd other additives can be e used to
optimize a rigid
r PVC co omposition fo or its intended
d applicationn. The enhan ncement of a particular property by th he use of
additives may often require a trade-off with some e other property. For the defining of rrigid PVC compositions based
b on
resultant prroperties, AS STM has es stablished tw wo material specification ns based on n the properrty cell class sification
system. On ne of these is s ASTM D17 784, ‘‘Standa ard Specificaation for Rigid Poly (Vinyyl Chloride) and
a Chlorina ated Poly
(Vinyl Chlorride) Compo ounds,’’ which h classifies PVC
P materiaals in accordaance with the nature of the
t polymer and four
primary prooperties. The ese four prop perties are Base
B resin, Im
mpact strenggth, Tensile strength, Mo odulus of elaasticity in
tension, Deeflection temmperature un nder load, an nd Chemical resistance is the fifth property in addition to first four
properties. These prop perties are classified
c according to ccell system according to o ASTM D1784 tables for PVC
materials.
Example for classificatio

on system ac
ccording to ASTM
A D1784
4:
The manne er in which a rigid PVC material

m is ide
entified by th
his classificattion system is illustrated by a Class 12454-B
PVC materiial which, acccording to Ta
ables of AST TM D1784, would
w have to
o meet the foollowing prop perty requirem
ments as
following:
equirement
Property Re
Base resin: Cell 1 of pro

operty 1 [poly (vinyl chlorride) photopo
olymer]
ngth N-m/mm
Impact stren m] : Cell 2 of pro
operty 2 [0.6
65 ft-lbf/in, minimum, 0.03
35
Tensile stre
ength: Cell 4 of pro
operty 3 [7,0
000 psi, minim
mum or 48 MPa]
M
Modulus of elasticity in tension:

t minimum] Cell 5 of pro
operty 4 [400
0,000 psi, or 2.8 GPa

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Deflection temperature under load: Cell 4 of pro
operty 5 [158
8_F (70_C), minimum]
Chemical re
esistance: Must meet the minimum
m requireme
ents listed un
nder Suffix B in accordance to ASTM
M D1784
requirements.
Most PVC pressure pip pe is made from materia als that mee
et the minimum requirem ments of celll 12454-C, which,
w to
maximize loong-term strrength, gene
erally is form
mulated with minimal quaantities of prrocessing ad
dditives and property
modifiers.
For pressure pipe app plications, th

he cell class sification sys
stem of AST TM D1784 is often com mplemented by one
additional material
m requ
uirement. All PVC pressu ure pipe stanndards require that the p
pipe be made from a forrmulation
with a speccified minimu
um long-termm strength tha at has been established in accordancce with ASTM D2837, ‘‘S Standard
Method forr Obtaining the Hydrosttatic Design Basis for Thermoplast
T tic Pipe Matterials.’’ Standards for products
intended for the transpoort of potable
e water alsoo require that the materia
al meet certaain minimum m chemical extraction
e
requirements designed to protect wa ater quality matching
m with NSF 61 standard for potable
p waterr (National Sanitation
S
Foundation Standard 61 1 for potable water).
Most ASTM M and a num mber of other PVC pressu ure pipe stanndards identify PVC stress-rated materials by a four-digit
f
number, of which the ffirst two digitts designate
e its type and grade in accordance
a with the older editions of
o ASTM
D1784 and the last two n hundreds of pounds per
o identify, in p square in nch, the maaterial’s maxiimum recommmended
hydrostatic design stres
ss (HDS) for water at 73.44_F (23_C).
In accordan
nce with AST TM conventio on, the maxiimum HDS iss one-half thhe material’ss hydrostatic design basis
s (HDB),
which refers to the matterial’s long-tterm hydrosttatic strength
h (LTHS) ca
ategory when n establishedd in accorda
ance with
ASTM D283 37. The follo
owing list des
scribes the most
m common n PVC stress
s-rated mateerials covered by this des
signation
system:
1. PVCC 1120 is a Type 1, Grade 1 PVC material

m (minimum cell cla
ass 12454-B)) with a max
ximum recom
mmended
00 psi (13.8 MPa.) for wa
HDS of 2,00 ater at 73.4_F (23_C).
2. PVCC 2110 is a Type 2, Grade 1 PVC material

m (minim
mum cell cla
ass 14333-D)) with a max
ximum recom
mmended
HDS of 1,00
00 psi (6.9 MPa).
M
3. PVC
C 2116 is a Type 2, Grade
G 1 PVC
C material ((same minim
mum cell cla
ass as abov
ve) with a maximum
m
recommend
ded HDS of 1
1,600 psi (11
1 MPa).
Since by th he ASTM con nvention the maximum recommende ed HDS is on ne-half the m
material’s HD DB, it follows
s that the
HDBs for th hese materiaals are 4,000 0 psi (27.6 MPa),
M 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa), and 3,2 200 psi (22.1 1 MPa), resp pectively.
The Plastic cs Pipe Institute (PPI) listts a generic PVC 1120 fformulation that
t providess for certain specified alternative
choices of ingredients a and formulattion quantitiees that have been determ mined to alloow the formu ulated compo ounds to
satisfy bothh the short- a
and long-termm requiremen nts establish
hed for this material
m classsification. Th
his formulatio
on, which
is listed in PPI TR-3, ‘‘Policies and d Procedure es for Develo oping Recom mmended Hyydrostatic Sttrengths and d Design
Stresses fo or Thermopllastic Pipe Materials,’’ is periodica ally updated to include any new alternatea choices of
ingredients that have be een validated d by means ofo both short-term and long term testss.
The other PVC

P materiall specification is ASTM D4396,
D ‘‘Stan
ndard Specification for Rigid Polyvinyl Chloride (P PVC) and
Related Pla
astic Compoounds for No on- Pressure
e Piping Prod ndicated by its title, this specification
ducts’’ As in n covers

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compounds s only intended for no prressure uses s. It is similarr to D1784 in
n that it is also based on
n the cell forrmat and
most of the same prima ary classificattion propertie
es.
PVC pipe and fittings must conform to the follow

wing standard
ds:
1. ASTM D 1785, PVC Plastic Pipe, Schedules 40, 80, and 120
ated Pipe (SDR Series)

2. ASTM D 2241, PVC Pressure-Ra
3. ASTM D 2466, PVC Plastic Pipe Fittings, Sch

hedule 40
4. ASTM D 2467, Sockket-Type PVC

C Plastic Pipe
e Fittings, Sc
chedule 80
5. ASTM D 2665, PVC Drain, Waste and Vent Pipe

P and Fittings
7.2. Chlorin
nated Polyv de (CPVC) Pipe:
vinyl Chlorid
CPVC is ussed for potab

ble water and
d drainage systems.
s It ha
as the same characteristtics as those
e of PVC and
d is used
where a stro
onger piping system with
h higher pres
ssure and temmperature ra
atings is requ
uired.
As implied by its name e, CPVC is a chemical modification n of PVC. It is very sim milar to PVC in many prroperties,
including strength and stiffness at ambient te emperature. But the ex xtra chlorine
e in CPVC’s s chemical structure
s
increases this material’’s maximum operating temperature
t limit by abo
out 50_F (28 8_C) above that for PVC C. Thus,
CPVC can be used up to nearly 20 00_F (93_C)) for pressurre uses and up to about2 210_F (100_ _C) for non-pressure
applications
s. Principle u
uses for CPVVC in addition
n to mentione ed uses abo ove (potable wwater and drrainage systeems) are
domestic ho ot water andd cold waterr piping, resiidential fire-ssprinkling pip
ping, and ma any industria
al application
ns which
can take addvantage of itts elevated-ttemperature capabilities and
a superiorr chemical re esistance.
CPVC mate erials are alsso classified

d by ASTM D1784.
D Similar to PVC, most CPVC C standards that cover pressure-
p
rated produucts identifyy stress-rated materials by a four-d digit numberr that comb bines the old
der type an nd grade
designation
n with the material’s
m m
maximum rec
commended HDS for water w at 73..4_F (23_C)).Currently, the only
recognized stress-ratedd CPVC desig gnation is CP
PVC 4120, ssignifying a Type
T IV, Gra
ade 1 materiaal in accordaance with
ASTM D178 84 with a ma aximum reco ommended hydrostatic
h d
design stress
s of 2,000 pssi(13.8 MPa)) for water at
a 73.4_F
(23_C) in accordance
a wwith ASTM D2837.
D In ad
ddition, mostt CPVC pipe e standards that cover products
p inte
ended for
elevated-tem
mperature sservice, such h as for hot water piping g, require thhat the CPV VC material have
h no lesss than a
recommend ded HDS of 5 500 psi (3.5 MPa)
M (equiva
alent to an HDB
H of 1,0000psi or 6.9 MPa) for water at 180_F (8 82_C).
CPVC pipe and fittings must

m conform
m to the follo
owing standa
ards:
1. ASTM F 441, CPVC Plastic Pipe

e, Schedules 40 and 80 (IIPS)
C Plastic Hot and Cold Water

2. ASTM D 2846, CPVC W Distribu
ution System
ms
3. ASTM F 439, Sockett-Type CPVC

C Plastic Pipe Fittings, Sc
chedule 80
4. CPVC 4120material in accordanc

ce with ASTM
M D1784

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7.3. Polyprropylene (PP
P) Pipe:
Polypropyle ene is a pollyolefin simillar in properties to high h-density PE E but somew what harder,, more temp
perature-
resistant, an
nd lighter in weight, but less
l tough. Itt is also simiilar to PE in its chemical resistance and
a heat fusiibility. As
in the case of PE, PP ca an be joined to itself by socket
s fusion, butt fusion,, and electro fusion.
Because off its greater stiffness andd better toleerance to eleevated tempe eratures PP== is sometim mes chosen over PE
where these e qualities are
a advantageous (e.g., forf abovegro ound piping and
a for the cconveying off hot fluids). Principle
applications
s for corrosivve drainage piping, for which
w PP offe
fers better so
olvent resista
ance than eiither ABS orr PVC. A
product line
e of PP corrrosive draina age piping made
m from aflame-retard
a dant grade of material is offered fo or use in
laboratories
s and hospittals, and for chemical manufacturing
m g. Another Principle
P appplication for PP is for co
onveying
corrosive chhemicals und der pressure
e. For this ap
pplication, so
ocket fusion systems of p pressure-rate ed PP pipe and
a pipe
and fittings are availab ble through NPS 6 (DN 150). At present there e are no con nsensus standards cove ering PP
pressure pippe; all availa
able products
s are propriettary.
Polypropyleene materials are classiified by AST TM D4101, ‘‘Standard Specification

