Volumetric Analysis Involving Acids and Alkalis

Chapter 19
Volumetric analysis involving acids and

alkalis
19.1 Standard solutions
19.2 Acid-alkali titrations
19.3 Calculations on volumetric analysis
19.4 Writing a laboratory report on volumetric analysis
Learning goal
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
19.1 • describe and demonstrate how to prepare solutions of a required concentration by dissolving a
solid or diluting a concentrated solution
• calculate the concentrations of the solutions prepared
19.2 • describe and demonstrate the techniques of performing acid-alkali titration
19.3 • apply the concepts of concentration of solution and use the results of acid-alkali titrations to
solve stoichiometric problems
19.4 • communicate the procedures and results of a volumetric analysis experiment by writing a
laboratory report
Chapter 19 Volumetric analysis involving
acids and alkalis
Sodium hydroxide is the active ingredient of common drain cleaners. Do you know how to
determine the amount of sodium hydroxide in a bottle of drain cleaner? We can determine it by
applying volumetric analysis. It is an important quantitative analysis in chemistry.
A bottle of drain cleaner A student is performing an experiment to

determine the concentration of sodium
hydroxide in a sample of drain cleaner.
Think about...
What experimental technique is the student in the picture using?
Titration
Do you know the names of the apparatus the student is working with?
Burette and conical flask
What are other applications of volumetric analysis?
Refer to Section 19.3.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.
volumetric analysis 容量分析

19 Volumetric analysis involving acids and alkalis

PowerPoint
In Chapter 15, we have learnt how to express the concentration of a
solution in molarity. A solution of accurately known molar
concentration or molarity is called a standard solution.
CE2007(I)10(d)(i)
Concept check Key point
✘ A standard solution A standard solution is a solution of accurately known molar
is a solution of 1.0 M.
concentration or molarity.
✔ A standard solution
is a solution of
accurately known
molarity. Apparatus for preparing standard solutions
There are some apparatus commonly used in the preparation of standard
有效掌握概念
solutions. Table 19.1 shows the names and uses of these apparatus.
Name Use
1. Weighing bottle It is used to hold the
sample to be
(a) Glass weighing bottle
weighed.
(b) Plastic weighing bottle
cap cap
(a) (b)
2. Electronic balance It is used to weigh

the solid quickly and
accurately (accuracy
up to (a) 0.01 g or
(b) 0.0001 g).
(a)
(b)
electronic balance 電子天平 standard solution 標準溶液

molarity/molar concentration 摩爾濃度 weighing bottle 稱量瓶
3 19
IV Acids and bases
Name Use
CE1999(I)7(b)(i)(1)
Note 1 3. Volumetric flask N1 CE2010(II)19 It is used to make up
The volume of a volumetric CE2011(I)9(a) a solution to a
flask is calibrated accurately at
specific volume (e.g.
a specific temperature (usually 3
20°C). Holding too hot or too 250.0 cm )
cold solution will make the accurately.
volume of the flask inaccurate.
* Before use, rinse
This is also true for pipette.
CE2002(I)9(b)(i)(1) the volumetric flask
with distilled water.
CE2002(I)9(b)(ii) CE2006(II)40
Note 2 4. Pipette N2 It is used to deliver a
CE2005(II)39 CE2010(I)10(a)
While sucking solution into the CE2010(II)19 specific volume (e.g.
pipette, make sure that the tip 3
CE2011(I)9(a) 25.0 cm ) of a
is always immersed into the DSE2012(IB)7(d)(i)
solution. Otherwise, air rushes solution accurately.
into the pipette and eventually * Before use, rinse
the pipette filler making
bulb the pipette with
everything a mess.
distilled water,
then with the
solution it is going
to deliver.
Note 3 5. Pipette filler N3 It is used to suck up

The simple type of pipette filler a solution into a
(a) The simple type
shown here is usually known as
an ear syringe. It is available (b) The traditional type with valves pipette.
from local scientific equipment * As a safety
suppliers (also in some
precaution, always
computer stores). This is
preferable to the traditional type fill a pipette with a
(with valves) because it is pipette filler. Do
valves
cheaper and more convenient to NOT use your
use.
mouth.
6. Beaker It is used to hold

solutions.
Table 19.1 Names and uses of the apparatus commonly used in the preparation of standard
solutions.
beaker 燒杯 pipette filler 移液管膠泵

19 4 bulb 球管 volumetric flask 容量瓶
rinse 沖洗
suck up 吸入
valve 活門
pipette 移液管
Class practice 19.1

A19.1 Name the apparatus that is suitable for each of the following purposes:
3
(a) 25.0 cm pipette 3
3 (a) To deliver 25.0 cm of a liquid accurately.
(b) 25.0 cm measuring cylinder
3
(c) Electronic balance (b) To measure about 22.0 cm of a liquid.
3
(d) 250.0 cm volumetric flask
(c) To weigh out an object to an accuracy of 0.001 g.
3 3
(d) To make up 100 cm of a solution to 250.0 cm .
Preparing standard solutions

Primary standard
Learning tip A primary standard is a substance which can be used to prepare a
Only very few standard solution directly. It can be weighed out and used to prepare a
substances can be
used as a primary
solution of accurately known concentration. To be a good primary
standard. Examples standard, the substance should have the following properties:
include anhydrous
sodium carbonate and
• It is readily available (not expensive) with high purity.
oxalic acid crystals. • It is chemically stable (at least not affected by exposure to air,
meaning that it should not react with oxygen, carbon dioxide and
water vapour in air).
• It has high solubility in water.
• It does not absorb water vapour from air.
• It does not lose water of crystallization to the atmosphere on exposure
to air if it is a hydrated substance.
• It is involatile and non-toxic.
H20 Example 19.1

Primary standards
Explain why the following substances cannot be used as primary standards.
(a) Sodium hydroxide pellets (b) Concentrated sulphuric acid
(c) Liquid ammonia
Solution
CE2007(I)10(d)(ii) AL2004(I)7(b) DSE2013(IB)4(c)
(a) Sodium hydroxide pellets absorb water vapour from air and dissolve in it. This makes the mass of
the pellets difficult to be measured accurately. Besides, its solution reacts with carbon dioxide in
air.
(b) Concentrated sulphuric acid absorbs water vapour from air. This makes the concentration of the
solution prepared inaccurate.
(c) Liquid ammonia is toxic and volatile. It vaporizes during the preparation of solution. This makes
the concentration of the solution prepared inaccurate.
primary standard 基本標準 pellet 顆粒

5 19
IV Acids and bases
To prepare a standard solution, we can either dissolve a pure solid in

water or dilute a concentrated solution of known molarity.
Preparing a standard solution by dissolving a pure solid

We can prepare a standard solution by dissolving a known mass of a pure
solid in distilled water. It is then made up to a known volume (usually
3
250.0 cm ) of solution.
3
Suppose we have to prepare 250.0 cm of an approximately 0.10 M
sodium carbonate solution, from anhydrous sodium carbonate. Follow
the steps below and see Figure 19.1:
Stage A: Weighing the pure solid
SBA note 1. Calculate the mass of anhydrous sodium carbonate required.

Do not waste time trying Mass of Na2CO3 required
to weigh out exactly 2.65 g
of the solid. However, the = number of moles of Na2CO3 × molar mass of Na2CO3
mass weighed out should
–3 250.0 3 –1
be accurate (e.g. to be at = 0.10 mol dm × dm × 106.0 g mol
least 0.01 g).
1000
= 2.65 g
2. Use an electronic balance to weigh out accurately the required mass

of anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Stage B: Dissolving the pure solid

3
3. Dissolve the solid in about 100 cm of distilled water in a beaker. Stir
the solution with a glass rod.
3
Note 4 Stage C: Making up the solution to 250.0 cm in a volumetric flask N4
To prepare a standard solution
3
3
in a 250.0 cm volumetric flask, 4. Pour the solution to a 250.0 cm volumetric flask through a filter
we should add distilled water to
make up to 250.0 cm , not
3 funnel.
3
dissolve the solute in 250.0 cm
5. Wash the beaker and the glass rod with distilled water several times.
distilled water.
Pour all the washing to the volumetric flask.
6. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask but stop about 2 cm below
the graduation mark.
7. Use a dropper to add distilled water until the bottom of the meniscus
reaches the graduation mark.
8. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to mix the contents well.
dropper 滴管 meniscus 彎液面

19 6 graduation mark 刻度
invert 倒置
stopper 蓋上瓶塞
washing 洗液
3
100 cm of
distilled water
anhydrous sodium weighing bottle
glass rod
carbonate
beaker
2.65 g electronic anhydrous sodium sodium carbonate

balance carbonate solution
(1) and (2) (3)
glass
rod
sodium washing distilled

carbonate water
filter solution
funnel
volumetric flask
3
(250.0 cm type)
plastic
wash bottle
distilled
sodium
water
carbonate
solution
(4)
(5)
beaker dropper invert it

several
distilled distilled times
water water stopper
3
250.0 cm
graduation meniscus
mark
standard sodium
carbonate solution
(6) (7) (8)
Figure 19.1 Steps for preparing a standard solution by dissolving a pure solid in distilled water.
7 19
IV Acids and bases
Finally, we should calculate the concentration of the solution

prepared by using the mass of pure solid and the volume of the
solution.
H20 Example 19.2

Calculating the concentration of solution prepared by dissolving a pure solid
3.20 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate is dissolved in distilled water and the solution was made up to
3
a 250.0 cm . What is the molarity of the solution prepared?
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)
Solution
Molar mass of Na2CO3
–1
= (23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g mol
–1
= 106.0 g mol
Number of moles of Na2CO3 used
3.20 g
= –1
106.0 g mol
= 0.0302 mol
Molarity of the Na2CO3 solution prepared
number of moles of Na2CO3 (mol)
= 3
volume of solution (dm )
0.0302 mol
=
250.0 dm3
1000
–3
= 0.121 mol dm
Try Chapter Exercise Q9
Preparing a standard solution by diluting a concentrated

solution of known molarity
We can also prepare a standard solution by diluting a concentrated
solution of known molarity to a specific volume.
3
Suppose we are going to prepare 250.0 cm of 0.0120 M sodium
carbonate solution from 0.120 M sodium carbonate solution. Follow the
steps below and see Figure 19.2.
dilution 稀釋
19 8
CE2000(I)7(a)(iii)(3) 19 Volumetric analysis involving acids and alkalis
CE2009(I)10
CE2007(I)10(a)
1. Calculate the volume of the original solution required for dilution.
(number of moles of Na2CO3)before dilution = (number of moles of Na2CO3)after dilution
Note 5 M 1V 1 = M 2V 2 N5
When a certain volume
of solution is diluted, V1 250.0
0.120 × = 0.0120 ×
the number of moles of 1000 1000
the solute present
remains unchanged.  V1 = 25.0 cm3
3
SBA note 2. Use a pipette to transfer 25.0 cm of the original solution to a
3
You should use the 250.0 cm volumetric flask.
index finger instead
of the thumb to 3. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask but stop about 2 cm below
control the flow of the graduation mark.
solution in a pipette.
4. Use a dropper to add distilled water until the bottom of the
meniscus reaches the graduation mark.
5. Stopper the flask and then invert it several times to mix the
contents well.
meniscus
pipette
filler
0.120 M sodium
3 25.0 cm
3
carbonate solution
25.0 cm
pipette
pipette
3
250.0 cm
0.120 M sodium 0.120 M sodium
volumetric flask
carbonate solution carbonate solution
(1) and (2)
beaker invert it
dropper
several
distilled times
distilled
water
water stopper
3
250.0 cm
meniscus
graduation
mark
0.0120 M sodium
carbonate solution
(3) (4) (5)
Figure 19.2 Steps for preparing a standard solution by diluting a concentrated solution.
9 19
IV Acids and bases
H20 Example 19.3 CE2011(I)9(b)
Calculating the concentration of solution prepared by diluting a concentrated solution of known

molarity
3 3
10.0 cm of 2.50 M sodium carbonate solution is diluted to 250.0 cm using distilled water. What is
the molarity of the diluted sodium carbonate solution?
Solution
(number of moles of Na2CO3)before dilution = (number of moles of Na2CO3)after dilution,
M 1V 1 = M 2V 2
10.0 250.0
2.50 × = M2 ×
1000 1000
M2 = 0.1
 the concentration of the diluted sodium carbonate solution is 0.1 M.
H20 Example 19.4 DSEPP2012(IB)4(a) CE2004(I)7(a)(i) DSE2014(IB)7(b)(i)
Preparing a standard solution of sodium carbonate by dissolving anhydrous sodium carbonate

3
Describe briefly how to prepare 100.0 cm of 0.50 M sodium carbonate solution from 5.30 g of
anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Solution
First, dissolve 5.30 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in some distilled water in a beaker. Then,
3
transfer the solution to a 100.0 cm volumetric flask. Wash the beaker and the glass rod with distilled
water several times and pour all the washing to the volumetric flask. Add distilled water up to the
graduation mark of the volumetric flask. Finally, stopper and invert the volumetric flask several times
to mix the contents well.
Class practice 19.2 (Answers on p.19-11.)
3
A student prepared 500.0 cm of 0.1 M standard ethanedioic acid solution by dissolving hydrated ethanedioic
acid crystals ((COOH)2․2H2O) in water.
(a) Calculate the mass of hydrated ethanedioic acid crystals needed.
(b) If the student weighed out 6.45 g of the crystals, calculate the molarity of the solution prepared.
(c) Is the solution prepared in (b) a standard solution? Explain your answer.
3
(d) To prepare 250.0 cm of 0.0150 M ethanedioic acid solution, what is the volume of the solution (as
prepared in (b)) required for dilution?
Experiment 19.1 Experiment Workbook 2
Preparing a standard sodium carbonate solution

PowerPoint Experiment
Video In this experiment, you are going to prepare a standard sodium carbonate
solution.
19 10