S for Polypro
opylene Moldding and
Extrusion Materials,’’
M intto two types. Type I covers materials
s that have the
t highest rigidity
r and strength
s but that
t offer
only moderrate toughne ess. Type II covers
c mateerials (copoly
ymers of proopylene with ethylene or other olefins) which
tend to be le
ess rigid and
d strong but have
h improveed toughnesss, particularly at lower te
emperatures. Both types are
a used
for pipe.
onitrile-Butad
7.4. Acrylo diene-Styrene (ABS) Pipe:
ABS is wideely used as drainage pippe and is av

vailable in Sc
chedules 40 and 80 with plain or soc
cket ends. Jo
oints are
made by eitther solvent cement
c or th nections. Only Schedule 80 can be th
hreaded conn hreaded.
ABS plastic cs are made by combinin ng styrene-a

acrylonitrile copolymers
c w copolym
with mers formed by reacting styrene-
acrylonitrile with butaddiene. The butadiene copolymers
c impart toug
ghness, while the acry ylonitrile cop
polymers
contribute strength,
s rigidity, and ha
ardness. Thee result is a tough, relatiively strong plastic that is easy to mold
m and
extrude.
The ABS fa amily coverss a wide rang

ge of materials. The pro oportions of the
t basic co omponents and
a the way in which
they are coombined can be varied to o produce a wide range of end prop perties. A maajor use of ABS
A for pipe is in the
manufacturre of drain-w waste-vent (DWV)
( pipin
ng, for whicch it offers good rigidity y, temperatuure resistance, low-
temperature e toughness,, and the ability to make fast-setting ssolvent ceme ented joints. ABS has been used for pressure
marily for water service applications,
piping, prim a but it has been
b largely displaced bby the strongger, more ch hemically
resistant, an
nd more eco onomical PVCC. However, compressed d-air piping made
m from a proprietary extra-tough,, shatter-
resistant co
omposition is currently ma
arketed in Eu urope and the United Sta ates.
ABS materrials are clas ssified by ASTM

A D1788 8, ‘‘Standard
d Specification for Rigid
d Acrylonitrile-Butadiene
e-Styrene
(ABS) Plasstics,’’ in acccordance with the cell class forma at by which each of three properties—impact strength
(toughness)), tensile sttress at yielld (short-term
m strength), and deflec ction temperature unde er load (temmperature
resistance)—
—is accorde mber depending on the pro
ed a cell num operty value.

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The ASTM specification n for ABS DWWV pipe requ uires that the
e material have a minimum cell classiification of ABS 2–2–
2, which sig
gnifies the fo
ollowing minimum properrties: notch immpact streng gth of 2 ft-lb/iin (0.1 N-m/m
mm) of notch
h, 180_F
(82_C) defle
ection tempe erature, and 4,000 psi (2..8 MPa) tenssile strength.
ABS pipe and fittings must conform to ASTM Sta

andard D 2661, ABS Sch
hedule40 Pla
astic Drain, Waste,
W and Vent
V Pipe
and Fitting.
hylene (PE) Pipe:

7.5. Polyeth
This materiaal is widely used

u for chem
mical drainag
ge piping sys stems. PE pipe and fittings are manuufactured from
m flame-
retardant material
m and are
a available e in Schedule 40 or 80. Joining meth hods include e solvent cem
ment joints, threaded
t
joints, or me
echanical-typpe joints. (On
nly Schedulee 80 can be tthreaded.).
Polyethylen ne polymers used for piping are classified into o three types: a low de ensity, relativ
vely flexible form; a
medium-density, somew what stiffer and
a less-flexible form; an nd a high-de ensity form, wwhich is morre rigid and stronger.
s
Most pressure pipe is madem of matterials of den
nsities lying around
a the high
h end of tthe medium density PEs s and the
lower end of o the high-density materrials. This range has esta ablished itse
elf as offering
g the best ba alance of touughness,
flexibility, an
nd long-term
m strength. Noo pressure pipe
p is primarrily made from the more rrigid, higher--density mate erials.
PE, which is somewhat less strong and less rigiid than PVC at ambient temperature
t , is the second most use
ed plastic
pipe material, primarily because of its toughnes ss, ductility, and
a flexibility
y, even at low
w temperatures. PE pipe es do not
fracture undder the expaansive action n of freezing
g water. In an a emergenc cy, smaller-ddiameter PE pipe scan beb safely
‘‘squeezed--off’’ (clampe
ed tightly) by
y suitable pro
ocedures, to shut down the t flow of fluids. Also, PEP pipe is much
m less
prone to failure by a rap
pidly running crack.
These two last-named characteristtics are impo ortant reasons why PE pipe is now
w used in ov
ver 85 perce
ent of all
w installations
current new s of piping fo
or gas distribu
ution.
PE pipes also have sup perior fatigue

e endurance. This featurre, plus their ability to daampen waterr hammer shock, has
led to their use for appliications such
h as ins ewer force mains s, where rep peated cyclic pressure chhanges tend to occur.
The high sttrain ability and
a fracture resistance of o PE have le ed to its sele
ection for usee in unstable
e soils and situations
s
where axial bending and diametric cal deflection
n are anticippated. Exam mple installattions that utilize this fea
ature are
methane co ollection systems for solid
d-waste sitess, pipes insta
alled by direc hless boring techniques, lake and
ctional trench
river crossin
ngs, and outffall pipes dis
scharging treated effluentt into seas annd oceans.
PE pipe is also
a used forr the rehabilitation of old pipelines. Le
engths of PE E pipe which have been joined to the required
length by th
he butt-fusionn method are e pulled, or sometimes
s p
pushed, insid de the old lin
ne. New reha abilitation pro
ocedures
have evolve ed by which h, for ease ofo insertion, the diamete er of the liner PE pipe is reduced by a squee eze-down
procedure, or by folding the pipe intoi a U-shaape. Once in nside the old d pipe, the sstrain memo ory in the ma aterial is
relieved by a combination of heatin ng and intern nal pressure e, allowing th he PE pipe tto reground so that it fitts snugly
inside the existing
e pipe.. The low stifffness of PE
E permits the coiling of sm maller-diame eter pipe [generally up to o about 4
in (100 mm) although piipe up to NP PS 6 (DN 150 0) diameter has
h been coilled for specia al jobs]. The coiled length can be
hundreds of feet and so ometimes ov ver a thousan nd feet (300 meters) long g, depending g on materiall, wall thickness, and
diameter. PE
P pipe is rea adily heat-fus
sible and can n be joined too it or to fittin
ngs by the bu ocess. PE fittings are
utt-fusion pro
also availab
ble for joining
g pipe by the
e socket fusio on and electrro fusion proc cesses.

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For non-pre essure buriedd pipe applic
cations, suchh as for storm
m water, roaadway, and laand drainage
e, various de
esigns of
profile wall construction
ns have been developed d which enha ance pipe wall
w stiffness while minim mizing materia
al usage
Because off their corrosiion resistanc
ce, these pipe
es are displaacing metallic
c drainage piping.
To protect the
t PE polym mer during prrocessing, sttorage, and service,
s PE piping
p compo ounds contaain small qua
antities of
heat stabilizers, antioxidants, and ultraviolet (UV)
( screenss or UV chemical stabiilizers. Black k PE pipe materials
m
incorporate very finely divided carbon black as a both a co oloring pigment and to screen the polymer aga ainst the
potentially damaging UVU radiation in sunlight. Nonblack piping
p compo ositions inclu
ude a UV chemical
c stabilizer in
addition to a coloring pigment (us sually tan oro yellow forr gas, blue for water, a and orange for commun nications
ducting).The primary specification for identifyin ng and classsifying PE piping
p materials is ASTMM D3350, ‘‘S Standard
Specificatio
on for Polyethhylene Pipe and
a Fittings Materials. ‘S
Standard D33 350 employs the cell clas
ss format to cover
c the
diversity of materials us sed for pipin
ng. In additio
on, an endingg code letter is used to designate th
he incorporaation of a
colorant andd UV stabilizzer.
A recent adddition to AST

TM D3350 is sifying of PE’s resistance
s a new test for the class e to crack gro
owth under sustained
s
tensile load
ding. The te est method used for thiis purpose is ASTM F1 1473, ‘‘Notch Tensile Test
T to Meassure the
Resistance to Slow Crack Growth off Polyethylen
ne Pipe and Resins.’’
Prior to the issuance off ASTM D 33 350, most PE E piping stan ndards referrred to ASTM M D1248, ‘‘Sttandard Spec cification
for Polyethhylene Plastics Molding and Extrus sion Materia als,’’ for thee defining of material requirements
r s. ASTM
D1248class sified PE byy type, repre esenting the
e material’s density cate egory, and g grade, refleccting combinnation of
properties, primarily the
e melt flow or processin ng characterristics. Simila ar to PVC, P PE piping sttandards cla assify PE
stress-ratedd materials b
by means of a four-digit number,
n of which
w the firs
st two digits refer to the older
o type an
nd grade
designationn and the lastl two rep present, in hundreds o of pounds per p square inch, the material’s
m m
maximum
recommend ded hydrostaatic design sttress (HDS) for
f water at 7 73.4_F (23_C C). The followwing list describes the co
ommonly
used PE pip ping materials in accordaance with this
s traditional d
designation system:
s
1. PE 2406 is a Type
T 2 (i.e., medium-den
nsity), Grade 4 PE materrial, in accorrdance with ASTM
A D12448, which
carries a re ecommended d maximum hydrostatic
h d
design stress
s of 630 psi (4.3 MPa), ffor water at 73.4_F (23_
_C). [The
‘‘06’’ in the 2406designa a) design stress.]
ates the 630 psi (4.3 MPa
2. PE 3408 is a Type
T 3 (i.e.,, high-densitty), Grade 4 PE materia al, in accord
dance with ASTM
A D1248, which
carries a recommendedd maximum hydrostatic
h de esign stress of 800 psi (5
5.5 MPa) for water at 73.4
4_F (23_C).
To relate th
his older des stem to the newer cell system
signation sys s of D 3350, the latter standa ard includes a cross-
reference. The
T crossove ed by the 1993edition of D 3350 are presented in
ers recognize n following Ta
able 7.1.

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PE materiaal designationn based on tyype and graddient Correspond

ding minimum m cell classifiication in
accordance e with formerr ASTM D124 48, plus code
e for accordance
e with cell cla
assification syystem of
material’s maximum reco ommended hydrostatic
h design ASTM D D3350
stress for water, for 73
3_F
PE 2406 3333
PE 213
PE 3406 4433
PE 324
PE 3408 4434
PE 334
Table 7.1
8. DESIGN AN
ND INSTALL
LATION
Thermoplas stics are visc

coelastic ma s they exhibit a profoundly different stress-strain
aterials; thus n and stresss-rupture
response thhan do elasstic materialss. Nonethele ess, elastic e
equations us
sed for otheer types of piping
p are frrequently
applicable to
t thermopla astics piping, provided that their enggineering be
ehavior is re
epresented th hrough apprropriately
derived valu
ues of apparrent modulus s and strength.
Since these e properties are greatly y influenced by the histo ory of the material’s
m exxposure to stress
s as weell as by
temperature e and environment, pro oper use of traditional elastic equa ations requirres appropriately established or
estimated property
p values.
Long-term strength
s valu
ues for certaiin conditions
s [such as forr water at 73
3_F (23_C)] a are available
e, and in somme cases
(i.e., maxim
mum recomm mended hydro ostatic desiggn stress) theey may even n be part of tthe product standard.
s In addition,
some code es and suggested design protocols either list o or give proceedures for arriving
a at appropriate values
v of
strength, stiffness, and allowable strrain. As this is a still dev
veloping technology, not all
a propertiess for all mate
erials are
yet available in a standaardized basiss.
However, forf the more e frequently used materrials, sufficie ent informatio on for the mmajority of applications
a is either
available or may be ad dequately es stimated. Wh hile the visc
coelasticity of
o thermoplasstics somew what complic cates the
process of selecting
s apppropriate maaterial consta
ants, materials with high strain
s capaciity help to fac
cilitate design. Under
a great many conditions thermoplas stics display
y a ductile likke behavior: They are ab ble to deform m significantlly before
fracture. Thhis behavior helps to red distribute strresses and preclude faillure by locallized stress intensificatio on which
could initiatte cracking in brittle like
e materials. Within certain limits, design of the ermoplastics piping is basedb on
average stress; localize ed stress concentrations area generallyy ignored.
Also, as prreviously poiinted out, th he strain cap pacity of theermoplastics under consstant strain (where
( stres
sses can
gradually decrease
d thro
ough stress relaxation) is often significantly gre eater than that under constant
c load
d (where
stresses inttensify as th he material deforms). Allowable
A strrain limits un
nder constan nt strain can n therefore often be
greater than n the fracture strains obsserved unde er sustained loading. Forr example, se everal investtigations of PVC
P and
PE pipes su ubjected to constant
c deflections overr long periods of time sho ow that the m
materials didd not fail at sustained
s
strains of as
a high as fro om 5 to 10 percent.
p Theese same strains corresp ponded to reelatively short lifetimes when
w the
materials were
w subject tto constant lo
oad.
One simpliffication comm monly employed in the North America an design of flexible burie
ed plastic pippes (the word d flexible
in this instance signifies
s that the pip
pe can underrgo significan nt permanent deformation n without cra acking) assumes that
internal pressure (consttant load) and external lo oading (resultting largely in
n pipe bending stresses relieved by both b pipe
deformation n and stress relaxation) are
a acting ind dependently.

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That is, the pipe wall thickness is ch
hosen on the basis of inteernal fluid pre
essure, and tthen a separrate analysis
s is made
to ensure thhat the pipe is sufficienttly strong and structurally
y stable undder the exterrnal loads ac
cting alone. In
I effect,
localized fib
ber stresses due to bendiing and other external loa adings are neglected.
Standard in nstallation practices include recomm mendations forf avoiding localized sttress concentrations. Fo or cases
where locallized strain cannot
c be avvoided and where
w it mayy thus limit de
esign, more rigorous des sign protocols based
on a combin ned loading analysis
a are available.
There are many

m potenttial factors that could ca ause a mate erial with apparent high strain capac city to shift from
f the
ductile like to
t the brittle like state an
nd as a resullt, fail at lowe
er-than-expe ected strains.. These can include temp perature,
environmen nt, duration of
o loading, nature
n of loa
ading (unreliieved or relieved by stre ess relaxatioon), stress triaxiality,
fatigue, scaale factors (ssuch as walll thickness), damage (cu uts, gouges)), stored ene ergy in systeem (such as residual
stresses fro om manufaccture), material imperfec ctions (voids s, contamina ants), polymmer aging, anda chemica al attack.
Judging from the good track record d that exists, these influe ences, althouugh difficult tto quantify, appear
a to haave been
adequately considered ffor typical us ses by standards, design n protocols, and
a installatio on practices.. In addition, material
requirements and impro ovements hav ve been evolving that ensure greaterr durability in pipe produc cts.
e, design practices
Furthermore p giv
ve recognitio
on to the effects
e on strength
s and
d stiffness and
a other lo
ong-term
engineering
g properties by
b time, tempperature, and
d environme
ent.
Finally, insttallation recoommendation ns address many

m of the uunique charaacteristics of plastics thatt can affect structural
s
integrity and d durability. To
T be sure, the
t state of the
t art of thermoplastics piping is still evolving, annd considera able work
yet remains s to be accom mplished to further
f definee materials properties
p an
nd performan nce limits. Such work is ongoing,
and for the latest inform mation the reeader is enc couraged to refer to the growing literature, partic cularly to the
e papers
presented ata the various s conference
es that addreess plastics p
piping technoology.
As demons strated by thee successful record of experience,

e s
sufficient info
ormation is aavailable to successfullyy support
proper appllication of thermoplasticss over a very
y broad rangge of engine eering uses. To best realize the perfo ormance
potential off thermoplasstics piping, the user should
s base materials selection
s andd utilize dessign and ins stallation
practices on informatio on, such as standards and
a recommended practtices, which has been developedd under the
crutiny of the
technical sc e consensus process of an
a establisheed profession ssociation, as well as
nal society orr technical as
upon the recommendatiions and reports issued by b industry and independ dent sources.
The following material is an introd duction to some

s of the more basic c aspects ofo the design n and installlation of
thermoplasttics piping. M
More detailed
d recommenddations suita
able to a partticular producct and situation should be sought
and followed.

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9. COMMON DESIGN
D AN
ND INSTALLA
ATION CON
NSIDERATIO
ONS
9.1. Interna
al Hydraulic Pressure
Thermoplas
stic pipe is prressure rated
d by means of
o the ISO
Where:
PR = pipe
e pressure ra
ating, psi (MPa)
t = min
nimum wall th
hickness, in (mm)
Dm = mean diameter, in (mm)
HDS = HD
DB x DF, whe
ere HDB is in
n psi (MPa) units
u and DF
F is the pipe design
d factorr
ermined for each pipe ty

HDB is dete ype and lifetime, Figure 9.1 showing
g determining
g HDB for PVC
P 1120 pip
pe as an
example.
Fig. 9.1

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Values of HDS
H for water at 73 F o (2
23 C o) are sp
pecified by most
m ASTM and
a other sta andards that cover water and gas
applicationss. The maximmum HDS fo or water is generally
g determined byy multiplying the material’s HDB by a design
factor (DF) of 0.5. In selecting th he appropriaate design faactor, consid
deration is g
given to twoo general groups of
conditions.
The first grroup conside

ers the man nufacturing and
a testing variables,
v sp
pecifically no
ormal variatiions in the material,
manufacturre, dimensionns, quality of handling tec
chniques, and the accura acy of the lon
ng-term stren
ngth predictio
on.
The second d group connsiders the application or use, spe ecifically installation, environment, temperature
t , hazard
involved, life
e expectancy
y desired, an
nd the degree of reliability
y selected.
For gas pip

pe, a DF of 0.32 is pres scribed by thhe federal ccode. Certain
n other code
es and stand
dards (e.g., those of
AWWA) ma ay prescribe specific design factors.
A DF smalller than 0.5 5 is used inn applications where gre eater compeensation is a advisable for certain an nticipated
conditions (e.g.,
( surgess or tempera ature), or wh
here the fluid
d conveyed may have ssome effect on the pipe material
properties. The final dettermination of
o the approppriate DF for any given application is up to the dis
scretion of the design
engineer.
ng that a pipe
By assumin e’s outside diameter is eq
qual to Dm _ t, the previo
ous equation takes the following form:
Where:
DR = Ratio off average ou

utside pipe diiameter to minimum
m wall thickness.
9.1.1. Surge Prressure
ansient and regularly

Tra r rec
curring surge e pressures may cause damage
d to p
pipe and fittings by eithe
er of two
posssible effectss: The surge exceeds the e short-term fracture
f stren
ngth of the p
pipe or one of
o the compon nents; or
(and this is the more likely possibility) thhe repetitive
e changes in pressure exxceed the fattigue endura ance limit
of the
t pipe or some
s piping component. Transient o or water hammmer surgess result from m sudden cha anges in
velo
ocity. The prressure rise caused
c by th
he velocity chhange can be e estimated by means off the same equations
e
useed for calcula ects of waterr hammer in other pipes. The only d
ating the effe difference is that
t with pla
astics the
apppropriate matterial modulu us is that for the condition
n of dynamicc, instantaneous respons se (about 1500,000 psi
(1.0
0 GPa) and 4 460,000 psi (3.2
( GPa) for high-densitty PE and PV F (23_C)). In cases of
VC, respectivvely, at 73_F
netwwork piping it is suggesteed that a com mplete netwo ork analysis be performeed for more accurate
a estimates of
posssible surge pressures.
p
Beccause of the e lower stifffness of pla

astics, the surge pressu m water hammer is
ure rise thatt occurs from
sign wer than for metallic piping. For exa
nificantly low ample, the surge pressure rise for each
e foot-per-second
chaange in flow velocity is frrom about 16
6 to 20 psi (110
( to 140 kPa)
k 5 to 83 kPa) for PVC
and 8 tto 12 psi (55