PowerPoint
Volumetric analysis and titration
A19.2
(a) Number of moles of (COOH)2․2H2O Volumetric analysis is a method to determine the amount (or
needed
= 0.1 ×
500.0
mol
concentration) of a substance in a sample. It requires the measurement
1000
= 0.05 mol
of volumes of the solutions involved. As volumetric analysis is done by
Mass of (COOH)2․2H2O needed titration, it is also known as titrimetric analysis.
= 0.05 × [2 × (12.0 + 16.0 × 2 + 1.0)
+ 2 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)] g
Titration is an experimental technique used for determining the
= 6.3 g
(b) Number of moles of (COOH)2․2H2O amount (or concentration) of a substance in a solution. In a titration, a
6.45
used =
126.0
mol = 0.0512 mol solution of known concentration (i.e. a standard solution) is slowly added
Molarity of the solution prepared to another solution of known volume, until the two solutions have just
0.0512 –3 (d) Number of moles of ethanedioic acid (before dilution) = Number of moles of ethanedioic acid (after dilution)
= mol dm
500.0 reacted completely.
M1V1 = M2V2
1000
–3
CE2000(I)7(a)(iii)(3) 250.0
= 0.102 mol dm 0.102 × V1 = 0.0150 ×
1000
(c) Yes. This is because the
accurate molar concentration
Apparatus for titration

–3
V1 = 0.0368
3
 the volume of the 0.102 mol dm solution needed is 36.8 cm .
of the solution is known.
There are some apparatus commonly used in titration. Table 19.2 shows
the names and uses of these apparatus.
Name Use Name Use

1. Burette It is used to deliver 3. Stand and clamp They are used to
variable volumes support the burette.
(ranging from 0.05 to
3
50.00 cm ) of a
solution accurately.
stopcock
* Before use, rinse
the burette with
distilled water and
then with the
solution it is going
to deliver.
CE2001(I)6(b)(iv)
CE2010(I)10(b)
AL2004(I)7(b)
2. Conical flask It is used to hold a 4. White tile It is used to allow

solution to be titrated. clear observation of
Its conical shape the colour change of
allows it to be swirled the indicator.
gently without spilling
out the solution.
* Before use, rinse
the conical flask with
distilled water.
CE2002(I)9(b)(i)(2)
Table 19.2 Names and uses of some apparatus used in acid-alkali titration.
burette 滴定管 titration 滴定

conical flask 錐形瓶 titrimetric analysis 滴定分析
spill out 濺出
swirl 搖勻
11 19
stand and clamp 夾和支架 volumetric analysis 容量分析

stopcock 活栓 white tile 白瓷磚
IV Acids and bases
Procedure for acid-alkali titration

Learning tip In an acid-alkali titration, a standard solution of an acid (or an alkali) is
The procedure for an slowly added to a known volume of a solution of an alkali (or an acid),
acid-carbonate (e.g.
HCl and Na2CO3 )
until the acid and alkali have completely reacted with each other. The
titration is more or stage at which the acid and the alkali have just reacted completely
less the same as that
during titration is called the equivalence point.
for the acid-alkali
titration.
Key point
有效掌握概念 The equivalence point of an acid-alkali titration is the point at which
an acid and an alkali have just completely reacted with each other.
CE2006(I)9(c)
The equivalence point of an acid-alkali titration can be estimated by

using a pH meter or a data-logger connected with a pH sensor.
However, it is generally not possible to detect the equivalence point using
* Book 2, Section 16.2, p.6 an *acid-base indicator. During the acid-alkali titration, a suitable acid-
base indicator is usually added. The colour of the indicator changes
sharply at or very near the equivalence point. When this happens, we
say that the end point of titration is reached.
有效掌握概念
Note 6
Key point
Depending on the indicator
End point is the point at which the indicator changes colour
used and the strength of the N6
acid and alkali, the end point sharply.
and the equivalence point may
coincide or deviate a little bit.
CE2006(I)9(a) Detection of end point by using an acid-base indicator

Consider the titration of an acid with an alkali. Follow the steps below and
see Figure 19.3.
3
1. Fill the 25.0 cm pipette (using a pipette filler) with the alkali until
3
the graduation mark is reached. Transfer 25.0 cm of the alkali to a
conical flask.
CE2001(I)6(b)(iv)
Learning tip 2. Fill the burette with the acid. Make sure that the jet is filled completely
The solution in the (no air bubbles inside the jet).
burette is often
known as titrant.
3. Add a few drops of an acid-base indicator to the alkali. Note the
colour of the solution.
4. Take the initial burette reading, with your eyes on the same level as
the meniscus.
acid-base indicator 酸鹼指示劑 jet 噴嘴

19 12 end point 終點 titrant 滴定劑
equivalence point 當量點
Learning tip 5. Slowly add the acid to the alkali until the mixture just turns to
The volume of another persistent colour. This is the end point of titration.
titrant used to
react completely 6. Take the final burette reading. Calculate the volume of the acid added
with the solution in
to reach the end point.
the conical flask is
called titre.
7. Repeat the titration (steps 1 to 6) at least three times, until we get
three sets of data for calculating the average volume of the acid
used.
AL2004(I)5(b)
DSE2013(IB)4(e)(ii)
meniscus stand
acid
3
25.0 cm alkali clamp
alkali pipette burette
N7
conical flask
white tile
alkali
(2)
Note 7
(1) Clamp the burette securely and vertically to
allow taking the reading accurately.
h
0 hig
too 3 burette
d ing cm
rea s0
.8 acid
indicator da
rea eye at proper
meniscus
rearead as 0.6 cm
3
level
din
g to
rea o lo
1 da
s0
w
.5 c 3
m
alkali (4)
solution mixture +
(3) indicator
(5)
Figure 19.3 Procedure for performing an acid-alkali titration.
titre 滴定值 persistent 持久

13 19
IV Acids and bases
Skill corner 19.1 CE1998(I)6(a)(i)(2) CE2011(I)9(c)
Drawing a labelled diagram of a set-up for acid-alkali titration Note 10

The explanation for the choice of
Note the following points when drawing a set-up for acid-alkali titration. indicators is not required by the HKDSE
Note 9 curriculum, but it is necessary to
It is essential to remember the colours of the two common remember which indicator is suitable in
indicators (methyl orange and phenolphthalein) at different a given titration.
pH ranges. The colour changes of the two indicators at the
end point can be summarized as follows: acid 2 Label the solution
(or alkali) in the burette
Conical flask Conical flask holding
Indicator
holding acid alkali/carbonate
Methyl orange Red to orange Yellow to orange

Colourless to *Pink to very pale pink
Phenolphthalein
pink (nearly colourless)
1 Draw a conical flask alkali 3 Label the solution and the

but NOT a beaker (or acid) and acid-base indicator in the flask
* It is easier for the eye to detect the approach of the end acid-base indicator
point when colour appears rather than it disappears.
H20 Example 19.5 DSE2013(IB)4(e)(i)
Cleaning conical flask before titration experiment

(a) Right before a titration, what should be used to wash and clean the conical flask, distilled water or
the solution it is to hold? Explain briefly.
(b) The washed conical flask need not be dried before use. Why?
Solution
(a) Distilled water. The distilled water remaining in the flask will not affect the amount of solute in the
solution it is to hold.
(b) After washing, a little water would remain in the conical flask. This will not change the amount of
solute present. Thus, there is no need to waste time in drying the conical flask.
Class practice 19.3
A19.3 A student performed an acid-alkali titration.

AL2004(I)7(b)
(a) After washing the burette, some
(a) Before a titration, he/she cleaned a burette by washing it with distilled
distilled water (a few drops) may
be left inside the burette. When water to remove impurities. He/she then filled the burette with 0.100 M
the given standard hydrochloric hydrochloric acid. However, his/her teacher commented that the given
acid is filled in this burette, it is
hydrochloric acid had been diluted and should not be used for the titration.
diluted and the molarity of the
acid is no longer known. The Explain why.
given hydrochloric acid is not a
(b) Suggest how the burette should be washed in order to avoid the problem
standard solution any more.
(b) The burette should be rinsed in (a).
with distilled water and then with
(c) Another piece of titration apparatus should also be washed properly as in
the solution it is going to deliver.
(c) Pipette (b). What is it?
19 14
Note 8 Choosing a suitable acid-base indicator N8

In an acid-alkali (or carbonate)
titration, the pH value of the A suitable acid-base indicator such as methyl orange and phenolphthalein,
reaction mixture in the conical flask
changes a lot at the end point. should give a sharp colour change at the end point of titration (Figure
Thus, the corresponding colour
19.4). Litmus is not used because it does not give a sharp colour change.
change would be quite obvious if a
suitable indicator is used.
methyl orange phenolphthalein
Figure 19.4 The sharp colour

changes of (a) methyl orange
and (b) phenolphthalein in
solutions of pH = 2 and pH = 12.
(There is often a marked change
in pH at the end point of titration.
pH = 2 pH = 12 pH = 2 pH = 12
The change from pH = 2 to pH =
12 is used as an example here.) (a) (b)
The choice of indicator in a given titration depends on the strength

of the acid and the alkali involved. This is summarized in Table 19.3.
CE2001(I)6(b)(iii) CE2005(II)40 CE2010(II)43
CE2003(I)8(b)(ii) AS2009(II)3(a) DSE2012(IB)7(d)(ii)
Titration type Example Suitable indicator(s)
Strong acid – strong alkali HCl(aq) vs. NaOH(aq) methyl orange; phenolphthalein
Strong acid – weak alkali HNO3(aq) vs. NH3(aq) CE2009(I)11(c)

methyl orange
(Strong acid – carbonate) HCl(aq) vs. Na2CO3(aq) CE2011(I)9(d)
AL2004(I)5(b)
Weak acid – strong alkali CH3COOH(aq) vs. KOH(aq) phenolphthalein CE2004(I)7(a)(ii)
DSE2013(IB)4(d)(i)
Weak acid – weak alkali CH3COOH(aq) vs. NH3(aq) (no indicator would be suitable)
Table 19.3 The correct choice of indicators for different types of acid-alkali titrations. N9, N10
(Notes 9 and 10 on p.19-14.)
H20 Example 19.6

Techniques of performing acid-alkali titration
A student performed an acid-alkali titration using the
experimental set-up as shown in the diagram. 0.05 M NaOH(aq)
(a) Write an equation for the reaction of ethanoic acid with
sodium hydroxide solution. apparatus Y
(b) Name the salt formed.

(c) Name apparatus Y.
(d) Suggest what acid-base indicator should be used in the 3
25.0 cm of 0.05 M CH3COOH(aq) + a
titration. few drops of an acid-base indicator X
(e) State the expected colour change at the end point of the white tile
titration.
cont’d
methyl orange 甲基橙

phenolphthalein 酚酞
15 19
IV Acids and bases
Solution
(a) CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O()
(b) Sodium ethanoate
(c) Burette
(d) Phenolphthalein
(e) From colourless to pink
A19.4
+ –
Class practice 19.4
(a) H (aq) + OH (aq) H2O()
3
(b) 25.0 cm pipette
A teacher is demonstrating an
(c) From yellow to orange
(d) Methyl orange acid-alkali titration to the students
using the set-up as shown in the
0.10 M HCI(aq)
diagram on the right.
(a) Write an ionic equation for burette
the neutralization.
(b) What is the apparatus used to
3
deliver 25.0 cm of NaOH(aq)
3
25.0 cm of 0.10 M NaOH(aq) + a
to the conical flask?
few drops of methyl orange indicator
(c) State the colour change of the
white tile
indicator at the end point.
(d) If the teacher uses 0.10 M NH3(aq) instead of NaOH(aq), suggest a suitable
indicator for this titration.
Estimation of equivalence point by measuring the change

in pH of the mixture
The change in pH of the mixture in the course of titration can be
* Book 2, Section 16.3, p.10 followed by using a *pH meter or a *data-logger connected with a pH
sensor. Consider the titration of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution with
3
25.0 cm of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid. Follow the steps below (Figure 19.5):
3
1. Fill the 25.0 cm pipette (using a pipette filler) with 0.1 M hydrochloric
3
acid. Transfer 25.0 cm of the acid to a beaker placed on a magnetic
stirrer.
2. Put the electrode of a pH meter or a pH sensor connected with a data-
logger into the beaker of acid.
3. Fill the burette with 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution. Make sure that
the jet is filled completely (no air bubbles inside the jet).
4. Slowly add the alkali to the acid. The pH of the mixture is measured
immediately after each addition of the alkali.
data-logger 數據記錄器 pH meter pH計
19 16 magnetic stirrer 磁力攪拌器 pH sensor pH傳感器
19 0.2 ptinvolving acids and alkalis
Volumetric analysis
0.1 M sodium
hydroxide
solution
burette
X.XX
pH meter
electrode of pH meter
magnetic stirring bar 0.1 M hydrochloric
acid
magnetic stirrer
Stir Heat
Figure 19.5 The experimental set-up for the estimation of equivalence point by pH
measurement.
If the pH reading is plotted against the volume of the sodium

hydroxide solution added, a titration curve is obtained (Figure 19.6). It
shows the changes of pH of the mixture during the course of a titration.
Think about
+
pH = –log [H (aq)] Note that there is a marked change in the pH at the equivalence point
For 0.1 M hydrochloric acid, of titration.
pH = –log 0.1
=1
Think about
Why is the pH of the
hydrochloric acid in 14
the beaker equal to 1

before any NaOH(aq) 12
is added to it?
10
CE1998(II)13
pH of the mixture when the
Learning tip
pH
8 equivalence point is reached

The pH of the mixture equivalence point
at the equivalence 6
point may NOT be 7
for some acid-alkali 4
titrations.
2
volume of NaOH(aq) required
to reach the equivalence point
0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
3
Volume of NaOH(aq) added (cm )
3
Figure 19.6 Titration curve for the titration of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution with 25.0 cm
of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid.
titration curve 滴定曲線

17 19
IV Acids and bases
PowerPoint Experiment Performing acid-alkali titrations using a pH meter