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and
d PE, respec ctively, at 73_
_F (23_C). The
T exact va
alue depends
s on pipe wa
all thickness , the thicker the wall,
the larger the prressure rise.
As noted previiously, if the

ere I no dam
mage accrue ed by exces ssive fatiguee, thermoplaastic pipes have
h the
cap
pability to withstand mom
mentary press
sures that are
e significantly greater tha
an the pipe’ pressure
p rating.
Thiss is due to th
he stress verrsus time-to--failure chara
acteristics of thermoplasttic pipe mate
erials. Howev
ver, if the
summ of short-te erm pressure e rise plus the
t sustaine
ed working pressure
p excceed the pippe’s short-term burst
stre
ength, failure
e will result.
Enttrapped air in a pipeline can produc ce sudden ac ccelerations of air-separrated water columns.
c The kinetic
ene
ergy of thesee fast-moving g columns can
c sometimes be high enough e to fra
acture the pipe.
p For this
s reason,
wheen plastic piping system ms are first fiilled with wa
ater, either fo
or operation or testing, they
t should be filled
carefully and relatively slowly to minimiz
ze air entrapmment.
Airr should be vented

v from the high poiints before th
he system is
s pressurized
d. Other precautions shoould also
be taken, suchh as carefullly laying pip
pe to grade or using aiir vent-vacuuum relief lin
nes, to minim
mize the
entrapment of air
a in operatin
ng pipelines.
Whhen there exis sts a frequen ntly recurring

g pressure su
urge of signifficant amplitu
ude— say, over 25 perceent of the
ope
erating press sure—the designer sho ould evaluatee the piping g for adequ uacy of fatiggue endurannce. The
resistance to fatigue
f variees from mate erial to matterial. For example, PE pipe is quite tolerant; modern
matterials can withstand
w fre
equent surgin ng up to onee-half of the pipe pressu ure rating ev
ven when the
e pipe is
ope
erating at its full rating baased on only static pressu ure consideraations.
In the
t case of P PVC pipe, which
w is some ewhat more sensitive to effects of fatigue, the following equaation has
beeen proposed for estimatiing the maxiimum total hoop h stress, due to both h static and cyclic pressure, that
PVC C pipe can ssafely tolerate
e as a functio
on of the tota
al number off anticipated surge pressu
ure events:
Wh
here:
S = maximum allowable to
otal hoop strress, psi (no
o safety facttor) (for S_ in MPa, mu
ultiply by
0.0069)
C = er of cycles
total numbe

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Table 9.1
Sugg
gested Maxim
mum Sustain
ned Working Pressures for
f Water for 73_F
(23_C) for
f Schedule 40 and Sche
edule 80 PVC Fittings
Sch
hedule 40 Schedule 80
Required Required
Nominal size, in minnimum Maximum minimum m Maaximum
burst pressure suggested burst press
sure suggestted working
by ASTM working by ASTMM press
sure psig
D24466 psig p
pressure psig D2467 psig
¹⁄₂ 1
1910 358 2720 509
³⁄₄ 1
1540 289 2200 413
1 1
1440 270 2020 378
1¹⁄₄ 1
1180 221 1660 312
1¹⁄₂ 1
1060 198 1510 282
2 890 166 1290 243
2¹⁄₂ 970 182 1360 255
3 840 158 1200 225
3¹⁄₂ 770 144 1110 207
4 710 133 1040 194
5 620 117 930 173
6 560 106 890 167
8 500 93 790 148
10 450 84 600 140
12 420 79 580 137
Note: Thiss table is on

nly intended as a genera al guide. Apppropriate ma aximum worrking pressures may varry widely
depending on specific fitting
f design
n and field co
onditions, pa
articularly wh
hen repetitive
e surge presssure are pre
esent as
these may lower the lon
ng-term strength becaus se of fatigue effects. Thee fitting manu
ufacturer sho
ould be cons
sulted for
recommenddations.

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9.2. Resista
ance to Vac
cuum and Ex
xternal Pres
ssure
The perrformance off flexible pipe

e with thin waalls that is made from ma aterials with low
l modulus s of elasticity can
sometimmes be limiteed by bucklinng under vacuum or exterrnal pressure e.
A net ex
xternal presssure can resu ult from external hydrosta atic loading, from internaal negative prressure, fromm the
temporaary vacuum tthat may acc company pre essure surgin ng, or from a combination n of these ele
ements.
The bucckling resista
ance of plasttic pipes mayy be estimate ed using the following adaptation of thhe elastic buckling
equatio
on for thin tub
bes:
Where:
Pc = critical buck
kling pressurre, psi (MPa))
E = apparent modulus
m of ela
asticity, psi (MPa) (For sh hort-term loa
ading conditioons, use the values
of E and
d as obtaine ed from shorrt-term tensile e tests; for lo
ong-term loadding, approppriate values as
determiined from lon ng-term loading tests sho ould be employed)
I = pipe wall moment of ine ertia, in4/in (m
mm4/mm)
v = Poisson’s ra atio (approximately 0.35 to 0.45 for lo ong-term loading)
Dm = mean diameter, in (mm)) _ diameter to centroid of o pipe wall fo
or profile wall pipe
C = Ovality corrrection factorr, (r0/r1)3, whhere r1 is the us of curvature of the ova
e major radiu alized
nd r0 is the radius assum
pipe, an ming no ovaliz zation
e of solid wa
For pipe on, for which I = t3/12, the
all constructio e previous eq
quation is ussually expressed as follow
ws:
Where
t = pipe wa
all thickness, in (mm)
quation, pipe made to a constant

Accordiing to this eq c ratio
o of diameterr to wall thick
kness has the
e same resis
stance to
hydraulic collapse, independent
i t of pipe diam
meter.
For burried pipe, the

e stiffening efffect of embe
edment can ssubstantially increase the apacity. This is
e buckling ca
discuss
sed in sectionn 11. CONSIIDERATIONS S FOR BELO OWGROUND D USES.

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9.3. Tempe
erature Effec
cts
As the system temp perature incrreases, thermmoplastics p piping becom me less rigid,, exhibits hig
gher impact strength,
s
and offeers lower sh hort- and long g-term strength. The opp posite effectss take placee as tempera ature decreas ses. The
exact effect depend ds not only on
o material cllass but its specific
s compposition. For example, th here are PEss suitable
for servvice at temp peratures as high as aro ound 160_F (71_C); wh hereas otherr PEs might only have sufficient
s
strengthh through ab bout 120_F (4 49_C). In thee case of fittings, wall thic
ckness and p product design also influence the
effects of temperatu ure on strenggth.
The bes st way to de etermine the effect of temmperature on n long-term strength
s is through stress s-rupture testing. PPI
TR-4, ‘‘Recommen nded Hydros static Strengths and D Design Stres sses for Th hermoplastic c Pipe and Fittings
Compounds,’’ lists recommend ded HDBs fo or various co ommercial grade
g thermo oplastics for temperature es up to
200_F (93_C).
(
Becaus se of its effecct on stiffness, increasing
g temperaturre also decre eases the colllapse resista ance of plasttics pipe.
Table D 9.2 lists approximate te emperature ded rating facto ors for somee of the moree commonly usedu materiaals.
This efffect is in direct proportion
n to the change in the ma aterial’s appaarent modulu us of elasticity
y. This moduulus
change es with tempe erature at a rate
r roughly parallel
p with the strength de rating fac ctors given inn Table D 9.22.
Other principal
p effec nsidered in piping design and installattion are those resulting frrom thermop
cts to be con plastics’
high coefficient of expansion and contraction n.
Some potential
p conssequences to be conside
ered include:
1. Piping that is installed hot

h may cool sufficiently after
a installattion to genera ate substantial tensile forrces.
The final coonnection sho ould be made after the pipe has equilibrated to am mbient, or to
o the desired
temperature e.
2. Unrestraine ed pipe may shrink
s enoug
gh to pull outt from elastomeric gaskett or compres ssion joints. The
T pipe
should be adequately
a re
estrained by the use of anchors, or th he fitting shou uld be designned to eitherr resist
pull-out forc
ces or to tole
erate the max ximum anticip pated pipe movement.
m
3. Piping expo osed to cyclicc temperaturre changes m may be susce eptible to fatiigue damage e at points suubject to
repetitive beending.
4. Pipe installe
ed when amb bient temperratures are lo
ow may buck kle if the commpression forrces developed on
subsequentt pipe expansion are not adequately relieved.
r

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Table 9.2
Efffect of Temperature on
n Strength and
a Stiffness
s of Thermo oplastics Pip
pe: Approximate Temp
perature D rating
Factors
Tempe
erature PVC
(F
F) P
PE PEX PB Type 1 CPVC PVDF
7
70 1
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
80 0
0.95 0.95
5 0.97 0.88 — 0.93
90 0
0.90 0.91
1 0.92 0.75 — 0.87
10
00 0.80
0 0.87
7 0.86 0.62 0.78 0.82
110 0
0.75 0.83
3 0.82 0.50 — 0.76
12
20 0.70
0 0.79
9 0.77 0.40 0.65 0.71
130 0
0.50 0.76
6 0.72 0.30 — 0.65
14
40 0.40
0 0.73
3 0.68 0.22 0.50 0.61
150 0.20 0.69 0.69 NR — 0.57
160 NR 0.66
6 0.58 NR 0.40 0.54
180 NR 0.63
3 0.48 NR 0.25 0.47
2
200 NR 0.50
0 0.40 NR 0.20 0.41
2
220 NR NR
R NR NR NR 0.38
2
250 NR NR
R NR NR NR 0.35
2
280 NR NR
R NR NR NR 0.28
10. CONSIDER
RATIONS FO
OR ABOVEG
GROUND US
SES
Thermoplas stic piping syystems in ab

boveground service
s mustt be properly
y supported to avoid exc cessive stres
sses and
sagging. Vaalves and other heavy piping compo onents should d be individu
ually supportted. Piping should
s be loc
cated, or
protected, to
t avoid me echanical daamage. The piping layo out should have
h sufficie
ent flexibility or other means
m of
mitigating excessive
e bending and axxial stresses and fatigue effects induc
ced by repetiitive expansion-contractio on.
10.1. Supp
ports and An
nchors
Horizontal runs
r require the use of hangers
h thatt are carefullly aligned an
nd are free o
of rough andd sharp edgees. Many
hangers de esigned for mmetal pipe arre suitable foor thermoplaastic pipe as s well. These
e include the
e shoe, clam
mp clevis,
sling, and roller
r types. To
T preclude high localize ed support p o modify the hangers
pressures, it is generally advisable to
by increasin
ng the bearin ng area by in
nserting a pro
otective sleevve of plastic between thee pipe and the hanger.

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Vertical line
es must also be supporte ed at intervals to reduce loads on the
e lower fitting
gs. This can be accomplished by
using riser clamps or do ouble bolt cllamps locate w a coupling or other fitting to support the pipe. When
ed just below W so
located, theese provide the necessarry support witthout excesssive compresssion of the ppipe.
Anchors are
e used in th hermoplastic piping syste ems as fixed
d points fromm which to ddirect expansion-contrac ction and
other movements in a defined
d direc
ction. Their placement is selected to prevent
p overrloading of th
he piping, pa
articularly
at changes of direction where
w pipe movement
m co
ould generate excessive bending andd axial stressses.
Anchors sh hould be placced as close e to elbows and tees as s possible. Guides

G are u
used to alloww axial motion while
preventing transverse
t m
movement. Both
B anchors and guides may be use ed in the conttrol of expan
nsion and contraction
of pipelines
s. They should be of a styyle and be so
o located as to prevent overstressing
o g of the pipe. A flexibility analysis
can be used d to determin
ne suitable arrangements
a s for anchors
s and guides.
10.2. Support Spacing

g
Support spa acing requireements are computed

c ussing the samme beam defflection equa
ations used for
f metal pip
ping. The
minimum spacing
s requ uirement can result from either maximum allo owable stresss or maximmum allowable pipe
deflection consideration
c ns for the maximum
m antticipated serv
vice tempera
ature. Maxim
mum beam deflection,
d or sag, is
frequently th
he controlling
g factor. Typ
pical support spacing recoommendations are preseented in Table 10.1.
When the piping

p clude sufficient changes in direction, appropriate
layout does not inc a e
expansion loops or offsetts have
to be providded. The sizee of the loops
s and offsets
s depend on the design (s see Fig. 10.1
1), and the ch
hange in length of
pipe that haas to be accoommodated. The dimensions of loops s and offsets are calculatted using the
e following eq
quation
for cantileve
ered beams loaded at on ne end.
Where:
L = loop len
ngth, in (mm))
E = modulu
us of elasticity
y at the work
king tempera
ature, psi (MP
Pa)
S = maximu
um allowable
e stress at the working temperature, psi
p (MPa)
Do = outside pipe diametter, in (mm)
L = change
e in length du
ue to tempera
ature change
e, in (mm)
Assuming a maximum allowable

a stra
ain of 0.01, as
a suggested
d by a plastic
cs industry publication, th
he above equ
uation
reduces to:

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10.3
3. Expansion-Contractio
on
There are several

s methoods used forr controlling or
o compensa ating for axial and bendinng stresses caused
c by the
ermal
expansion. Piping runs may include changes in direction whiich will allow w the thermally induced leength change es to be
afely. Where this method is employed
taken up sa d, the pipe must be able tot float exceppt at anchor points.
When the piping

p layout does not inc
clude sufficient changes in direction, appropriate
a e
expansion loops or offsetts have
to be providded. The sizee of the loops
s and offsets
s depend on the design (s see Fig. 10.1 hange in length of
1), and the ch
pipe that haas to be accoommodated. The dimensions of loops s and offsets are calculatted using the
e following eq
quation
for cantileve
ered beams loaded at on ne end.
FIGURE 10.1
e thermal strresses by tra

Expansion loops relieve ansforming th
hem to bendiing stresses. The minimu um loop stren
ngth L is
ge
enerally dete
ermined by th he maximumm allowable bending
b stresss or strain.

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Because the fitting restrrains the pipe
e, a separate e check shou uld be made with the man nufacturer reegarding the fitting’s
capacity to absorb expa ansion-contra action stresses and bend ding moments s. Expansionn joints of bellows and pis
ston
designs aree available annd sometime es used. How wever, piston n expansion joints for presssure applicaations are ge
enerally
expensive. Proper alignment of pisto on joints is critical to prevvent binding. Bellows type joints can accept some e lateral
movement.
Table 10.1
Pipe
Dimensiion PVC
C CPV
VC PVDF PP
Nominaal 60"F 1000"F 140"F 60"F 100"F 140"F 1800"F 80"F 1

100"F 140"F 160"F* 600"F 100"F 140"F 180"F
diam., in
i
Wall Schedule 40
¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 4 2¹⁄₂ 5 4¹⁄₂ 4 2¹⁄⁄₂ 3³⁄₄ 3¹⁄₂ 2 1³⁄³⁄₄ 1³⁄₄ 1¹⁄₂ 1¹⁄₄
³⁄₄ 5 4 2¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₂ 5 4 2¹⁄⁄₂ 4 3³⁄₄ 2¹⁄₂ 2 2 1³⁄₄ 1³⁄₄
1 5¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 6 5¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄⁄₂ 4¹⁄₄ 4 2¹⁄₂ 2 2 2 1³⁄₄
1¹⁄₄ 5¹⁄₂ 5 3 6 5¹⁄₂ 5 3 — — — 2¹⁄¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₄ 2 2
1¹⁄₂ 6 5 3 6¹⁄₂ 6 5 3 4¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₄ 2
2 6 5 3 6¹⁄₂ 6 5 3 4¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₄ 3 2¹⁄₄ 2¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₄
3 7 6 3¹⁄₂ 8 7 6 3¹⁄⁄₂ 3¹⁄¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₄ 3 2³⁄₄
4 7¹⁄₂ 6¹⁄₂ 4 8¹⁄₂ 7¹⁄₂ 6¹⁄₂ 4 4 3¹⁄₄ 3¹⁄₂ 3
6 8¹⁄₂ 7¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 9¹⁄₂ 8¹⁄₂ 7¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄⁄₂
8 9 8 4¹⁄₂
Wall Schedule 80
¹⁄₂ 5 4¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₂ 5 4¹⁄₂ 22¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 2 2 2 1¹⁄₂
¹⁄₄ 5¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 6 5¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 2
2¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 3 22¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₄ 2
1 6 5 3 6¹⁄₂ 6 5 3 5 4³⁄₄ 3 22¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₄ 2
1¹⁄₄ — — — — — — — — — — 3 2³⁄₄ 2¹⁄₂ 2¹⁄₂
1¹⁄₂ 6¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₂ 3¹⁄₂ 7 6¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₂ 3
3¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₂ 5 3 3 3 2³⁄₄ 2¹⁄₂
2 7 6 3¹⁄₂ 7¹⁄₂ 7 6 3
3¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₄ 3 3¹⁄₂ 3¹⁄₄ 3 2³⁄₄
3 8 7 4 9 8 7 4 4 4 3¹⁄₂ 3¹⁄₂
4 9 7¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 10 9 7¹⁄₂ 4
4¹⁄₂ 44¹⁄₂ 4¹⁄₂ 4 3¹⁄₂
6 10 9 5 11 10 9 5
8 11 9¹⁄₂ 5¹⁄₂
* Co
ontinuous su
upport reco mmended.

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11. CONSIDER
RATIONS FO
OR BELOWG
GROUND US
SES
Design and installation ofo thermopla astic pipe for belowground d uses recog
gnizes its ‘‘fle
exible’’ conduuit behavior. As
noted earlieer, the word fflexible prima
arily signifies
s that the pipe has the ca
apacity to susstain significaant deflection
n without
failure. Although this value is somew what arbitraryy, a pipe is o
often conside
ered flexible iif it can susta
ain 2 percentt
deflection.
Conduits that are strong g and stiff an

nd that fail att low deformaations are cla
assified as riigid. Both rig
gid and flexib
ble piping
systems takke advantage of soil sup pport to miniimize interna a must be designed and installed to avoid
al stresses and
stress conccentrations a
and deformattions that co ould result in excessive localized stre esses. Thus, the installe ed buried
pipe is actu
ually a pipe-ssoil system, with both the e pipe and the soil contrributing to the structural performance e. This is
an importannt concept fo
or all types off buried pipinng systems.
Designing pipe
p for burie
ed conditionss may be diffferent for pre
essure pipe and
a non presssure pipe. TheT stresses induced
by internal pressure arre often highh relative to those in non pressure pipe, and th i pressure pipe are
he stresses in
constant (subject to creeep), while th
he strains in non pressu ure pipe are constant (su axation, i.e., stresses
ubject to rela
relax with time).
t In addition, whenn subjected to internal pressure,
p a pipe rerounnds, reducingg the deflec ction and
bending stre
esses that reesult from ea
arth loading.
Thus, for many

m ure pipes, a design that meets the requirementts of the inte
pressu ernal pressu
ure condition n can be
considered adequate fo or buried app
plications, pro
ovided the p
pipe is properly installed in good-quality backfill materials.
m
Although all designers should satisfy themselv ves to this through calcculation che ecks, in geneeral, if the following
f
conditions are
a met, a prressure pipee design may y be consideered adequatte for burial without
w chec
cking the cap pacity for
earth and liv
ve loads:
1. Minimum
m depth of cover of 3 ft (1 m) for live lo
oads up to th
he magnitude
e of an AASH
HTO H20 truck.
2. Maximum
m depth of bu
urial of 20 ft (6
( m).
3. No unusu
ual concentra
ated or surch
harge loads exist.
e
4. Embedmment materials are granu

ular, stable, and
a compacted to at lea
ast 85 percent of maximum standard
d Proctor
density.
5. The pipe is uniformly supported on

o bedding th
hat is firm but not hard.
e is protected
6. The pipe d from concentrated loadss at transitions from soil support to sttructural support, such as
s fittings,
foundation penetrations
p s, and other connections.
c
For non preessure pipe, and for pressure pipe no

ot meeting the just-noted criteria, the following conditions mus
st be met
in designing
g for earth loads:
1. The pipe should not d

deflect exces
ssively underr earth or live
e loads.
2. The pipe should safely resist max

ximum wall compressive
c s due to external loads.
thrust forces
3. The pipe should not b

buckle in response to antticipated exte
ernal soil and
d hydrostaticc loads.
4. The pipe should safely resist bend

ding stresses
s that result from deflectiion.

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Because off the wide varriety of pipe wall profiles and material types, not all
a of these criteria will be
e significant for
f every
type of pipee; for instance
e, resistance
e to wall com ust forces is important fo
mpressive thru or profile wall pipe, but rarrely is
significant for
f solid-wall pipe.
11.1. Pipe-S
Soil System
m Parameterrs
The behavio
or of pipe-so
oil systems is
s controlled by
b two param
meters:
The hoop sttiffness para

ameter SH
The bending stiffness pa

arameter SB
B
These are both

b ratios off the soil stifffness to the pipe
p stiffnesss. An elasticity solution fo
or pipe embe
edded in an infinite
elastic media was developed by Burrns and Rich hard23 and utilizes these two parameters to descrribe buried pipe
behavior.
op stiffness parameter
11.1.1. The hoo
e hoop stiffne
The ess paramete
er is defined as:
Wh
here:
SH = hoop stiffne
ess paramete
er
Ms = constrained
d modulus off soil, psi (MP
Pa)
H
PSH = pipe hoop stiffness
s para
ameter, psi (M
MPa)
The
e pipe hoop stiffness
s para
ameter is defined as:
Wh
here:
E = pipe material modulus of

o elasticity, psi
p (MPa)
A = pipe wall arrea per unit le

ength of pipe
e, in2/in (mm
m2/mm)
R = radius to ce
entroid of pip
pe wall, in (mm)
Thee pipe hoop stiffness

s paraameter repre
esents the chhange in pipe
e diameter th
hat results frrom a radial pressure
appplied to the perimeter
p as shown in Fig. 11.1. Thiss change in diameter ressults from a reduction in the pipe
circ
cumference d due to the ax
xial compress
sive stress p
produced by the
t loading.