Video In this experiment, you are going to estimate the equivalence point for the
titration of sodium hydroxide solution with hydrochloric acid using a pH
meter.
Estimation of equivalence point by measuring the change

in temperature of the mixture
Learning tip In Chapter 18, we have learnt that neutralization between an acid and an
The set-up for the alkali is an exothermic reaction. The reaction gives out heat.
experiment here is very
similar to the one 3
shown in Figure 19.5.
Consider that 25.0 cm of 0.1 M hydrochloric acid is placed in a
Except that: polystyrene cup, together with a thermometer. At first, the temperature of
• a polystyrene cup is
the acid is recorded. After that, 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution is added
used instead of a
beaker. slowly to the acid. The temperature of the mixture is recorded immediately
• a thermometer is after each addition of the alkali.
used instead of a pH
meter.
If the temperature reading is plotted against the volume of the sodium
hydroxide solution added, the following graph is obtained (Figure 19.7).
40 equivalence point
E
Temperature (°C)
35
CE1998(II)13 30
25 B
A
20 volume of NaOH(aq) needed
to reach the equivalence point
0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0

3
Figure 19.7 A plot of the temperature change of the mixture against the volume of
NaOH(aq) added.
exothermic reaction 放熱反應

19 18
Temperature change during an acid-alkali titration

From A to E: The temperature of the mixture rises because heat is given
out when sodium hydroxide solution is added to dilute
hydrochloric acid.
CE2010(I)10(d)
At E: The temperature of the mixture reaches the maximum
because the equivalence point is reached.
From E to B: The temperature of the mixture falls because addition of
excess sodium hydroxide solution will not give out heat but
cool the mixture.
Class practice 19.5

3
In an experiment, 25.0 cm of sodium hydroxide solution of unknown
A19.5
concentration was placed in a polystyrene cup. 1.0 M sulphuric acid was added
(a) Polystyrene cup is a poor conductor 3
of heat. It can reduce heat loss to to the sodium hydroxide solution, 5.0 cm at a time. Upon each addition of
the surroundings. sulphuric acid, the temperature was recorded. The following graph showed the
(b) This is because the temperature of
results of the experiment.
the mixture will reach the maximum
at the equivalence point.
(c)
50.0
50.0
Temperature (°C)
45.0 45.0
Temperature (°C)
40.0
40.0
35.0
30.0 35.0
25.0
30.0
0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0

25.0
3
Volume of H2SO4(aq) added (cm )
From the graph, the volume of H2SO4(aq) required is
3
16.0 cm . 0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
3
Volume of H2SO4(aq) added (cm )
(a) Explain why the experiment was performed in a polystyrene cup.

(b) Explain why an indicator was not used in this experiment.
(c) What is the volume of sulphuric acid required to neutralize the sodium
hydroxide solution? Show your working on the graph above.
19.3 Calculations on volumetric analysis CE2011(II)43
PowerPoint
To solve stoichiometric problems involved in volumetric analysis, we have
to apply the concepts of concentration of solution (already learnt in
Chapter 15) and use the results of acid-alkali titrations. ‘Problem-solving
strategy 19.1’ on the next page shows the general steps for solving
stoichiometric problems involved in volumetric analysis.
19 19
IV Acids and bases
Problem-solving strategy 19.1 CE2007(II)15
Determining the volume of a reactant required in acid-alkali titration

Try it now
What is the volume of 0.200 M sodium hydroxide solution What is the volume of 0.10 M
3
required to neutralize completely 19.80 cm of 0.102 M sulphuric hydrochloric acid required to react
acid? completely with 20.0 cm of
3
0.050 M sodium carbonate

1 Write down the balanced equation for the reaction. solution?
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O() ➊ 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) +
CO2(g) + H2O()
2 Write down the given data underneath the corresponding
➋ 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) +
formulae. Indicate the value to be found. CO2(g) + H2O()
0.10 M 0.050 M
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O() 3 3
? cm 20.0 cm
0.102 M 0.200 M
3 3
19.80 cm ? cm
3 Find the number of moles of one of the reactants. (At this ➌ Number of moles of Na2CO3
stage, usually there is sufficient data to calculate the –3 20.0 3
= 0.050 mol dm × dm
1000
number of moles of one reactant only.) –3
= 1 × 10 mol
Number of moles of H2SO4
–3 3
= molarity (mol dm ) × volume of solution (dm )
–3 19.80 3 –3
= 0.102 mol dm × dm = 2.02 × 10 mol
1000
4 From the mole ratio of reactants in the equation, calculate ➍ From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to
the number of moles of the other reactant of which Na2CO3 = 2 : 1.
 number of moles of HCl
information is asked for. –3
= 1 × 10 × 2 mol
–3
From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 : NaOH = 1 : 2. = 2 × 10 mol
 number of moles of NaOH = 2.02 × 10–3 × 2 mol

–3
= 4.04 × 10 mol
5 Calculate the required information ➎ Volume of HCl(aq)

–3
2 × 10 mol
Volume of NaOH no. of moles of NaOH (mol) = –3
= 0.10 mol dm
3 3
3 –3 = 0.02 dm (or 20 cm )
solution (dm ) molarity of NaOH solution (mol dm )
–3
4.04 × 10 mol
= –3
0.200 mol dm
3
= 0.0202 dm
3
= 0.0202 × 1000 cm
3
= 20.2 cm
Standardization
One of the main uses of volumetric analysis is to standardize (i.e. to find
the molarity of) a solution of unknown molarity. This is done by titrating
it with a standard solution. See Example 19.7.
standardization 標定
19 20 sufficient 足夠
H20 Example 19.7 CE1999(I)7(b)(iii) CE2002(I)9(b)(iii) CE2005(II)41 CE2008(II)7 DSE2013(IB)4(d)(ii)

CE2001(I)6(b)(i) CE2003(II)26 CE2006(I)9(b)(i) CE2010(I)10(e) DSE2014(IB)7(b)(ii)
Determining the molarity of a solution by standardization CE2007(I)10(b) CE2011(I)9(b),(f)
3
25.0 cm of 0.0527 M sodium carbonate solution was transferred to a clean conical flask. A few drops
of methyl orange were added as indicator. Sulphuric acid was then added from a burette, until the
solution just turned from yellow to a persistent orange colour. The titration was repeated three times
and the results were shown in the following table:
Titration
Burette reading 1 2 3 4
3
Final reading (cm ) 26.90 27.90 26.90 27.20
3
Initial reading (cm ) 0.30 2.20 1.00 1.40
3
Volume of H2SO4(aq) added (cm ) 26.60 25.70 25.90 25.80
Calculate the molarity of the sulphuric acid.

CE2006(I)9(b)(i)
Solution
In calculating the average volume of the sulphuric acid added, consider Learning tip
only those values which agree closely with others. In titration 1, the The first titration is a
3
volume of acid used is 26.60 cm . This value does not agree closely with trial. The titration data
others, so just ignore it in the calculation. obtained in the trial is
usually ignored in the
 reasonable average volume of H2SO4 used calculation of the
25.70 + 25.90 + 25.80 3 average volume of titre.
= cm
3
3
= 25.80 cm
The equation for the reaction is:

Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
0.0527 M ?M
3 3
25.0 cm 25.80 cm
3
Number of moles of Na2CO3 in 25.0 cm of 0.0527 M Na2CO3 solution
–3 25.0 3
= 0.0527 mol dm × dm
1000
–3
= 1.32 × 10 mol
From the equation, mole ratio of Na2CO3 : H2SO4 = 1 : 1.

 number of moles of H2SO4 in 25.80 cm3 of solution = 1.32 × 10–3 mol
–3
1.32 × 10 mol
Molarity of H2SO4 =
25.80 dm3
1000
= 0.0512 M
trial 試驗
21 19
IV Acids and bases
PowerPoint Experiment
Finding the molarity of a given hydrochloric acid using the standard solution
Video prepared
In this experiment, you are going to find the molarity of a given hydrochloric
acid using the standard solution prepared.
Basicity of an acid
We can determine the basicity of an acid by finding out the number of
moles of sodium hydroxide required to neutralize one mole of the acid.
See Example 19.8.
H20 Example 19.8 CE1999(II)6 CE2004(I)7(a)(iii) CE2009(II)35
Determining the basicity of an acid

2.17 g of a sample of ethanedioic acid crystals (COOH)2․2H2O was dissolved in distilled water and
3 3 3
made up to 250.0 cm of solution. 25.0 cm of the solution required 29.30 cm of 0.119 M sodium
hydroxide solution for complete neutralization. Determine the basicity of the acid.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Solution
Learning tip
Molar mass of (COOH)2․2H2O
This problem is somewhat
–1
= [(12.0 + 16.0 × 2 + 1.0) × 2 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 2] g mol unusual in two aspects:
–1 • We cannot put down
= 126.0 g mol
an equation (as the
3
Number of moles of (COOH)2․2H2O in 250.0 cm of solution basicity of the acid is
unknown).
2.17 g
= –1 = 0.0172 mol • We can calculate the
126.0 g mol number of moles of
3 both reactants directly
Number of moles of (COOH)2․2H2O in 25.0 cm of solution
(not just one reactant).
25.0
= 0.0172 × mol
250.0
–3
= 1.72 × 10 mol
–3 29.30 3
Number of moles of NaOH used = 0.119 mol dm × dm
1000
–3
= 3.49 × 10 mol
–3
Number of moles of NaOH
= 3.49 × 10–3
Number of moles of the acid 1.72 × 10
2.03 2
= ≈
1 1
Hence, the basicity of the acid is 2.
cont’d
basicity 鹽基度
19 22
Self-test 19.8
3 4.80
Number of moles of the acid in 250.0 cm of solution = mol = 0.025 mol
192.0
Self-test 19.8 3 25.0 –3
Number of moles of the acid in 25.0 cm of solution = 0.025 × mol = 2.5 × 10 mol
250.0
–1 3
4.80 g of an acid (molar mass = 192.0 g mol ) was dissolved in distilled water and made up to 250.0 cm
3 3
of solution. 25.0 cm of the solution required 20.00 cm of 0.375 M sodium hydroxide solution for
complete neutralization. Determine the basicity of the acid.
20.00 –3
Number of moles of NaOH used = 0.375 × mol = 7.5 × 10 mol
1000
Try Chapter Exercise Q12 Number of moles of NaOH 7.5 × 10
–3
3
= –3 =
Number of moles of the acid 2.5 × 10 1
 the basicity of the acid is 3.
A19.6
3
1. (a) 10.0 cm pipette
(b) To save the amount of sodium
hydroxide solution used in the
Class practice 19.6
experiment.
(c) Phenolphthalein. The colour
changes from colourless to pink 1. In an experiment to determine the concentration of ethanoic acid in a
3 3
at the end point. brand of vinegar, 10.0 cm of the vinegar was first diluted to 250.0 cm
(d) CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) 3
with distilled water. 25.0 cm of the diluted vinegar solution was then
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O()
Number of moles of NaOH used titrated against 0.05 M sodium hydroxide solution with a suitable
23.50 indicator. The volume of sodium hydroxide solution required to reach the
= 0.05 × mol
1000 3
–3
= 1.175 × 10 mol end point was 23.50 cm .
From the equation, mole ratio of 3
(a) Suggest an apparatus used to deliver 10.0 cm of the vinegar
NaOH to CH3COOH = 1 : 1.
 number of moles of CH3COOH solution.
3
in 25.0 cm diluted vingear (b) What is the purpose of diluting the vinegar before doing titration?
–3
= 1.175 × 10 mol
Number of moles of CH3COOH (c) Suggest a suitable indicator for the titration and state the colour
3
in 250.0 cm diluted vinegar change at the end point.
–3 250.0
= 1.175 × 10 × mol 3
25.0 (d) Calculate the molarity of ethanoic acid in the 10.0 cm of vinegar.
–2
= 1.175 × 10 mol
3
Molarity of ethanoic acid in the 2. (a) Solution X contains 18.0 g of an acid (HnA) per 100.0 cm of
3
10.0 cm vinegar
–2
solution. The relative molecular mass of the acid is 90.0. Calculate
1.175 × 10 –3
= mol dm the molarity of the solution.
10.0
1000 3 3
–3 (b) 50.0 cm of 2.00 M NaOH(aq) reacts completely with 25.0 cm of
= 1.175 mol dm
2. (a) Number of moles of HnA solution X.
18.0 3
= mol = 0.2 mol (i) Calculate the number of moles of NaOH in 50.0 cm of 2.00 M
90.0
Molarity of the acid solution NaOH(aq).
0.2 –3
= mol dm 3
100.0 (ii) Calculate the number of moles of HnA in 25.0 cm of solution X.
1000
= 2 mol dm
–3 (iii) Hence, determine the value of n in HnA.
(b) (i) Number of moles of NaOH
50.0
= 2.00 × mol = 0.1 mol
1000
(ii) Number of moles of HnA
25.0
=2× mol = 0.05 mol
1000
Number of moles of NaOH
(iii)
Number of moles of HnA Molar mass of a substance
0.1
= =2
0.05
Hence, the value of n in HnA
The molar mass of an acid, a metal or a base can sometimes be
is 2. determined by volumetric analysis. See Example 19.9.
23 19
IV Acids and bases
H20 Example 19.9 DSEPP2012(IB)4(b)
Determining the molar mass of an acid

3
2.00 g of a solid dibasic acid (H2X) was dissolved in water and made up to 250.0 cm of solution.
3 3
25.0 cm of this solution required 31.80 cm of 0.100 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete
neutralization. Determine the molar mass of the acid.
Solution
2NaOH(aq) + H2X(aq) Na2X(aq) + 2H2O() N11
2.00 g
3
Note 11
250.0 cm Ask students why the formula of the salt is Na2X.
0.100 M
3 3
31.80 cm (25.0 cm used)
–1
? g mol
3
Number of moles of NaOH in 31.80 cm of 0.100 M sodium hydroxide solution
–3 31.80 3
= 0.100 mol dm × dm
1000
–3
= 3.18 × 10 mol
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH : H2X = 2 : 1.