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Fig.11.1 Pipe ho
oop stiffness
s
11.1.2. The bed

dding stiffne
ess parametter
e bending stiffness param

The meter is defin
ned as:
Wh
here:
SB = bending stifffness param

meter
Ms = constrained
d modulus off soil, psi (MP
Pa)
B
PSB = pipe bendin
ng stiffness parameter,
p ps
si (MPa)
The
e pipe bendin
ng stiffness parameter
p is defined as:
Wh
here
I = ertia per unit length, in4/in

pipe wall moment of ine n (mm4/mm))
Thee pipe bendin

ng stiffness parameter
p re
epresents the
e change in diameter
d thatt results from
m a concentra
ated
load
d as demonsstrated in Fig
g. D11.2.This
s deformation
n results from
m flexural strresses produ uced by the
con
ncentrated lo
oading.

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Fig.11.2 Pipe ben

nding stiffnes
ss
In general:: The hoop sstiffness para ameter represents a ratio o of the soil stiffness
s to th
he pipe extennsional stiffness, and
the bending g stiffness paarameter rep presents thee ratio of the ss to the pipe flexural stiffness. In a detailed
e soil stiffnes
analysis thee Poisson’s rratio of the so
oil and the pipe
p material are also imp portant; howe ever, since most
m design methods
are based ono simplified models of behavior, and d most pipe installation iss completed b by relatively crude metho ods, very
little accura
acy is lost by
b ignoring this parame eter. The co ontribution of
o each of tthe hoop an nd bending stiffness
parameters s to the overa
all pipe soil system is impportant and bbears discuss sion.
12. PE / METAL PIPE TRA

ANSATION FITTING
F
The most offten used pip ping materiall undergroun nd on the site
e is high-density polyethyylene (HDPE) with heat-fu used
butt joints. Socket-type
S jjoints in large
e sizes havee often been found to dev velop unacce eptable stress in the pipe. The
lower the sttandard dime ension ratio (SDR)
( the hig
gher pressurre rating of pipe.
p Therefore, care musst be taken too select
the correct SDR pipe.
Commonly in process fields, codes do d not permiit plastic pipe

e to be run aboveground,, thus Piping above ground shall
herefore a tra
be metal; th ansition fitting
g from plastic pipe to metallic pipe is required, conforming to ASTM
A D2517 , s
shown on figure 11.3 Tyypical transition fitting.

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Metallic
c pipe
Epoxy coated
Asrequired
Grade
2'-0"
Fusion
n-bonded epox xy
0.6m
coated
d, steel casing
g
Buttt fused
90° PE elbow
1
1'-0"
0.3 m
0
12"
" PE pigtail
2'-0"±
0.6m
0.3
3 m
Epoxy-cooated bolt on
steel mou
unting stake
Concrete
e
Fig.11.3 Typical
T trans
sition fitting
12.1 Examp
ple, Vendor Print for PE
E / Metal Tra
ansition Fittiing
Lyall (Vendor’s Name) is the only manufacturer that

t offers tw
wo distinct tra
ansition sealing methods allowing a la arger
onfigurations
choice of co s to meet youur requirements. Our one e-piece, factoory assembleed transitions
s provide saffe,
economical and easy-to o-install conn
nections betw
ween gas carrrying steel pipe
p and polyyethylene (PE
E) pipe.
Proven Relliability - booth designs have been approved

a by most naturall gas, propan
ne and indus
strial fluid com
mpanies
with over 4 million in service.
Features
• Meets or exceeds
e all in
ndustry requ
uirements.
• Epoxy or primer
p coatin
ngs available
e.
• Fusion bonded epoxy coating prov

vides superio
or resistance to corrosion
n and mechan
nical damage
e.
• All welded
d joints are 10
00% pressurre tested.
• Meets of exceeds
e the requirements of ASTM D2513
D catego
ory 1, ASME
E B 31.8, US CFR 49 Part 192.
• Listed with
h IAPMO/UP
PC and certifiied to CSA B137.4
B
Two types of
o sealing are
e available as
a shown on following figu
ure 11.4

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Figure 11.4
4
Connection
n Options:
Steel End Options

O
• SCH 40
0 (standard) or SCH 80
• Primer or other coa

atings
• Interna
al Fusion Bon
nded Epoxy Coating
C (Victaulic Groove
e and Thread
ded O.D. sea
al models on
nly)
PE Pipe En
nd Connections/Options
s
• Square
ed ready for fusion
f
• Sockett fusion fitting

g
• LYCOF anical Fitting (PE size up to 2 IPS)

FIT ® Mecha
• Many choices
c of HD
DPE and MD
DPE pipe
• Comme
ercial/industrrial grade PE
E3408
Other Optio
ons
• Protector sleeves
s es
• Anode
• Wire clips • Steel to PVC PE pipe

p (threade
ed O.D. only))

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13. PLASTIC-L
LINED PIPIN
NG FOR COR
RROSION RESISTANCE
E
Plastic-lined
d piping and fittings cons sist of a metaal housing lined with chem mically resisttant plastic. The
T combina ation of a
chemical-re esistant engin neered plastic liner inside
e a relativelyy inexpensive e but mechan nically strongg pipe or fittin
ng
housing alloows for the ssafe and econ nomical conv veyance of ccorrosive and d dangerous chemicals. For F this reaso on,
plastic-lined
d pipe finds widespread
w u in such in
use ndustries as the chemica al process, pulp and pape er, and meta al
finishing ind
dustries. It is also the des
sired choice when
w produc ct purity is off concern, pa
articularly whhen metal corrrosion
by-products s cannot be ttolerated in thhe process fluid. Industries requiring such purity a are pharmac ceuticals, foo od,
power gene eration, and electronics,
e t name a few
to w.
When service conditionss are within the

t capabilitiies of a plasttic-lined pipinng system, it is often an economical
e
alternative to
t expensive
e alloy piping. The methods of lining vary,
v but all achieve
a the same
s goal: to
o ensure thatt the
liner and ho
ousing expan
nd and contra act as one un
nit, even though plastic and a metal ha ave greatly diiffering rates of
expansion and
a contraction.
13.1. History
d pipe was first manufacttured in the early

Plastic-lined e 1940s a
and sold com
mmercially in 1948.
The first pip

ping system was
w made by y mechanica ally reducing or swaging a steel tube housing
h dowwn onto an ex
xtruded
polyvinylideene chloride (PVDC)
( resin
n liner. Initiallly, plastic-lin
ned pipe was
s not widely a
accepted by the chemicaal
processing industries be ecause the PVDC
P liner could only be used for acids and causstics to a max ximum servic
ce
temperature e of 175_F (779_C). As ne
ew high-perfo ormance ressins and diffe erent manufacturing technniques were
developed, plastic-lined pipe was taken more se eriously as a cost-efficient method of ffighting corro
osion.
Thanks to high
h standard ds developedd by the vario
ous manufac cturers in the
e plastic lined
d pipe industry and more than 50
years of suc
ccess in veryy aggressive applications
s, plastic-line
ed pipe is a proven
p and accepted piping product wherever
w
corrosive ch
hemicals must be convey yed.
13.2. METH ANUFACTURE

HODS OF MA
The plastic--lined pipe in

ndustry uses both extrusio
on techniquees for melt-ex xtrudable typ
pe resins or sintering
s metthods for
processing polytetrafluo oroethylene (PTFE)
( powdder resins intto their final forms. Sinte
ering can be defined as fo
orming a
coherent bo onded mass by heating a powder wiithout melting it. The following sectio ons provide a brief descrription of
the type of processing
p u
used by the various
v manuufacturers off plastic-lined
d piping products.
13.2
2.1. Liner Manufacturin
ng Processe
es for PTFE Liners
Alth
hough PTFE E fluorocarbon resins are
a thermopllastic materials, they do not flow readily as do d most
thermoplastics. Instead whe en PTFE me elts at 647_FF (342_C), it changes froom a white solid
s to a transparent
rubbery gel. Be ecause of thhe extremelyy high viscos sity of the melted
m PTFEE, special tecchniques ha ave been
devveloped for cconverting grranular PTFE
E resins to fin
nished produucts. The bassics steps co
ommon to all of these
tech
hniques are
● Compaction
C o the granullar resin at a relatively lo
of ow temperatu
ure into a co
ompressed fo
orm so that iti can be
han
ndled

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● Heating
H of thhe compacte ed resin aboove its meltin
ng temperatture (commo
only called sintering)
s so that the
poly
ymer particle
es can coales
sce into a strrong homogeeneous struc
cture
● Cooling
C of the
e sintered prroduct at a controlled
c ratte to room te
emperature tto achieve th
he desired degree
d of
crys
stalline deveelopment
Voids caused by b insufficient consolida ation of PTF

FE resin parrticles during
g performing may appea ar in the
shed articless. With referrence to a te
finis emperature, for example
e 73_F (23_ _C), PTFE-lin ner specific gravities
beloow 2.11 indic void content. The minimu
cate a high-v um accepted standard sp y as defined in ASTM
pecific gravity
F 1545 for PTF FE-lined pipe e is 2.14. Although void content is determined
d largely by pa article charac
cteristics
andd performing conditions, sintering co n also have an effect. Sintering at to
onditions can oo high or tooo low a
temmperature can n increase vo oid content.
13.3. Liner Materials
ng materials fall into two

Plastic linin o main cate egories: fluorrinated plasttics and no fluorinated plastics. Fluuorinated
plastics aree fully fluorinated, as in n the case of polytetra afluoroethylenne (PTFE), perfluoroalk koxy, and pe er fluoro
ethylene propylene,
p o
or partially fluorinated,
f as in the case of etthylenete tra a fluoro ethhylene (ETF FE) and
polyvinylideenefluoride. It is the fluoriine-carbon bonding
b of th
hese materials that providdes the outsttanding resis
stance to
chemical attack. In facct, the fully fluorinated plastics exh hibit better chemical
c n virtually any other
ressistance than
material, inccluding otherr metals, plas stics, or com
mposites. Theey also posse ess:
● High therm
mal stability
● Resistanc
ce to sunlight degradation
n
● Low smok e characteristics

ke and flame
● Resistanc
ce to fungus and bacteria
a build-up
They generrally have:
● Low perm
meability to m
most gases and liquids
● High puritty in the virgiin form
● Process ability,
a forma
ability, and mold ability
● Cold weather impact strength

s
● High abra
asion resistan
nce
● Low coeffficients of fricction
● Approval for food contact use

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13.3.1. Liner Ty
ypes
 Polytetrrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
 Fluorinaated Ethylene Propylene (FEP).
 Perfluoroalkoxy (PF FA).
 Ethylennetetrafluoroe
ethylene (ET
TFE).
 Polyvinylidene Fluooride (PVDF).
 Polyproopylene (PP)).
 Polyvinylidene Chlo oride (PVDC)).
 Polyethhylene (PE).
The non flu uorinated pla

astics, polyp
propylene (P
PP) and poly yvinylidene chloride
c (PVDC), are moore general purpose
materials th
hat provide g
good overall chemical ressistance. The
ey have loweer temperatuure and chem
mical resistance than
the fluoro polymer and are
a generally y less expens
sive.
13.4. Installled Cost Co

omparisons
Specificatio
on of a corro
osion-resistannt piping sysstem is a co
omplex assiggnment, if forr no other re
eason than the
t large
number of available
a maaterials that vary
v both in cost
c and perrformance. The materialss-selection ph
hase usually
y yields a
number of piping
p candid
dates that will perform addequately from a technica oice is made from the
al standpointt. Then a cho
candidates on an econo omic basis. Three
T types of
o cost comparisons are common:
c
Material cos
st
Initial installled cost
Long-term life-cycle cos

st.
Many speciifiers limit the

eir economic
c analysis to o materials costs only beecause they are relatively y simple to estimate.
e
Yet this ap
pproach pose es a very re
eal danger because
b gnores what is often we
it ig ell over half of the true required
investment for a piping system,
s that is, the in-pla
ace cost of th
he system, in
ncluding fabrrication and installation co
osts.
Many typess of corrosio

on-resistant piping have relatively high material costs beca
ause they arre supplied from
f the
manufacturrer in the fo
orm of prefa omponents. This, however, makes these mate
abricated co erials relativ
vely less
expensive to
t install.
Conversely, many piping systems with

w low mate
erial costs oftten require th
he additionall expense of fabrication at
a the job
site prior to installation.
A widely us sed formatteed study9 prresents a co omparison o of initial insta

alled costs ffor a broad variety of co orrosion-
resistant pipping systemss. It provides
s the engine eer with a sc creening tool to help narrrow the field d of candidates for a
piping projeect so that a final deta ailed econom mic study ca an be made e on the spe ecific piping arrangemen nt under
consideratioon. Factors considered in the study y are: type ofo piping used, material costs, com mplexity of th
he piping
system, fab brication and erection tecchniques, annd labor rates and productivity in insttallation. Tab ble 13.1 summmarizes
the installed
d cost ratios from the mo ost recent puublication forr a NPS 2 (D DN 50) complex piping sy ystem. The report
r list
cost ratios are for NP PS 2, 4, and d 6 (DN 50, 100, and 150) piping layouts forr both straig ght-run and complex
arrangemen nts. A plastic
c-lined metallic piping sys
stem offers clear
c advantaages over bo oth metal an
nd solid-plasttic piping
systems. Compared to a piping sys stem consistting of corrosion resistan nt metal, pla pe provides equal or
astic-lined pip

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better resisstance to cheemical attack, depending
g on liner mmaterial. Whe en comparing g the installe
ed cost of a flanged
plastic-lined
d metallic pip
ping system to a weldedd metallic pipping system, the plastic lined system
m is often lowwer. See
Table 13.1. This is espeecially true when
w comparing plastic-lin
ned pipe to metal
m system
ms of higher alloy
a materiaals.
Compared to a plastic system mad de from the same

s materrial as the plastic liner, p
plastic-lined pipe providees higher
pabilities as w
service cap well as highe
er mechanica al strength. Plastic-lined
P piping syste ems are also o available in
n a wider
range of lin
ne sizes, with a broade er selection of fittings, when
w compa ared to solid d thermoplas stic or therm
mosetting
systems.
d pipe is not only used where

Plastic-lined w chemic
cal attack is a concern, it is also used
d where med
dia contact with
w metal
is detrimen ntal, as in th
he case of ultra-pure chemicals
c an
nd demonize ed water ussed in variou
us processe es in the
electronics industry.
Table 13.1
PIPING MA
ATERIAL COS
ST RATIOS
PVC (sch 80) 0.56 PT
TFE-lined FRP 3.20
CPVC
C (sch 80) 0.63 M
Monel (Sch 40) 3.24
Allloy 20 (Sch 40)) 3.32
Carbo
on steel (Sch. 40
0) 1.00 Niickel (Sch 10) 3.34
304L S.S. (Sch. 10) 1.13 Haastelloy C-276 (Sch
( 10) 3.52
Rubb
ber-lined steel (S
Sch 40) 1.16
316L S.S. (Sch. 10) 1.20 PT
TFE-lined 304L SS (Sch 10) 4.12
304L S.S. (Sch. 40) 1.31 Niickel (Sch 40) 4.27
316L S.S. (Sch. 40) 1.45 Tiitanium (Sch 10) 4.46
Haastelloy C-276 (Sch
( 40) 4.46
FRP/v
vinyl ester 1.78
FRP/ epoxy 1.86 Haastelloy B (Sch 40) 5.71
FRP/ polyester 1.86 Ziirconium (Sch 10) 5.95
Polyp
propylene lined steel (Sch 40) 1.90
Saran lined steel (Sch
h 40) 1.91 Ziirconium (Sch 40)
4 7.04
PVDF
F-lined steel (Scch 40) 2.47
Alloy 20 (Sch. 10) 2.60
Monel (Sch 10) 2.61
Glass--lined steel (Sch
h 40) 2.69
PVDF
F (Sch 80) 2.71
PTFE
E-lined steel (Sch
h 40) 2.94
Titaniium (Sch 10) 2.99
FEP-llined steel (Sch 40) 2.99

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14. INSTALLAT
TION
Concurrent with the e developme ent of structu ural design methods

m for thermoplasttics, installattion practices s dedicated to these
materia als have als so been de eveloped. Noteworthy
N a
among thesse are AST TM D 2774 4, ‘‘Undergro ound Installlation of
Thermo oplastic Pres ssure Piping,’’ ASTM D 2321, ‘‘Und derground In nstallation off Thermoplasstic Pipe forr Sewers an nd Other
Gravity--Flow Applic cations,’’ andd ASTM F 1668 1 ‘‘Consttruction Proccedures for Buried Plasttic Pipe.’’ A commentary y on the
installattion issues thhat are criticaal to the longg-term perforrmance of fle exible no preessure plasticcs pipe has been offered d by T. J.
McGratth.31 Howarrd has pub blished a bookb devoteed to pipe installation issues.27 Installation as well as s design
recomm mendations are a also iss sued by varrious profess sional and trade
t associiations. A number of th hese referennces are
identifie
ed in the folloowing sectio on. A significa ant developm ment in pipe installation practice is th he use of co ontrolled low--strength
materia als (CLSM, also
a known a as flow able fill) for pipe backfill. CLS SM is a mixtture of sand,, cement, fly ash, and water with
excellen nt flow chara acteristics suuch that vibra equired to pllace it around and underr a pipe or otther obstructtions in a
ation is not re
trench. Strengths are a low, som metimes as lo ow as 35 ps si (240 kPa) at 28 days, in order to assure that the materia al can be
excavatted in the ev vent that an e encased utility requires a repair. In 19 997 ASTM heldh a three-d day symposiium on the subject of
CLSM, with many papers devvoted to its use around pipes.43 One O benefit ofo CLSM is that shrinka age is minimmal after
placement; thus, if used to back kfill an entire
e trench the settlement anda pavemen nt damage that often occ curs with soil backfill
can be avoided. Pip on can be difficult if grou
pe installatio und conditionns are poor, and it is alsso expensive e to provide full-time
inspectiion of pipe-la aying crews. Therefore, a key step in quality co ontrol of pipe e installations is to check the pipe deflection
d
levels after
a the insta mplete. This should be a standard pa
allation is com art of all pipe installation sspecifications.
15. ONAL INFORMATION

SOURCES OF ADDITIO
15.1. On Ne
ew Developments
The inroads s that thermmoplastics pip ping has ma ade in fuel ggas distribution, sewer, water, agricultural, and highway
drainage, and
a in various industrial uses has generated many m studie
es regarding g the durability and eng gineering
performanc ce of these materials.
m To
opics of partticular recentt interest rellate to the u
use of these materials fo or larger-
diameter ap pplications fo
or which certtain limits of performance e, such as maximum
m deppth of burial, buckling res
sistance,
and compre essive wall strength are often
o design limiting. A re
eader interes sted in these
e topics, as well
w as in the e general
state of the art, should cconsult the proceedings
p o the following periodica
of ally held symposia and co onferences:
Proceedings of Internattional Conferrences on Pipeline Desig

gn and Insta
allation, Ame
erican Societty of Civil En
ngineers,
7th Street, New York, NY
345 East 47 Y 10017.
Proceedings of the Sym

mposium on Buried Plas
stic Pipe Tec
chnology, Am
merican Society for Testting & Materrials, 100
Bar Harbor Drive, West Conshohock
ken, PA 1942
28.
Proceedings of the Fuel Gas Plastic

c Pipe Symposium, Amerrican Gas As
ssociation, 1515 Wilson Boulevard,
B A
Arlington,
VA 22209.
Proceedings of the National Confe erence on Fllexible Pipes

s, Center for Geotechniccal and Gro
oundwater Research,
Ohio Univerrsity, Athenss, OH 45701.
Proceedings of the International Conferences

C on Plastics Pipe, Plasttics and Rub
bber Institute, 11 Hobart Place,
ngland SW1W
London, En W OHL.