 number of moles of H2X in 25.0 cm3 of the acid solution
–3 1
= 3.18 × 10 mol ×
2
–3
= 1.59 × 10 mol
3
Number of moles of H2X in 250.0 cm of the acid solution
–3 250.0
= 1.59 × 10 × mol
25.0
= 0.0159 mol
Self-test 19.9
3NaOH(aq) + H3X(aq) Na3X(aq) + 3H2O()
Molar mass of H2X 18.50 –3
2.00 g 1000
= From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to H3X = 3 : 1.
0.0159 mol –3
 number of moles of H3X in 25.0 cm solution = 9.25 × 10 mol = 3.08 × 10 mol
3 –3
–1
= 125.8 g mol 3
3 –3 250.0
Number of moles of H3X in 250.0 cm solution = 3.08 × 10 × mol = 0.0308 mol
25.0
5.92 –1 –1
Self-test 19.9 Molar mass of the acid = g mol = 192.2 g mol
0.0308
3
5.92 g of a solid tribasic acid (H3X) was dissolved in distilled water and made up to 250.0 cm of
3 3
solution. 25.0 cm of the solution required 18.50 cm of 0.50 M sodium hydroxide solution for
complete neutralization. Determine the molar mass of the acid.
dibasic acid 二元酸

19 24
Relative atomic mass of an element

The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined by volumetric
analysis. See Example 19.10.
H20 Example 19.10 DSEPP2012(IB)4(b)
Determining the relative atomic mass of a metal in a metal carbonate

1.14 g of a sample of water-soluble metal carbonate, M2CO3, was dissolved in distilled water and
3 3 3
made up to 100.0 cm of solution. 10.0 cm of this solution required 25.30 cm of 0.085 M
hydrochloric acid for complete neutralization. Determine the
(a) molar mass of M2CO3,
(b) relative atomic mass of M.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Solution
(a) 2HCl(aq) + M2CO3(aq) 2MCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
1.14 g Self-test 19.10
3
100.0 cm M(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) MCl2(aq) + 2H2O()
3 Number of moles of HCl used
0.085 M (10.0 cm used) 30.40 –3
3 –1 = 0.10 × mol = 3.04 × 10 mol
25.30 cm ? g mol 1000
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to M(OH)2 = 2 : 1.
3
Number of moles of HCl used  number of moles of M(OH)2 in 25.0 cm solution
–3
3.04 × 10 –3
–3 25.30 3
= mol = 1.52 × 10 mol
= 0.085 mol dm × dm 2
1000
3
Number of moles of M(OH)2 in 250.0 cm solution
–3 –3 250.0 –2
= 2.15 × 10 mol = 1.52 × 10 ×
25.0
mol = 1.52 × 10 mol
Molar mass of M(OH)2

From the equation, mole ratio of HCl : M2CO3 = 2 : 1. 2.60 –1 –1
= –2 g mol = 171.1 g mol
3 1.52 × 10
 number of moles of M2CO3 in 10.0 cm of solution
Let the relative atomic mass of M be x.
–3 1 –3 Molar mass of M(OH)2 = x + 2 × (16.0 + 1.0) = 171.1
= 2.15 × 10 mol × = 1.08 × 10 mol
2 x = 137.1
3  the relative atomic mass of M is 137.1.
Number of moles of M2CO3 in 100.0 cm of solution
100.0
–3
= 1.08 × 10 × mol
10.0
–2
= 1.08 × 10 mol
–1 mass of M2CO3 (g)
Molar mass of M2CO3 (g mol ) =
number of moles of M2CO3 (mol)
1.14 g
= –2
1.08 × 10 mol
–1
= 106.0 g mol
(b) Let the relative atomic mass of M be x.
Molar mass of M2CO3 = (2x + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) = 106.0
x = 23.0
 relative atomic mass of M is 23.0.
cont’d
25 19
IV Acids and bases
Self-test 19.10 (Answers on p.19-25.)
A metal M forms a hydroxide with a chemical formula of M(OH)2. 2.60 g of M(OH)2 were dissolved in
3 3
some distilled water and made up to a 250.0 cm of solution. 25.0 cm of the solution was pipetted out
3
and titrated with 0.10 M hydrochloric acid. 30.40 cm of hydrochloric acid was required for complete
neutralization. Determine the relative atomic mass of M.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0)
A19.7
1. (a) 2NaOH(aq) + H2X(aq) Class practice 19.7
Na2X(aq) + 2H2O()
Number of moles of NaOH used 3
25.0 –3
1. 25.0 cm of 0.120 M sodium hydroxide solution was neutralized by
= 0.120 × mol = 3 × 10 mol 3
1000 30.00 cm of a solution of a dibasic acid (H2X), which contained 6.30 g
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to 3
of the acid per dm of solution. Calculate (a) the molarity of the acid
H2X = 2 : 1.
 number of moles of H2X used solution and (b) the molar mass of the acid.
–3
3 × 10 –3
= mol = 1.5 × 10 mol 2. 3.44 g of an unknown metal carbonate, M2CO3, was dissolved in distilled
2 3 3
Molarity of the acid water and made up to 250.0 cm of solution. 25.0 cm of this solution
–3
1.5 × 10 –3 –3 3
required 33.20 cm of 0.150 M hydrochloric acid for complete reaction.
= mol dm = 0.05 mol dm
30.00
1000 Determine the (a) molar mass of M2CO3 and (b) relative atomic mass of
(b) Let the molar mass of H2X be y g mol .
–1
M.
Molarity of the solution
6.30
= 0.05 = ÷1
y
y = 126.0 Number of molecules of water of crystallization
 the molar mass of H2X is 126.0 g mol–1.
The number of molecules of water of crystallization in a formula unit of a
hydrated compound can be determined by volumetric analysis. See
Example 19.11.
H20 Example 19.11 CE2001(I)6(b)(ii)
Determining the number of molecules of water of crystallization

3
0.186 g of a sample of hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2CO3․nH2O required 15.00 cm of 0.100 M
sulphuic acid for complete reaction. Determine the number of molecules of water of crystallization in
A19.7 (Cont’d)
a formula unit of the hydrated sodium carbonate sample. 2. (a) 2HCl(aq) + M CO (aq) 2MCl(aq) + CO (g) + H O()
2 3 2 2
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0) Number of moles of HCl used
33.20 –3
= 0.150 × mol = 4.98 × 10 mol
Solution 1000
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to M2CO3 = 2 : 1.
3
H2SO4(aq) + Na2CO3(s) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O() number of–3 moles of M2CO3 in 25.0 cm solution
4.98 × 10 –3
= mol = 2.49 × 10 mol
0.100 M 0.186 g 2
3
3 Number of moles of M2CO3 in 250.0 cm solution
15.00 cm n=? –3 250.0
= 2.49 × 10 × mol = 0.0249 mol
25.0
Number of moles of H2SO4 used Let the molar mass of M2CO3 be y g mol .
–1
3
Number of moles of M2CO3 in 250.0 cm solution
–3 15.00 3 –3
= 0.100 mol dm × dm = 1.50 × 10 mol = 0.0249 =
3.44
1000 y
y = 138.2
From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 : Na2CO3 = 1 : 1.  molar mass of M2CO3 is 138.2 g mol .
–1
(b) Let the relative atomic mass of M be a.

 number of moles of Na2CO3 reacted = 1.50 × 10–3 mol
Molar mass of M2CO3
cont’d
= 138.2 = 2a + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
formula unit 式單位 a = 39.1
19 26 water of crystallization 結晶水  relative atomic mass of M is 39.1.
1 mole of Na2CO3․nH2O contains 1 mole of Na2CO3.

–3
 number of moles of Na2CO3․nH2O used = 1.50 × 10 mol
–1
Molar mass of Na2CO3․nH2O = (106.0 + 18n) g mol
mass of Na2CO3․nH2O (g)
Number of moles of Na2CO3․nH2O (mol) = –1
molar mass of Na2CO3․nH2O (g mol )
–3 0.186
1.50 × 10 =
106.0 + 18n
 n =1
 there is one molecule of water of crystallization in a formula unit of the hydrated sodium carbonate
A19.8
sample. 2KOH(aq) + H2A(aq) K2A(aq) + 2H2O()
20.00 –3
Try Chapter Exercise Q14 Number of moles of KOH used = 0.10 × mol = 2 × 10 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of KOH to H2A is 2 : 1.
–3
 number of moles of H2A in 25.0 cm3 solution = 2 × 10 mol = 1 × 10–3 mol
2
3 –3 250.0 –2
Number of moles of H2A in 250.0 cm solution = 1 × 10 × mol = 1 × 10 mol
25.0
Class practice 19.8
1.26 g of a hydrated dibasic acid (H2A․nH2O) (relative molecular mass of the
3
anhydrous form is 90.0) was made up to 250.0 cm with distilled water. 25.0
3 3
cm of this solution required 20.00 cm of 0.10 M potassium hydroxide solution
for neutralization. Calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallization
per molecule of the hydrated dibasic acid.
1 mole of H2A․nH2O contains 1 mole of H2A.
 number of moles of H2A․nH2O used = 1 × 10–2 mol
–1
Molar mass of H2A․nH2O = (90.0 + 18n) g mol
1.26
–2
Number of moles of H2A․nH2O in 1.26 g H2A․nH2O = 1 × 10 =
90.0 + 18n
n=2
 number of molecules of water of crystallization per formula unit of the hydrated H2A is 2.
Percentage by mass of a substance in a sample
The percentage by mass of a substance in a sample (Figure 19.8) can be
determined by volumetric analysis. The amount of the substance asked in
the question is found first. The percentage by mass of the substance can
then be calculated by using the following equation:
Key point
Percentage by mass of a substance in a sample (%)
mass of the substance (g)
= × 100%
mass of the sample (g)
Figure 19.8 The percentage
by mass of anhydrous sodium
sulphate in this bottle is 99%. See Example 19.12.
percentage by mass 質量百分比

27 19
IV Acids and bases
H20 Example 19.12 CE2002(I)1(c)(i) CE2006(I)9(b)(ii)

CE2002(I)7(a)(v)(i) CE2007(I)5(e)
Determining the percentage by mass of a substance in a sample
0.509 g of an impure sample of anhydrous potassium carbonate (contaminated with potassium
3
chloride) was dissolved in water. The resultant solution required 34.90 cm of 0.200 M hydrochloric
acid for complete reaction. Calculate the percentage by mass of the anhydrous potassium carbonate in
the sample.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, K = 39.1)
Solution
2HCl(aq) + K2CO3(aq) 2KCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
0.200 M 0.509 g
3
34.90 cm (with impurity)
? % by mass Self-test 19.12
2NaHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O()
Number of moles of HCl used to react with K2CO3 Number of moles of H2SO4 used
27.50 –3
= 0.20 × mol = 5.5 × 10 mol
–3 34.90 3 1000
= 0.200 mol dm × dm From the equation, mole ratio of NaHCO3 to H2SO4 = 2 : 1.
1000 3
 number of moles of NaHCO3 in 25.0 cm of solution
–3 –3
= 6.98 × 10 mol = 5.5 × 10 × 2 mol = 0.011 mol
3
Number of moles of NaHCO3 in 250.0 cm of solution
250.0
= 0.011 × mol = 0.11 mol
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl : K2CO3 = 2 : 1. 25.0
Molar mass of NaHCO3
 number of moles of K2CO3 in the sample –1
= (23.0 + 1.0 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g mol = 84.0 g mol
–1
–1
–3 1 Mass of NaHCO3 in the sample = 0.11 mol × 84.0 g mol = 9.24 g
= 6.98 × 10 mol × Percentage by mass of the NaHCO3 in the sample
2 9.24 g
–3
= × 100% = 92.4%
= 3.49 × 10 mol 10.00 g
–1
Molar mass of K2CO3 = (39.1 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g mol
–1
= 138.2 g mol
–3 –1
Mass of K2CO3 in the sample = 3.49 × 10 mol × 138.2 g mol
= 0.482 g
0.482 g
Percentage by mass of the K2CO3 in the sample = × 100%
0.509 g
= 94.7%
Self-test 19.12
10.00 g of an impure sample of sodium hydrogencarbonate (contaminated with sodium chloride) was
3 3
dissolved in distilled water and made up to 250.0 cm of solution. 25.0 cm of this solution required
3
27.50 cm of 0.20 M sulphuric acid for complete reaction. What is the percentage by mass of the
sodium hydrogencarbonate in the sample?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)
19 28
A19.9
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)
Class practice 19.9
2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
Number of moles of HCl used ‘Soda ash’ is crude sodium carbonate. To determine the percentage by mass of
22.00 –3
sodium carbonate in a sample of soda ash, 2.00 g of the sample was dissolved
= 0.16 × mol = 3.52 × 10 mol
1000 3 3
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to in distilled water and made up to 250.0 cm solution. 25.0 cm of this solution
3
Na2CO3 = 2 : 1. required 22.00 cm of 0.16 M hydrochloric acid for complete reaction.
3
 number of moles of Na2CO3 in 25.0 cm
solution
Calculate the percentage by mass of sodium carbonate in the sample.
–3
3.52 × 10 –3 (Assume that the impurities in the sample do not react with hydrochloric acid.)
= mol = 1.76 × 10 mol
2
Number of moles of Na2CO3 in 250.0 cm (Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)
3
solution
–3 250.0
= 1.76 × 10 × mol
25.0
–2
= 1.76 × 10 mol
Mass of Na2CO3 in the sample
–2
= 1.76 × 10 × (23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g
= 1.87 g
Back titration
Percentage by mass of Na2CO3 in the
sample
=
1.87 g
× 100% = 93.5%
In general, there are two ways to perform a titration — direct titration
2.00 g
and back titration.
1. Direct titration
In Examples 19.7 to 19.12, the titrations involved are all direct titrations.
In these titrations, just the right amount of titrant (the solution in the
burette) is added to the solution in the conical flask.
2. Back titration
Learning tip Direct titrations are impossible in some cases. When we find the
Back titration is also percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in a sample, we cannot titrate
performed if the
standard hydrochloric acid with the sample directly. This is because
reaction between
the substance being calcium carbonate is insoluble in water and we cannot make an aqueous
analysed and the solution of it. Then back titration can be used instead.
reagent involved is
too slow.
In this method, a known excess amount of standard hydrochloric
acid is first added to a known mass of the calcium carbonate sample.
Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid, dissolving completely to
form a solution. The unreacted acid in this solution is then back
titrated against a standard sodium hydroxide solution. ‘Problem-solving
strategy 19.2’ shows the general steps to solve stoichiometric problems
involved in back titration.
back titration 返滴定 soda ash 蘇打灰

direct titration 直接滴定
29 19
IV Acids and bases
Problem-solving strategy 19.2 CE2003(I)8(b)(iii) AS2009(II)3(b)

CE2009(I)11(d) DSE2012(IB)7(d)(iii)
Determining percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in a marble sample by back titration
3
2.00 g of marble were added to 80.0 cm of 1.20 M hydrochloric acid. The unreacted acid required
3
28.80 cm of 2.00 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete reaction. Calculate the percentage by mass of
calcium carbonate in the marble.
(Assume that the other substances in the marble react with neither hydrochloric acid nor sodium hydroxide
solution.)
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1)
1 Calculate the amount of acid added at the start.

Number of moles of HCl added at the start
–3 80.0 3
= 1.20 mol dm × dm = 0.0960 mol
1000
2 Calculate the amount of unreacted acid from the titration results.
Number of moles of NaOH used to neutralize unreacted HCl
–3 28.80 3
= 2.00 mol dm × dm = 0.0576 mol
1000
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O()
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH : HCl = 1 : 1.
 number of moles of unreacted HCl = 0.0576 mol
3 Calculate the amount of acid reacted with the substance in the sample.
Number of moles of HCl reacted with CaCO3 in the sample
= number of moles of HCl added at the start (calculated in step 1) – number of moles of unreacted HCl
(calculated in step 2)
= (0.0960 – 0.0576) mol
= 0.0384 mol
4 Calculate the amount of substance in the sample.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3 : HCl = 1 : 2.
 number of moles of CaCO3 in the sample
1
= 0.0384 mol × = 0.0192 mol
2
Mass of CaCO3 in the sample
–1
= 0.0192 mol × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g mol = 1.92 g
5 Calculate the required information.

Percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the marble sample
1.92 g
= × 100%
2.00 g
= 96.0%
19 30
A19.10
Number of moles of HNO3 added at the
start
= 1.00 ×
75.0
mol = 0.075 mol
Class practice 19.10
1000
Number of moles of NaOH used to
1.20 g of an antacid tablet (containing magnesium hydroxide as active
neutralize unreacted HNO3(aq) 3
18.00 ingredient) was dissolved in 75.0 cm of 1.00 M nitric acid. The excess acid
= 2.00 × mol = 0.036 mol
1000 3
required 18.00 cm of 2.00 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete
NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq)
NaNO3(aq) + H2O() neutralization. Calculate the percentage by mass of magnesium hydroxide in
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH the antacid tablet.
to HNO3 = 1 : 1.
 number of moles of unreacted HNO3 (Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3)
= 0.036 mol (Assume that the other substances in the antacid react with neither nitric acid
Number of moles of HNO3 reacted with
Mg(OH)2 in the antacid tablet nor sodium hydroxide solution.)
= (0.075 – 0.036) mol = 0.039 mol
2HNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O()
19.4 Writing a laboratory report on

PowerPoint volumetric analysis
From the equation, mole ratio of HNO3
to Mg(OH)2 = 2 : 1.
 number of moles of Mg(OH)2 in the Format of laboratory reports
antacid tablet
=
0.039
mol = 0.0195 mol At the secondary school level, writing laboratory reports is an exercise
2
Mass of Mg(OH)2 in the antacid tablet to learn how to communicate in a formal written scientific paper. In writing
= 0.0195 × [24.3 + 2 × (16.0 + 1.0)] g a laboratory report, make sure the content is clear, concise, yet complete
= 1.14 g
Percentage by mass of Mg(OH)2 in the and well-organized. Here are some useful guidelines (Table 19.4):
1.14 g
antacid tablet = ×100% = 95%
1.20 g
Use the correct You should use past tense to describe specific
Note 12 1 N12
Past tense is used because the
tenses experimental methods and observations.
experiment has finished.
Because scientific experiments demonstrate
Note 13 Write in the third facts that do not depend on the observer,
To avoid grammatical mistakes,
2 person and passive reports should not be written in the first or the
write simple and short sentences.
One should revise the grammar voice second person. Besides, passive voice is
taught in English textbooks. used.
Table 19.4 Some useful
Write with proper Complete sentences with no grammatical
guidelines in writing a 3 N13
grammar mistakes should be used.
laboratory report.
Class practice 19.11

A19.11
(a) About 6.50 g of sodium Rewrite the following experimental procedures in the third person, past tense
carbonate solid were weighed and passive voice:
accurately using an electronic
balance. (a) Weigh accurately about 6.50 g of sodium carbonate solid using an
(b) The solution was transferred
3
electronic balance.
to a 250.0 cm volumetric flask 3
with the aid of filter funnel. (b) Transfer the solution to a 250.0 cm volumetric flask with the aid of filter
(c) A few drops of methyl orange funnel.
indicator were added to the
(c) Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator solution to the conical flask.
conical flask.
antacid 制酸劑 concise 簡潔 scientific paper 科學論文

laboratory report 實驗報告 formal 正式
31 19
IV Acids and bases
A formal laboratory report should contain the following parts:
Write the title of the experiment as given in the laboratory manual.

1 Title
(e.g. Determining the concentration of ethanoic acid in commercial vinegar)
Use a single sentence to state clearly the objective of the experiment.

2 Objective
(e.g. To determine the concentration of ethanoic acid in commercial vinegar)
List the apparatus and materials used in the experiment as specifically as

possible. This allows others to repeat your experiments.
Apparatus and (e.g. electronic balance
3 3
materials beaker (100 cm )
3
volumetric flask (250.0 cm )
anhydrous sodium carbonate powder (6.30 g))
• Describe clearly the procedure of the experiment so that someone else

can repeat what you did. For example, describe clearly how solutions are
obtained or prepared and used in the analysis; how measurements are
done; state the amounts of substances used, the volumes and
4 Procedure concentrations of solutions used.
• In general, write the procedure in a step-by-step format rather than in
essay form.
• In most cases, draw diagrams of the experimental set-ups for better
presentation.
• Summarize your numerical data using tables or graphs.

• Express numerical results to the appropriate number of significant figures
Results and
5 and in the correct units.
observations
• Record all observations clearly and fully using appropriate terms in
chemistry.
Analysis/ • Give the equations used to work out the answers.

6 Calculations (if • Show your calculation steps clearly.
any) • Provide definitions of every variable used.
• Draw valid conclusions based on the observations and data collected.

• Describe the problems encountered in the experiment.
• Discuss the sources of errors and uncertainties, especially those due to
Conclusions and error in laboratory techniques and those due to imprecision of the
7
evaluation apparatus.
• Give any suggestions for improvement to avoid these errors.
• Answer the questions (if any) in the laboratory manual at the end of the
laboratory report.
Table 19.5 Parts of a formal laboratory report.
19 32 evaluation 檢討
imprecision 不準確性
objective 目的
Attitude of writing laboratory reports

We should not just report ‘good’ data. Do not panic if our data is not
perfect every time. Try to find out why irregularities arise, whether we
have made some mistakes while performing experiments or we have to
revise the experimental procedures. Remember that understanding our
mistakes is just as important as understanding what should have
happened.
PowerPoint Experiment Determining the concentration of ethanoic acid in commercial vinegar

Video In this experiment, you are going to determine the concentration of ethanoic
acid in commercial vinegar.
panic 驚慌
33 19
IV Acids and bases
Key terms
PowerPoint
English term Chinese translation Page

1. back titration 返滴定 29
2. end point 終點 12
3. equivalence point 當量點 12
4. laboratory report 實驗報告 31
5. primary standard 基本標準 5
6. standard solution 標準溶液 3
7. titration 滴定 11
8. titration curve 滴定曲線 17
9. volumetric analysis 容量分析 11
3 1.89
12. Number of moles of the acid in 250.0 cm solution = mol = 0.015 mol 32. Number of moles of HCl added at the start
3 126.0
Number of moles of the acid in 25.0 cm solution 50.0
= 1.0 × mol = 0.05 mol
25.0 –3 1000
= 0.015 × mol = 1.5 × 10 mol
250.0 Number of moles of NaOH used to neutralize the unreacted HCl(aq)
15.0 –3
22.65
Number of moles of NaOH used = 0.20 × mol = 3 × 10 mol = 0.5 × mol = 0.0113 mol
1000 1000
–3
Number of moles of NaOH 3 × 10 2 NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O()
= =
Number of moles of the acid 1.5 × 10–3 1 From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl = 1 : 1.
 the basicity of the acid is 2.  number of moles of unreacted HCl = 0.0113 mol
13. 2MHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) M2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O() Number of moles of HCl reacted with CaCO3 in the egg shell
10.50 –3 = (0.05 – 0.0113) mol = 0.0387 mol
Number of moles of H2SO4 used = 0.20 × = 2.1 × 10 mol
1000 CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
From the equation, mole ratio of MHCO3 to H2SO4 = 2 : 1. From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3 to HCl = 1 : 2.
3 –3
 number of moles of MHCO3 in 25.0 cm solution = 2.1 × 10 × 2 mol  number of moles of CaCO3 in the egg shell =
0.0387
mol
–3
= 4.2 × 10 mol 2
3
= 0.01935 mol
Number of moles of MHCO3 in 100.0 cm solution
–3 100.0 Mass of CaCO3 in the egg shell = 0.01935 × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0
= 4.2 × 10 × mol = 0.0168 mol × 3) g = 1.937 g
25.0
Let the relative atomic mass of M be x. 1.937 g
Percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the egg shell = × 100%
1.702 3.85 g
0.0168 =
(x + 1.0 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) = 50.3%
x = 40.3
 the relative atomic mass of M is 40.3.
14. 3NaOH(aq) + H3A(aq) Na3A(aq) + 3H2O()

18.75 –3
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to H3A = 3 : 1.
3
 number of moles of H3A in 25.0 cm solution
–3
3.75 × 10 –3
= mol = 1.25 × 10 mol
3 3
Number of moles of H3A in 500.0 cm solution
–3 500.0
= 1.25 × 10 × mol = 0.025 mol
25.0
Number of moles of H3A․nH2O in 5.25 g H3A․nH2O
5.25
= 0.025 =
192.0 + n × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)
n=1
 the value of n is 1.
19 34
Progress check
PowerPoint
Can you answer the following questions? Put a ‘✓’ in the box if you can. Otherwise, review the relevant
part on the page as shown.
Page
1. What is a standard solution? 3
2. Can you name the essential apparatus used in the preparation of a standard solution? 3–4
3. What is a primary standard? 5
4. What are the characteristics of primary standards? 5
5. Do you know how to prepare a standard solution by dissolving a pure solid? 6–7
6. Do you know how to prepare a standard solution by diluting a concentrated solution of

8–9
known molarity?
7. What is volumetric analysis? 11
8. Can you name the essential apparatus used in titration? 11
9. What is the equivalence point of an acid-alkali titration? 12
10. What is the end point of an acid-alkali titration? 12
11. Do you know how to perform a simple acid-alkali titration? 12–13
12. Do you know how to detect the end point in an acid-alkali titration? 15
13. Can you name two common acid-base indicators used in titration? 15
14. Do you know how to choose the correct indicator(s) for different types of acid-alkali
15
titrations?
15. Do you know how to estimate the equivalence point in an acid-alkali titration? 16–18
16. Can you perform the following calculations using the concepts of concentration of
solution and the results of acid-alkali titration?
20–21
(a) Standardization
(b) Basicity of an acid 22
(c) Molar mass of a substance 24
(d) Relative atomic mass of an element 25
(e) Number of molecules of water of crystallization of a hydrated compound 26–27
(f) Percentage by mass of a substance in a sample 28
17. What are direct titration and back titration? 29
18. Do you know how to solve stoichiometric problems involved in back titration? 30
19. Do you know how to write a laboratory report? 31–32
35 19
IV Acids and bases
Summary
PowerPoint
1. A standard solution is a solution of accurately known molar concentration or molarity.
2. The essential apparatus used in the preparation of a standard solution include volumetric flask,
pipette and pipette filler.
3. A primary standard is a substance which can be used to prepare a standard solution directly.
4. A standard solution can be prepared by dissolving a known mass of a pure solid or by diluting
a concentrated standard solution to a specific volume.
5. Volumetric analysis is a method to determine the amount (or concentration) of a substance in

a sample. Titration is one of the techniques of volumetric analysis.
6. The essential apparatus used in titration include burette, pipette and conical flask.
7. The equivalence point of an acid-alkali titration is the point at which an acid and an alkali have
completely reacted with each other.
8. The equivalence point of an acid-alkali titration can be estimated by measuring the change in pH
and the change in temperature of the mixture.
9. End point is the point at which the indicator changes colour sharply.
10. The end point of titration can be detected using the appropriate acid-base indicator(s). The
choices of indicators in acid-alkali titration are summarized in Table 19.3 on p.15.
19.3 Calculations on volumetric analysis
11. We can apply the concepts of concentration of solution and acid-alkali titration results to solve
stoichiometric problems such as
(a) Standardization (e) Number of molecules of water of crystallization
(b) Molar mass of a substance of a hydrated compound
(c) Basicity of an acid (f) Percentage by mass of a substance in a sample
(d) Relative atomic mass of an element
19.4 Writing a laboratory report on volumetric analysis
12. A laboratory report can help to communicate the procedure and results of an experiment on
volumetric analysis.
13. A formal laboratory report should consist of the following sections:

(a) Title (e) Results and observations
(b) Objective (f) Analysis and calculations (if any)
(c) Apparatus and materials (g) Conclusions and evaluation
(d) Procedure
19 36
Concept map
PowerPoint
Complete the following concept map.
• concentration of solution
• weighing bottle
• basicity of an acid • electronic balance
• molar mass of a • volumetric flask
substance determine VOLUMETRIC apparatus • pipette
• relative atomic mass of • pipette filler
ANALYSIS
an element • beaker
• number of molecules of • burette
water of crystallization • conical flask
• percentage by mass of a
substance in a sample
Preparation of a Titration
standard solution
example
methods
Acid-alkali titration
Dissolve a known mass Dilute a concentrated solution

of a pure solid of known molarity
detection of estimation of
end point equivalence point
Use an acid-base Measure the Measure the change

indicator change in pH in temperature
of the mixture of the mixture
(Hints: acid-base indicator, burette, concentration of solution, known molarity, pH, pipette, pure solid,
standard solution, temperature, volumetric flask)
37 19
IV Acids and bases
Chapter exercise
Fill in the blanks – measure the change in temperature
of the
mixture.
Section 19.1
standard solution
1. A is a solution of 6. The accuracy of titration results depends very
accurately known molarity. It can be prepared by much on the correct detection of the
solid end point
dissolving a pure in water or .
concentrated
diluting a solution of known
7. The choice of indicator in a titration depends on
molarity. strength
the of the acid and the alkali
primary standard
2. A is a substance which involved.
can be used to prepare a standard solution (a) For a titration involving a strong acid
directly. and a strong alkali, usually either
methyl orange or phenolphthalein is
3. In volumetric analysis, apparatus (e.g. beaker,
ipette urette used.
p and b ) should
be first washed with distilled water
and then (b) A suitable indicator for strong acid-weak
methyl orange
with the solution they are to hold/deliver. An alkali titrations is .
conical flask
exception is , which needs to (c) A suitable indicator for weak acid-strong
distilled water phenolphthalein
be washed with only. alkali titrations is .
Section 19.2 Section 19.4

Equivalence point
4. is the point at which an 8. A laboratory report should be written in
past third
acid and an alkali have completely reacted with tense, in the
each other. person with passive voice and no
grammatical
mistakes.
5. The end point of titration can be detected using 9. Number of moles of Na2CO3․10H2O used
acid-base indicator
the appropriate . To =
14.30
mol = 0.05 mol
[(23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) + 10 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)]
estimate the equivalence point of acid-alkali 1 mole of Na2CO3․10H2O contains 1 mole of Na2CO3.
titration, we can 3
 number of moles of Na2CO3 in 250.0 cm solution = 0.05 mol
pH 0.05 –3 –3
– measure the change in of the Molarity of the Na2CO3 solution =
250.0
mol dm = 0.2 mol dm
mixture, or 10. Number of moles of HCl = Number of moles of HCl 1000
(before dilution) (after dilution)
M1V1 = M2V2
250.0
2.0 × V1 = 0.15 ×
1000
Practice questions 3
V1 = 0.0188 dm or 18.8 cm
3 11. Number of moles of (COOH)2․2H2O used
3.78
3
 volume of 2.0 M HCl(aq) required is 18.8 cm . = mol
[(12.0 + 16.0 × 2 + 1.0) × 2 + 2 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)]
Section 19.1
= 0.03 mol
3
9. 14.30 g of hydrated sodium carbonate Na2CO3․10H2O(s) is dissolved in water and made up to 250.0 cm of
solution. Calculate the molarity of the sodium carbonate solution.1 mole of (COOH)2․2H2O contains 1 mole of (COOH)2.
3
 number of moles of (COOH)2 in 250.0 cm of the
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0) solution = 0.03 mol
3
10. Calculate the volume of 2.0 M hydrochloric acid required to prepare 250.0 cm of 0.15 M hydrochloric
3
acid. Number of moles of (COOH)2 in 25.0 cm of solution
25.0
= 0.03 × mol = 0.003 mol
250.0
Section 19.3 (COOH)2(aq) + 2KOH(aq) (COO)2K2(aq) + 2H2O()
11. 3.78 g of ethanedioic acid crystals (COOH)2․2H2O was dissolved in distilled water and the solution was
3 3 3
made up to 250.0 cm . 25.0 cm of the solution required 15.00 cm of potassium hydroxide solution for
complete reaction. Calculate the molarity of the potassium hydroxide solution.
From the equation, mole ratio of (COOH)2 to KOH = 1 : 2.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)  number of moles of KOH = 0.003 × 2 mol = 0.006 mol
0.006 –3 –3
Molarity of the KOH solution = mol dm = 0.4 mol dm
15.00
19 38
1000
12. 1.89 g of a solid acid, with a relative molecular mass of 126.0, was dissolved in water and the solution was
3 3 3
made up to 250.0 cm . 25.0 cm of the solution required 15.0 cm of 0.20 M sodium hydroxide solution for
complete neutralization. Determine the basicity of the acid.15. Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
20.00
(Answers on p.19-34.) Number of moles of H2SO4 used = 0.5 × mol = 0.01 mol
1000
13. 1.702 g of a metal hydrogencarbonate MHCO3 was dissolved in distilled water and the solution was made up
3 3 3
to 100.0 cm . 25.0 cm of the solution required 10.50 cm of 0.20 M sulphuric acid for complete reaction.
From the equation, mole ratio of Na2CO3 to H2SO4 = 1 : 1.
Find the relative atomic mass of M.
Number of moles of Na2CO3 in the solid mixture = 0.01 mol
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0) 1 mole of Na2CO3․10H2O contains 1 mole of Na2CO3.
(Answers on p.19-34.)  number of moles of Na2CO3․10H2O in the solid mixture = 0.01 mol
14. 5.25 g of a hydrated tribasic acid (H3A․nH2O) (relative molecular mass of the anhydrous form is 192.0) was
3 3
dissolved in distilled water and the solution was made up to 500.0 cm . 25.0 cm of the solution required
3
18.75 cm of 0.20 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete neutralization. Find the value of n.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0) Mass of Na2CO3․10H2O in the solid mixture
(Answers on p.19-34.) = 0.01 × [23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 + 10 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)] g = 2.86 g
15. 3.06 g of a solid mixture of hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3․10H2O) and sodium chloride was dissolved
3
in distilled water. The resultant solution required 20.00 cm of 0.5 M sulphuric acid for complete reaction.
Find the percentage by mass of hydrated sodium carbonate in the mixture.
Percentage by mass of Na2CO3․10H2O in the solid mixture
2.86 g
= × 100% = 93.5%
3.06 g
Multiple-choice questions Section 19.2
19. Which of the following apparatus is the most
Section 19.1 3
suitable for transferring 28.70 cm of solution?
16. Which of the following apparatus are needed
3 A. Measuring cylinder
to dilute 25.0 cm of a standard solution to
3 B. Burette
250.0 cm ?
C. Pipette 19. Burette is used to deliver variable
3
(1) 25.0 cm pipette D. Conical flask volumes of a solution accurately. B
3
(2) 250.0 cm volumetric flask
3
3
(3) 250.0 cm conical flask 20. In a titration, 25.0 cm of aqueous ammonia is
titrated against a standard solution of hydrochloric
A. (1) and (2) only
acid with methyl orange as indicator. What is the
B. (1) and (3) only
colour change at the end point?
C. (2) and (3) only
A A. From yellow to orange
D. (1), (2) and (3)
B. From yellow to red
17. What is the concentration of the resultant C. From red to orange
3
sodium carbonate solution when 10.0 cm of D. From red to yellow A
0.80 M sodium carbonate solution is diluted to
3
250.0 cm ? 17. Number of moles of Na2CO3 (before dilution) Section 19.3
= Number of moles of Na2CO3 (after dilution)
A. 0.016 M 21. What is the volume of 0.50 M hydrochloric acid
M1V1 = M2V2
B. 0.032 M 0.80 ×
10.0
= M2 ×
250.0 required to react completely with 1.20 g of sodium
1000 1000 hydroxide pellets?
C. 0.040 M M2 = 0.032
B
D. 0.064 M  the concentration of the resultant (Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0,
solution of Na2CO3 is 0.032 M. Na = 23.0) 21. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O()
18. What is the mass of anhydrous sodium carbonate 3 1.20
3 A. 60.0 cm Number of moles of NaOH = mol
needed to prepare 250.0 cm of 0.150 M sodium 3
23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0
B. 150.0 cm = 0.03 mol
carbonate solution? 3 From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl = 1 : 1.
C. 300.0 cm  number of moles of HCl needed
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, 3
A
D. 600.0 cm = 0.03 mol
Na = 23.0) 18. Number of moles of Na2CO3 Volume of 0.50 M HCl(aq) needed =
0.03 mol
250.0 –3
= 0.150 × mol = 0.0375 mol 3 3 0.50 mol dm
A. 1.50 g 1000 = 0.06 dm = 60.0 cm
B. 1.91 g Mass of anhydrous Na2CO3 needed
= 0.0375 × (23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g
C. 3.11 g
= 3.98 g D
D. 3.98 g
39 19
29
IV Acids and bases
25. Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
From the equation, mole ratio of Na2CO3 to H2SO4 = 1 : 1.
Questions 22 and 23 refer to the following titration. 25. What is the volume of 0.25 M sulphuric acid
3
3
25.0 cm of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution is required to react completely with 40.00 cm of
titrated against hydrochloric acid of unknown 0.20 M sodium carbonate solution?
 volume of 0.25 M sulphuric acid needed
molarity. The temperature of the mixture during the 0.25 × 40.00 3
A. cm 0.20 mol dm–3 × 40.00 dm
3
titration is shown below. 0.2 1000 3
= –3
× 1000 cm
0.25 × 40.00 × 2 0.25 mol dm
3
Temperature (°C) B. cm
0.2 0.20 × 40.00 3
45.0 = cm
0.20 × 40.00 0.25
3
C. cm
0.25
40.0
0.20 × 40.00 3
D. cm C
35.0 0.25 × 2
30.0
26. The concentration of an acid solution is 2.0 M.
3 3
25.0 cm of this acid solution requires 40.00 cm
25.0 of 2.5 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete
neutralization. What is the basicity of the acid?
25.0
20.0
A. 126. Number of moles of acid used = 2.0 × mol = 0.05 mol
1000
B. 2 40.00
Number of moles of NaOH used = 2.5 × mol = 0.1 mol
1000
0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 C. 3 Number of moles of NaOH used
=
0.1
=2
Number of moles of the acid used 0.05 B
Volume of acid added (cm )
3 D. 4
 the basicity of the acid is 2.
27. In an experiment, 2.0 M sodium hydroxide
22. What is the volume of hydrochloric acid required 3
solution was added to 20.0 cm of 1.0 M sulphuric
to react with the NaOH(aq) completely?
acid until the acid was just completely neutralized.
3
A. 18.00 cm What is the concentration of sodium sulphate in
3
B. 20.00 cm the resultant solution?
3
C. 40.05 cm
3 A A. 0.25 M 28. Let the formula of the tribasic acid be H3X.
D. 41.00 cm 3NaOH(aq) + H3X(aq) Na3X(aq) + 3H2O()
B. 0.33 M
23. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O() Number of moles of NaOH needed
23. What is the molarity of the hydrochloric acid C. 0.50 M 27.60
= 0.12 × mol C
25.0 D. 1.00 M 1000
used? Number of moles of NaOH = 0.1 × mol
–3 1000 –3
= 3.312 × 10 mol
= 2.5 × 10 mol
A. 0.139 M From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl 28. 0.108 g of a tribasic acid is dissolved in 25.0 cm
3
B. 0.125 M = 1 : 1. of distilled water. This solution requires 27.60 cm