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15.2. Public
cations Rela
ated to Stan
ndards
The followin
ng publicatio
ons contain much
m inform
mation that is
s useful for all
a applications of plastic
cs piping, pa
articularly
with respec
ct to design a
and installatio
on:
ASME Guid de for Gas T

Transmission and Distribuution Piping Systems.
S Av
vailable from American Society
S of Me
echanical
Engineers, United Engin
neering Centter, 345 Eastt 47th Street, New York, NY 10017, (212) 705-7722.
AGA Plastic ervice. Availa

c Pipe Manual for Gas Se able from Am
merican Gas
Association
n, 1515 Wilso
on Boulevard
d, Arlington, VA
V 22209, (7
703) 841-845
54.
Maintenanc ystems, Nov

ce of Operatiion of Gas Sy vember, 1970
0, Army TM5
5–654;
NAVFAC-M Superintendent of Docum

MO–220; Air Force AFM 91–6. Available from S ments, U.S. Government
G t Printing
Office, Was
shington, D.C
C. 20402.
15.3. Assoc
ciations
Various tradde and technical associa ations issue reports, manuals, and liists of refere
ences on pro
operties, des
sign, and
installation of plastics piping. A listing of current
c litera
ature offering
gs may be obtained by b contactin ng these
organizationns at the follo
owing addres
sses:
Thermoplas
stic pipe (ind
dustrial gas distribution,
d sewerage, wa
ater, and gen
neral uses):
The Plastics
s Pipe Institu
ute, 1825 Co
onnecticut Av
ve., N.W., Su
uite 680, Was
shington, DC
C 20009.
Thermoplas plications): Plastics Pipe & Fittings Association,

stics pipe (pllumbing app A 8
800 Rooseve
elt Road, Bu
uilding C,
Suite 20, Glen Ellyn, IL 60137.
PVC pipingg (water disttribution, sew d irrigation): Uni-Bell

werage, and U PVC
C Pipe Asso
ociation, 265
55 Villa Cree
ek Drive,
Suite 155, Dallas,
D TX 75
5234.
‘‘No-Dig’’ methods
m forr the rehabiilitation of existing
e s: North Am
buriied pipelines merican Soc
ciety for Tre
enchless
Technology y, 435 North Michigan Avvenue, Suite 1717 Chicag go, IL 60611..
15.4. Codes
s
Thermoplasstics piping for

f plumbing g, heating, coooling and ventilating,
v sewer, water,, fire protecttion, gas distribution,
and other hazardous
h m
materials may y be subjectt to the provisions of a code
c or othe
er regulation.. Nearly all plumbing
p
codes allow
w plastics pip
ping for certa
ain applicatio
ons. The maajor model bu uilding and p
plumbing cod des from which most
such codes are derived are issued byb the followiing organizations:
BOCA: Nattional Buildin

ng Code ,BO OCA Nationa al Mechaniccal Code, annd BOCA Na mbing Code. Building
ational Plum
Officials and
d Code Adm
ministrators, In
nternational, Inc., 4051 W
West Flossmoor Road, Country Club Hills, IL 6047
78.
CABO: One elling Code. Council of American Building Officcials, 5203 Leesburg
e and Two Family Dwe L Pik
ke, Falls
Church, VA
A 22041.

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IAPMO: Unniform Plumbbing Code. In
nternational Association
A o Building and
of a Mechaniccal Officials, 20001 Waln
nut Drive
South, Waln
nut, CA 9178
89–2855.
ICBO: Unifo
form Building
g Code and Uniform Me ode. Internattional Conferrence of Building Officia
echanical Co als, 5360
South Work
kman Mill Rooad, Whittier, CA 90601.
PHCC: Natiional Standa g Code. Natio

ard Plumbing onal Associa
ation of Plum
mbing Heating
g- Cooling Contractors,
C P
P.O. Box
6808, Falls Church, VA 22040.
CCI Southern
SBCI: SBC n Building Coode, SBCCI Southern Standard Plum mbing Code,, and SBCC CI Southern Standard
S
Mechanicall Code. Southern Building
g Code Cong
gress Interna
ational, 900 Montclair
M Road, Birmingh
ham, AL 35213.
American National
N Sta
andards Insttitute
ANSI B31.3 3 Chemical PPlant and Pettroleum Refinery Piping. Thermoplas

stic Piping AN
NSI B31.8 Gas Transmis
ssion and
Distribution Piping Syste
ems. ANSI Z223,
Z Nationa
al Fuel Gas Code.
C
Some stan ndards and various jurisdictions an nd authoritiees require that

t before pipe may be b used forr certain
applications
s, it first mu
ust be apprroved for th hat use by a recognize ed, or specifically desig
gnated, orga
anization.
Organizatioons and apprroval program
ms for plastic
c pipe include
e the followin
ng:
For potable
e water:
NSF Interna
ational, NSF Building, Po
ost Office Box
x 1468, Ann Arbor, MI 48
8106.
Canadian Standards
S As
ssociation, 17
78 Rexdale Boulevard,
B R
Rexdale, Onta
ario,
Canada, M9
9W 1R3
For drain, waste,

w and vent:
v
NSF Interna
ational and Canadian
C Sta
andards Asso
ociation (see
e above).
For meat- and

a food-prrocessing pllants:
U.S. Departtment of Agrriculture, 14th

h and Indepe W., Room0717 South, Wa
endence S.W ashington, DC
C 20250.
For water pipe:

p
American Water
W Works Association,, Denver, CO
O.

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16. REFERENC
CES
1. Facts & Figures

F e U.S. Plasttics Industry (1997 edition
of the n),The Socie
ety of the Pllastic Industrry, Inc., Was
shington,
DC; ‘‘Resins Report,’’ Modern
M Plasttics, Januaryy 1998.
ar, ‘‘Special Report:

2. Bill Brega R Plastic to Remain
n Leading Piipe Material,’’ Plastics N
News, Februa
ary 19, 1990
0, p. 10.
port P-043N, ‘‘The Comp

3. BCC Rep petitive Pipe Market:
M Matterials, Appliications Directions,’’ Business
Communicaations Co., In
nc., Stamford
d, Connecticcut.
4. L. E. Janson, Plastic Pipes for Wa a Sewage Disposal, Neste Chemiccals, Stenung

ater Supply and g- sund, Swe
eden,
Stockholm, 1989.
er, R.E. Chambers, and A.G.H.

5. F.J. Hege A Dietz
z, ‘‘Structural Plastics Des
sign Manual,,’’ ASCE Man
nual of Engiineering
o. 63, Americ
Practice No can Society of
o Civil Engin
neers, New Y York, May 19984.
6. Section 18,
1 Soil-Therrmoplastic Pipe Interactio
on Systems, Standard Sppecifications for High- wa
ay Bridges,
American Association
A of State Highway and d Transportaation Officia
als (AASHTO O), Washingtton, DC.
7. Stanley A. Mruk, ‘‘Th

he Durability
y of Polyethylene Piping,’’ STP 1093, Buried Plasttic Pipe Tech
hnology, Ame
erican
Society for Testing
T and
d Materials, Philadelphia
P , October 19
990.
8. P.E. O’Donoghue, M..F. Kanninenn, C.H. Poplaar, and M.M. Mamoun, ‘‘A
A Fracture MMechan- ic’s Assessment
A of the
Battelle Slow Crack Gro
owth Test forr Polyethylen
ne Gas Pipe Materi- als,’’ Proceeding
gs of the Ele
eventh Plasttic Fuel
Gas Pipe Symposium,
S October 3–5,, 1989, San Francisco, published by
O y the America
an Gas Asso ociation, Arlin
ngton,
Virginia.
n Lu, and N. Brown, ‘‘No

9. X.R. Qian otchology—T The Effect oof the Notchin
ng Method oon the Slow Crack
C Grow
wth
Failures in a Tough Poolyethylene,’’’ Journal of Materials
M Sccience 26, 19
991, p. 26.
10. L.E. Janson, ‘‘Plasstic Pipes fo

or Water Su
upply and Sewage Disp
posal,’’ Borea
alis, Sven Axelson
A AB//Affisch
& Reklamtryyck AB, 1996 6.
11. Y.G. Hs
suan, ‘‘Evaluaation of Stres
ss-Crack Re esistance of P
Polyethylenee Non-Pressu ure Rated Re
esins,’’ study
y
conducted by
b the Geos synthetic Res search Institu
ute for the P
Plastics Pipe
e Institute, 19
997.
12. Y.G. Hssuan, ‘‘A Stre

ess Crack Re esistance Me ethod for Eva aluation of Po
olyethylene M
Materials Inte
ended for Pipe
Applications
s,’’ PPI reporrt published by Plastic Pipe Institute, Washing- toon, DC. 1997.
13. L.E. Janson, ‘‘Plasttic Gravity Se

ewer Pipes Subject
S to C
Constant Strrain by Defleection,’’ Proceedings of th
he
al Conferencce on Underg
Internationa ground Plastiic Pipe, Ame erican Society of Civil Eng
gineers, Neww York, March 1981.
14. A.P. Mo
oser, O.K. Sh
hupe, and R.R. Bishop, ‘‘Is PVC Pipe Strain Limite
ed After All These Yearrs?’’ STP 10
093,
Buried Plas chnology, Am
stic Pipe Tec merican Society for Testiing and Materials, October 1990.
15. H.W. Vinson, ‘‘Resp

ponse of PVCC Pipe to Larrge, Repetitivve Pressure Surges,’’ Pro
oceedings off the Internattional
Conference c Pipe, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, March
e on Undergrround Plastic h 1981.

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ne Design
A

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PETROJET THE PETROLIUM PROJECTS & TECHNICAL CONSULTATIONS COMPANY

4.1. Rehabiilitation Tech

6.1.1. Chemicall geometry 11

6.2. Plasticss Compositio

6.2.1. Plastics Additives

6.2.3. Thermoplastics Materrials 13

6.2.4. Cell classsification 14

7.4. Acrylon ene-Styrene (ABS) Pipe

9.1. Internal Hydraulic P

9.1. 1.Surge Pre

9.3. Temperature Effectts 28

11.1.1. The hoo

11.1.2. The bed

12. PE / METAL PIPE TRA

12.1. Example, Vendor Print for PE / Metal Transition Fitting 36

13. LINED PIPIN

13.2. METH ANUFACTURE

13.3. Liner Materials 40

15. SOURCES OF ADDITIO

The first the

This Paperr reviews th

Plastics pipe and fittings

CSAB181.1 ABSDWV pipe and fittings 1¹⁄₄–

Piping matterial and Subject product, Nomminal ple

More than half the tonnage of all thermoplasti

4.1. Rehabilitation Tec

 The most universally recognized

5.3. Requirrements for successful design

Successful design with thermoplastiics requires recognition o

Polymers used for engineering appllications con

Molecule siize is denote

6.1.1 Chemicall geometry

6.2.1. Plastics Additives

ditives are incorporated into a thermo

e main kinds of additives that may be

 zers. To prottect the plasttic against th

6.2.4. Cell classification

Forr example in accordance e with the ceell classification system of

Melt index: Cell 3 of

Ressistance to slow crack Cell 2 of wths: hrs, when using

e water and drainage sys

PVC piping is joined primarily by twwo techniques s, solvent ce

Example for classificatio

The manne er in which a rigid PVC material

Base resin: Cell 1 of pro

Modulus of elasticity in tension:

For pressure pipe app plications, th

1. PVCC 1120 is a Type 1, Grade 1 PVC material

2. PVCC 2110 is a Type 2, Grade 1 PVC material

The other PVC

PVC pipe and fittings must conform to the follow

ated Pipe (SDR Series)

3. ASTM D 2466, PVC Plastic Pipe Fittings, Sch

4. ASTM D 2467, Sockket-Type PVC

5. ASTM D 2665, PVC Drain, Waste and Vent Pipe

CPVC is ussed for potab

CPVC mate erials are alsso classified

CPVC pipe and fittings must

1. ASTM F 441, CPVC Plastic Pipe

C Plastic Hot and Cold Water

3. ASTM F 439, Sockett-Type CPVC

4. CPVC 4120material in accordanc

Polypropyleene materials are classiified by AST TM D4101, ‘‘Standard Specification