3
–3
C. 0.062 M  number of moles of HCl = 2.5 × 10 mol
–3
2.5 × 10 mol of 0.12 M NaOH(aq) for complete neutralization.
Molarity of HCl(aq) = A
D. 0.061 M 18.00 dm3 What is the molar mass of the acid?
–3
= 0.139 mol dm 1000 –1
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to H3X
3
24. 25.0 cm of a tribasic acid (H3A) requires A. 77.8 g mol = 3 : 1.
–1
3
21.35 cm of 0.5 M KOH(aq) for complete B. 97.8 g mol  number of moles
–3
of acid reacted
–1 3.312 × 10 –3
neutralization. What is the concentration of the C. 106.0 g mol =
3
mol = 1.104 × 10 mol
–1 B
acid? 24. 3KOH(aq) + H3A(aq) K3A(aq) + 3H2O() D. 144.0 g mol Molar mass of the acid
0.108 g –1
21.35 = = 97.8 g mol
A. 0.14 M Number of moles of KOH required = 0.5 ×
1000
mol –3
1.104 × 10 mol
= 0.0107 mol
B. 0.20 M
From the equation, mole ratio of KOH to H3A = 3 : 1.
C. 0.28 M 0.0107 27. 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O()
 number of moles of H3A = mol A 20.0
D. 0.43 M –3
= 3.57 × 10 mol
3 Number of moles of H2SO4 used = 1.0 ×
1000
mol = 0.02 mol
–3
3.57 × 10 mol From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 to NaOH = 1 : 2.
Concentration of H3A(aq) =
25.0 dm3  number of moles of NaOH used = 0.02 × 2 mol = 0.04 mol
–3 1000 0.04 mol 3
= 0.14 mol dm Volume of 2.0 M NaOH(aq) used = –3 = 0.02 dm
3 2.0 mol dm
= 20.0 cm
From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 to Na2SO4 = 1 : 1.
 number of moles of Na2SO4 formed = 0.02 mol
0.02 mol
Concentration of Na2SO4(aq) =
(20.0 + 20.0) dm3
–3
= 0.5 mol dm 1000
19 40
29. H2SO4(aq) + X2CO3(aq) X2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
25.00 –3
Number of moles of H2SO4 required = 0.2 × mol = 5 × 10 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of H2SO4 to X2CO3 = 1 : 1.
29. The formula of a metal carbonate is X2CO3. Questions 31 and 32 refer to the following back
3
50.0 cm of a solution containing 0.53 g of the titration.
3
carbonate requires 25.00 cm of 0.2 M sulphuric
To determine the percentage by mass of calcium
acid for complete neutralization. What is the 3
carbonate in egg shell, 50.0 cm of 1.0 M
relative atomic mass of metal X?
hydrochloric acid was added to 3.85 g of egg shell.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0) When the reaction finished, the resultant solution was
–3
A. 6.9  number of moles of X2CO3 reacted = 5 × 10 mol titrated against 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution.
Let the relative atomic mass of X be a. 3
B. 23.0 Number of moles of X2CO3 = 5 × 10–3 = 0.53 22.65 cm of sodium hydroxide solution was needed
2a + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
C. 46.0 a = 23.0 to neutralize the excess acid. (Assume that the
B
D. 106.0 impurities in the egg shell react with neither
hydrochloric acid nor sodium hydroxide.)
30. 1.46 g of hydrated sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3․nH2O) was dissolved in distilled water 31. Which of the following indicators are suitable for
and the solution was made up to 250.0 cm .
3 the titration?
3 3
25.0 cm of this solution required 23.50 cm of (1) Litmus solution
0.10 M hydrochloric acid for complete reaction. (2) Methyl orange
What is the number of molecules of water of (3) Phenolphthalein
crystallization per formula unit of the hydrated A. (1) and (2) only
31. Refer to p.15 of chapter
carbonate? B. (1) and (3) only 19 for details.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, C. (2) and (3) only
C
O = 16.0, Na = 23.0) D. (1), (2) and (3)
A. 1
32. What is the percentage by mass of calcium
B. 3
carbonate in the egg shell? (Explanation on p.19-34.)
C. 9
A (Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0,
D. 10
30. Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O() Ca = 40.1)
23.50 –3
A. 25.1%
Number of moles of HCl required = 0.10 × mol = 2.35 × 10 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of Na2CO3 to HCl = 1 : 2. B. 49.6%
3
 number of moles of Na2CO3 in 25.0 cm solution
–3
C. 50.3%
2.35 × 10 –3 C
= mol = 1.175 × 10 mol D. 99.4%
2
3
Number of moles of Na2CO3 in 250.0 cm solution
–3 –2
= 1.175 × 10 × 10 mol = 1.175 × 10 mol
1 mole of Na2CO3․nH2O contains 1 mole of Na2CO3.
–2
 number of moles of Na2CO3․nH2O in 1.46 g of Na2CO3․nH2O = 1.175 × 10 mol
–2 1.46
1.175 × 10 =
23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 + n × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)
n=1
Structured questions
Section 19.3
33. To find the molarity of hydrochloric acid, it can be titrated with a standard sodium hydroxide solution.
(a) Explain why sodium hydroxide pellets are NOT used to prepare standard sodium hydroxide solution.
3
* (b) Describe briefly how a 100.0 cm of 0.30 M sodium hydroxide solution is prepared from a 1.20 M
sodium hydroxide solution using suitable apparatus.
3 3
(c) 25.0 cm of an unknown molarity of hydrochloric acid requires 20.15 cm of 0.30 M sodium hydroxide
solution for complete neutralization. Find the molarity of hydrochloric acid.
33. (a) Sodium hydroxide pellets will absorb the water vapour and carbon dioxide (c) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O()
in air. Hence, it is difficult to measure the mass of the pellets accurately. 20.15 –3
(b) Calculate accurately the volume of 1.20 M sodium hydroxide solution 1000
3
needed (i.e. 25.0 cm ). Transfer the amount of sodium hydroxide solution From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl is 1 : 1.
–3
3 3
needed (i.e. 25.0 cm ) to a clean 100.0 cm volumetric flask. Add distilled  number of moles of HCl = 6.05 × 10 mol
–3
6.05 × 10 –3
water up to the graduation mark of the volumetric flask. Finally, stopper Molarity of the HCl(aq) = mol dm = 0.242 M
25.0
and invert the volumetric flask several times to mix the contents well.
1000 41 19
29
IV Acids and bases
34. Glycolic acid (HOCH2COOH) is a monobasic weak acid that can be found in skin-care products. To
3 3
determine the concentration of glycolic acid in a facial cleanser, 5.0 cm of the cleanser is diluted to 25.0 cm .
This solution is then titrated against 0.12 M sodium hydroxide solution. The change in pH of the content in
the conical flask is monitored by a data-logger connected with a pH sensor. The following titration curve
shows the result: water 35. (a) Ammonia
34. (a) HOCH2COOH(s)
–
HOCH2COO (aq) + H (aq)
+
(b) NH3(aq) + HClO4(aq) NH4ClO4(aq)
(b) HOCH2COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) HOCH2COONa(aq) + H2O() (c) (i) Methyl orange
3
34. (c) (i) 22.5 cm (ii) Number of moles of HClO4 used
14 12.85
(ii) Number of moles of NaOH used = 1.36 × mol = 0.0175 mol
22.5 –3 1000
= 0.12 × mol = 2.7 × 10 mol
1000 12 From the equation, mole ratio of
From the equation, mole ratio of HClO4 to NH3 = 1 : 1.
NaOH to HOCH2COOH = 1 : 1.  number of moles of NH3 used =
10 0.0175 mol
 number of moles of HOCH2COOH
Concentration of NH3 used
in the facial cleanser
8 0.0175 –3 –3
–3
= 2.7 × 10 mol = mol dm = 0.7 mol dm
25.0
pH
Concentration of glycolic 1000

acid in the facial cleanser 6
–3 (d) (i) From the equation, mole ratio
2.7 × 10 –3
= mol dm of HClO4 to NH4ClO4 = 1 : 1.
5.0
1000 4  number of moles of NH4ClO4
= 0.54 mol dm
–3
formed = 0.0175 mol
Theoretical yield of the
2
reaction
= 0.0175 × (14.0 + 1.0 × 4 +
35.5 + 16.0 × 4) g = 2.06 g
0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
3
(a) Write an equation for the ionization of glycolic acid. (Hint: Glycolic acid is a solid at room temperature
and pressure.)
(b) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between glycolic acid and sodium hydroxide solution.
(c) (i) From the titration curve, determine the volume of sodium hydroxide solution needed to reach the
equivalence point.
(ii) Hence, determine the concentration of glycolic acid in the facial cleanser.
35. Ammonium perchlorate (NH4ClO4) is a salt that can be used as rocket fuel. Perchloric acid, a strong acid, is
the parent acid of the salt.
(a) Suggest the alkali that can be used to prepare ammonium perchlorate.
(b) Write a chemical equation for the formation of ammonium perchlorate from its parent acid and alkali.
3
(c) To prepare ammonium perchlorate, a student titrated perchloric acid against the alkali. 25.0 cm of the
3
alkali required 12.85 cm of 1.36 M perchloric acid for complete neutralization.
(i) Suggest a suitable indicator for the titration.
(ii) Determine the concentration of the alkali used.
(d) The titration was repeated without adding the indicator. After titration, the reaction mixture was heated
until it was saturated. The reaction mixture was then cooled at room temperature and crystals formed.
After filtering and drying, 0.91 g of crystals was obtained.
(i) Calculate the theoretical yield of the reaction.
(ii) Compare the actual yield with the theoretical yield and give ONE possible reason for the
difference.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, Cl = 35.5)
35. (d) (ii) The actual yield is less than the theoretical yield. This may be because:
– not all NH4ClO4 crystallizes out in the process of crystallization.
19 42 – some NH4ClO4 crystals are lost in the process of filtration.
3 3
3
36. (a) Using a clean (25.0 cm ) pipette, transfer 25.0 cm of 0.25 M of acid X to a clean (250.0 cm ) volumetric flask. Add distilled water up to
the graduation mark of the volumetric flask. Finally, stopper and invert the volumetric flask several times to mix the contents well.
36. An experiment was carried out to determine the basicity of a strong acid X. 0.25 M of acid X was diluted 10
3
times. 25.0 cm of 0.05 M sodium hydroxide solution was titrated against diluted acid X, using methyl orange
3
as indicator. It was found that 24.70 cm of acid X was needed for the reaction to reach the end point.
* (a) Describe how acid X can be diluted 10 times by using suitable apparatus. 36. (b) From yellow to orange
(b) What is the colour change of the indicator at the end point of titration? (c) By measuring the change in pH
(or temperature) of the mixture
(c) Suggest another method to detect the end point. after a small, fixed amount of
(d) Deduce the basicity of acid X. acid X is added each time.
37. Rust is a reddish brown solid with the chemical formula Fe2O3․nH2O. To determine the number of
3
molecules of water of crystallization in a formula unit of a rust sample, 40.0 cm of 1.5 M hydrochloric acid
was added to 1.89 g of the rust sample. When the reaction completed, the resultant reaction mixture was
3
titrated against 1.20 M sodium hydroxide solution. 14.65 cm of sodium hydroxide solution was required for
complete reaction. (Answers on p.19-44.)
(a) State the conditions for rusting to occur.
(b) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between the rust sample and hydrochloric acid.
(c) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid that reacted with the rust sample.
(d) Calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallization in a formula unit of the rust sample.
(e) The number of molecules of water of crystallization in a formula unit of another rust sample is NOT the
same as the one in (d). Suggest a reason.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Fe = 55.8)
38. An experiment was carried out to find the percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in a sample of limestone
with calcium chloride as an impurity. The experiment consisted of the following three stages:
Stage 1: 1.28 g of the sample of limestone was weighed.

3
Stage 2: The sample of limestone was dissolved in 50.0 cm of 0.50 M nitric acid.
Stage 3: The excess acid was titrated against 0.40 M sodium hydroxide solution using phenolphthalein as
3
indicator. 20.00 cm of the sodium hydroxide solution was required to reach the end point.
(a) Write an equation for the reaction in Stage 2.

(b) State the colour change at the end point of the titration in Stage 3.
(c) Calculate
(i) the number of moles of excess nitric acid which reacted with the standard sodium hydroxide
solution.
(ii) the number of moles of calcium carbonate in the sample of limestone.
(iii) the percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in the sample of limestone.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1) 38. (c) (ii) Number of moles of HNO3 added at the start
50.0
25.0 –3 = 0.50 × mol = 0.025 mol
36. (d) Number of moles of NaOH = 0.05 × mol = 1.25 × 10 mol 1000
1000 Number of moles of HNO3 that reacted with CaCO3
0.25 24.70 –4 –3
= (0.025 – 8 × 10 ) mol = 0.017 mol
Number of moles of acid X = × mol = 6.18 × 10 mol
10 1000
–3 From the equation, mole ratio of HNO3 to CaCO3 =
Number of moles of NaOH 1.25 × 10
= –4 = 2.02 2 : 1.
Number of moles of acid X 6.18 × 10
 the basicity of acid X is 2.  number of moles of CaCO3 in the limestone
sample
38. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O() 0.017 –3
= mol = 8.5 × 10 mol
(b) From colourless to pink 2
20.00 –3 (iii) Mass of CaCO3 in the sample
(c) (i) Number of moles of NaOH used = 0.40 × mol = 8 × 10 mol –3
1000 = 8.5 × 10 × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g
NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O() = 0.85 g
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HNO3 = 1 : 1. Percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the sample
–3
 number of moles of excess HNO3 = 8 × 10 mol. 0.85 g
= × 100% = 66.4%
1.28 g
43 19
29
IV Acids and bases
Section 19.4
39. A student proposed a method to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide in a sample of drain
cleaner. His/her method included:
(A) The dilution of the drain cleaner sample by 10 times, and

(B) The titration of the diluted sample with standard hydrochloric acid.
He/she wrote the following procedure in his/her proposal:

A. Dilution of the drain cleaner sample
3 3
(1) Using a cleaned pipette, transfer 25.0 cm of the drain cleaner sample to a 250.0 cm volumetric
flask.
(2) Fill the flask with more distilled water until it is full. Stopper and invert the flask several times.
B. Titration of the diluted sample with standard hydrochloric acid
(3) Fill a burette, which has been well rinsed with distilled water, with the given standard hydrochloric
acid and make sure that the jet is filled completely.
3 3
(4) Using a cleaned pipette, transfer 25.0 cm of the diluted drain cleaner to a clean 250 cm beaker and
add a few drops of methyl orange to the solution as indicator.
(5) Take the initial burette reading. Slowly run the acid into the diluted drain cleaner solution until the
mixture just turns from yellow to orange.
(6) Take the final burette reading. Calculate the volume of the acid added to reach the end point.
(a) Point out THREE inappropriate practices in his/her proposal and correct them.
(b) Draw a labelled diagram for the titration set-up.
(c) Rewrite steps (1) and (2) (corrected if necessary) in the format as in a laboratory report.
37. (a) Oxygen (or air) and water are necessary for rusting to occur. 39. (a) In step (2), fill the flask with more distilled water until
(b) Fe2O3․nH2O(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2FeCl3(aq) + (3+n) H2O() the bottom of the meniscus reaches the graduation
40.0 mark.
(c) Number of moles of HCl added at the start = 1.5 × mol
1000 In step (3), the burette should be rinsed with distilled
= 0.06 mol
Number of moles of NaOH used to neutralize unreacted HCl water, then with standard hydrochloric acid right before
14.65 titration.
= 1.20 × mol = 0.0176 mol 3 3
1000 In step (4), use a 25.0 cm pipette to transfer 25.0 cm
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O() of the diluted drain cleaner sample to a clean conical
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl = 1 : 1. flask, but not a beaker.
 number of moles of unreacted HCl = 0.0176 mol (b)
Number of moles of HCl that reacted with the rust sample
= (0.06 – 0.0176) mol = 0.0424 mol
burette
(d) From the following equation:
Fe2O3․nH2O(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2FeCl3(aq) + (3+n) H2O()
mole ratio of Fe2O3․nH2O : HCl = 1 : 6.
 number of moles of Fe2O3․nH2O in the rust sample hydrochloric
0.0424 –3 acid
= mol = 7.07 × 10 mol
6
–3 1.89
7.07 × 10 =
55.8 × 2 + 16.0 × 3 + n × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)
n = 5.98 ( 6)
 the number of molecules of water of crystallization in a formula
conical flask
unit of the rust sample is 6.
(e) The number of molecules of water of crystallization in a formula unit diluted drain cleaner
of a rust sample depends on the amount of water or water vapour sample + a few drops
that the iron sample can react with. The greater the amount of water of methyl orange
or water vapour, the larger is the number of molecules of water of 3
(c) (1): 25.0 cm of the drain cleaner sample were
crystallization. 3
transferred to a 250.0 cm volumetric flask using a
cleaned pipette.
(2): The flask was filled with distilled water until the
bottom of the meniscus reached the graduation mark.
The flask was stoppered and inverted several times.
19 44
IV Acids and bases
4. (1): 1.0 M hydrochloric acid reacts with magnesium faster than 1.0 M ethanoic acid.
(2): methyl orange has a red colour at the pH of the solution below 3.1 and has a yellow colour at the pH
Part exercise
of the solution above 4.4. The respective pH of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid and 1.0 M ethanoic acid is 0 and
4.7. Hence, the colours of methyl orange are different in the two acids.
(3): silver ions from the silver nitrate solution react with the chloride ions from the hydrochloric acid to
give a white precipitate of silver chloride. There is no observable change when silver nitrate solution is
Multiple-choice questions added to 1.0 M ethanoic acid. 4. Which of the following substances can be used to
distinguish between 1.0 M hydrochloric acid and
1. Which of the following statements about alkalis is/ 1.0 M ethanoic acid?
are INCORRECT? 5. (A): phenolphthalein is colourless
(1) Magnesium metal at the pH of the solution below
(1) They must contain metal ions. (2) Methyl orange 8.3.
(2) They produce hydroxide ions when dissolved (3) Silver nitrate solution (B): solutions A and B contain the
in water. same number of moles of
A. (1) and (2) only –3
hydrogen ions (i.e. 2.5 × 10 mol).
(3) Their aqueous solutions turn red litmus paper
B. (1) and (3) only Hence, same volume of 0.1 M
blue. 1. (1): ammonia is an alkali. NaOH(aq) is required for complete
C. (2) and (3) only
A. (1) only However, it does not contain neutralization. D
metal ions.
D. (1), (2) and (3)
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only 5. Consider the following two solutions:
A
D. (2) and (3) only 3
Solution A: 50.0 cm of 0.05 M HCl
3
Solution B: 25.0 cm of 0.1 M CH3COOH
2. Which of the following statements concerning
3 3
100 cm of 1.0 M nitric acid and 100 cm of 1.0 M Which of the following statements about solutions
sulphuric acid are correct? A and B is correct?
(1) Both acids react with sodium hydroxide A. A and B show different colours when
solution. phenolphthalein is added to the solutions.
(2) Both acids contain the same amount of B. A and B require the same volume of 0.1 M
100
solute. 2. (2): both acids contain 1.0 × mol NaOH(aq) for complete neutralization.
1000
(3) Both acids contain the same concentration of C. A and B have the same pH.
= 0.1 mol acid molecules.
hydrogen ions. D. A and B have the same electrical conductivity.
(3): nitric acid is monobasic, while 5. (Cont’d)
A. (1) and (2) only sulphuric acid is dibasic. For the same (C): concentrations of hydrogen ions in solutions A and B
B
B. (1) and (3) only molar concentration and volume of are different.
+ 3
C. (2) and (3) only
acids, the amount of H (aq) in sulphuric 6. In an experiment, 20.0 cm of 0.5 M nitric acid is
acid is twice that of nitric acid. 3
added slowly from a burette to 10.0 cm of 1.0 M
A
D. (1), (2) and (3)
potassium hydroxide solution in a beaker. Which
3. Which of the following substances will increase of the following statements about the experiment
3
the pH value of 25.0 cm of 0.5 M hydrochloric is correct?
acid when added to the acid? A. The concentration of nitrate ions in the
(1) 1.0 M sulphuric acid mixture remains unchanged.
(2) Limestone B. The mixture does not conduct electricity at
(3) Water the end of the experiment.
A. (1) and (2) only C. The pH value of the mixture in the beaker
B. (1) and (3) only decreases.
C. (2) and (3) only D. The temperature of the mixture in the beaker
C decreases. C
D. (1), (2) and (3)
3. (1): pH of 0.5 M hydrochloric acid is 0.301, while pH of 1.0 M 6. (A): the concentration of nitrate ions in the mixture increases.
sulphuric acid is –0.301. Addition of 1.0 M sulphuric acid will (B): both potassium nitrate and water, which can conduct
decrease the pH value of the acid. electricity, are found in the resultant solution.
(2): limestone reacts with the hydrogen ions in the hydrochloric (D): neutralization is an exothermic reaction.
acid. Hence, adding limestone to the acid will decrease the
concentration of hydrogen ions in the acid. As a result, the pH
value of the acid increases.
(3): when water is added to the hydrochloric acid, the volume of
the acid increases. However, the number of moles of hydrogen
ions in the acid remains unchanged. Hence, adding water to the
acid will decrease the concentration of hydrogen ions in the acid.
As a result, the pH value of the acid increases. 45 19
29
IV Acids and bases 10. (2): both lead(II) nitrate solution and zinc nitrate solution give a white precipitate of hydroxide upon addition of a small
amount of aqueous ammonia. However, only zinc hydroxide can dissolve in excess aqueous ammonia to give a
colourless solution.
7. Different volumes of 1.0 M sodium hydroxide 10. Which of the following solutions can be used to
solution and 1.0 M hydrochloric acid are mixed distinguish between lead(II) nitrate solution and
in a polystyrene cup. Which of the following zinc nitrate solution?
combinations would have the greatest 10. (3): insoluble lead(II) chloride forms
(1) NaOH(aq)
when HCl(aq) is added to lead(II)
temperature rise? (2) NH3(aq) nitrate solution. Zinc nitrate solution
Volume of 1.0 M Volume of 1.0 M (3) HCl(aq) does not react with HCl(aq).
3 3
NaOH(aq) (cm ) HCl(aq) (cm ) A. (1) and (2) only 11. Fe2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq)
B. (1) and (3) only Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O()
A. 20.0 100.0 Number of moles of Fe2O3 reacted
C. (2) and (3) only
B. 40.0 80.0 =
2.71
mol C
D. (1), (2) and (3) 55.8 × 2 + 16.0 × 3
C. 60.0 60.0 = 0.0170 mol
C
D. 80.0 40.0 11. What is the volume of 0.20 M sulphuric acid
required to react completely with 2.71 g iron(III)
8. Which of the following salts CANNOT be From the equation, mole ratio of Fe2O3
oxide?
prepared by reacting a metal with a dilute acid? to H2SO4 = 1 : 3.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Fe = 55.8)
(1) Copper(II) chloride
3  number of moles of H2SO4 needed
(2) Lead(II) nitrate A. 85.0 cm
3 = 0.0170 × 3 mol = 0.051 mol
(3) Silver chloride B. 189 cm Volume of H2SO4 needed
3
C. 255 cm =
0.051 mol
A. (1) and (2) only 3 0.20 mol dm
–3
C
D. 566 cm
B. (1) and (3) only 8. Copper and silver do
3
= 0.255 dm = 255 cm
3
C. (2) and (3) only not react with dilute 7.

Number of moles Number of moles No. of moles of
B
D. (1), (2) and (3) hydrochloric acid. of NaOH (mol) of HCl (mol) H2O formed (mol)
(A) 0.02 0.10 0.02

9. Which of the following methods is the most
(B) 0.04 0.08 0.04
suitable to prepare lead(II) chloride from lead(II)
(C) 0.06 0.06 0.06
hydroxide?
(D) 0.08 0.04 0.04
A. Add hydrochloric acid to lead(II) hydroxide.
1 mole of NaOH reacts with 1 mole of HCl to produce 1 mole of
B. Add distilled water to lead(II) hydroxide, salt and 1 mole of water. The volume of the resultant solution is
followed by hydrochloric acid. the same in each case. However, in (C), the numbers of moles of
– +
C. Add sodium chloride solution to lead(II) OH (aq) ions and H (aq) ions reacting are the greatest. The
reaction mixture in (C) will give out the largest amount of heat.
hydroxide.
D. Add nitric acid to lead(II) hydroxide, followed 12. (a) Assume that there are 100 g of sulphamic acid.
by sodium chloride solution. D H N S O

9. Lead(II) chloride is an insoluble salt. It can be prepared by Mass (g) 3.1 14.4 33.6 48.9
precipitation. When nitric acid reacts with lead(II) hydroxide, Number of moles 3.1 14.4 33.6 48.9
soluble lead(II) nitrate forms. Lead(II) nitrate reacts with sodium = 3.1 = 1.03 = 1.05 = 3.06
of atoms (mol) 1.0 14.0 32.1 16.0
chloride solution to give a precipitate of lead(II) chloride.
Simplest whole
Structured questions number mole 3 1 1 3
ratio of atoms
12. Sulphamic acid is an acid that can be found in cleaning powder. It can be used to remove lime scale (which
 the empirical formula of sulphamic acid is H3NSO3.
is mainly calcium carbonate) and rust.
(b) Let the molecular formula of sulphamic acid be (H3NSO3)n.
(a) Sulphamic acid contains 3.1% hydrogen, 14.4% nitrogen, 33.6% sulphur and 48.9% oxygen by mass.
Calculate the empirical formula of sulphamic acid. n × (1.0 × 3 + 14.0 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 3) = 97.1
n=1
(b) If the relative molecular mass of sulphamic acid is 97.1, determine its molecular formula.
 molecular formula of sulphamic acid is H3NSO3.
(c) Explain why the cleaning powder needs to be dissolved in water before use.
3
12. (d) Mass of sulphamic acid in the powder = 5.0 g × 14.5%
(d) A housewife dissolves 5.0 g of the powder in 200 cm of water for use. If the powder contains 14.5% by
= 0.725 g
mass of sulphamic acid, calculate the molarity of the solution prepared.
0.725
Number of moles of sulphamic acid = mol
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.1) 97.1 –3
= 7.47 × 10 mol
–3
7.47 × 10 –3
12. (c) When the sulphamic acid in the powder dissolves in water, it ionizes to Molarity of the solution prepared = mol dm
+ 200
give H (aq) ions, which then react with the carbonate in lime scale and
1000
the oxide in rust. –3
19 46 = 0.0374 mol dm
IV Acids and bases
13. Solutions of sulphuric acid at different concentrations show different properties.

(a) Explain why pure sulphuric acid cannot be used as a primary standard.
(b) State ONE safety precaution when adding pure sulphuric acid to distilled water.
(c) Explain why pure sulphuric acid does not conduct electricity but dilute sulphuric acid does.
(d) Suggest a chemical test to distinguish between concentrated sulphuric acid and dilute sulphuric acid.
14. Methanoic acid (HCOOH) is a monobasic weak acid that is found naturally in ants. When an ant stings a
person, it injects an acidic solution containing methanoic acid, which gives the person an itchy sensation.
(a) Draw an electron diagram for a methanoic acid molecule, showing electrons in the outermost shells
only.
(b) Write an equation to show the ionization of methanoic acid in water.
(c) Baking powder (contains sodium hydrogencarbonate) can be used to treat ant stings.
(i) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between methanoic acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate.
–4
(ii) If an ant sting contains 1.5 × 10 mol of methanoic acid, calculate the mass of sodium
hydrogencarbonate required to neutralize the methanoic acid completely.
(iii) Explain why sodium hydroxide solution is NOT used to treat ant stings.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)
–3
15. A sample of a monobasic acid X of x mol dm was diluted to solution X1. The diluted solution was then
further diluted to solution X2. The pH of each solution was measured and the results are tabulated as shown
– –
below. (Answers on the back page of p.19-55.) 14. (c) (i) HCOOH(aq) + HCO3 (aq) HCOO (aq) + H2O() + CO2(g) OR
+ –
H (aq) + HCO3 (aq) H2O() + CO2(g)
14. (a)
–3
O Solution Acid concentration (mol dm ) pH
C
X x 0.92
H X1 0.1x 1.92
O
H X2 0.01x 2.92
water 14. (c) (ii) From the equation in (c)(i), mole ratio of HCOOH to NaHCO3 is 1 : 1.
– +
(b) HCOOH() HCOO (aq) + H (aq) –4
 number of moles of NaHCO3 needed = 1.5 × 10 mol
(a) Explain whether X is a strong acid or not. Mass of NaHCO3 needed
–4
= 1.5 × 10 × (23.0 + 1.0 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g = 0.0126 g
(b) Determine the value of x. (iii) Sodium hydroxide solution is highly corrosive. It would attack our skin.
* (c) Outline the steps in diluting X to X1 using suitable apparatus in the school laboratory.
16. Malachite is a mineral containing copper(II) carbonate and copper(II) hydroxide. The following experiment is
conducted to determine the percentage by mass of copper in a sample of malachite.
(Answers on the back page of p.19-55.)
3
Step 1: Add 50.0 cm of 1.5 M sulphuric acid to a beaker containing 3.98 g of malachite.
Step 2: When there are no more bubbles evolved, filter the solution.
3
Step 3: Titrate the filtrate against 2.0 M sodium hydroxide solution. 28.65 cm of the alkali is required for
complete reaction.
(a) Write a chemical equation for the reaction which causes the evolution of gas bubbles.
(b) Explain whether the end point needs to be detected by an acid-base indicator.
(c) Draw a labelled diagram to show the filtration process in Step 2.
(d) Calculate the percentage by mass of copper in the sample of malachite.
(Relative atomic mass: Cu = 63.5)
13. (a) Pure sulphuric acid absorbs water vapour in air. So the molar concentration of the sulphuric acid prepared cannot be accurately known.
(b) Pure sulphuric acid should be added slowly to a large amount of cold distilled water with constant stirring.
+ 2–
(c) Pure sulphuric acid does not contain mobile ions for conducting electricity. Dilute sulphuric acid contains mobile ions (H (aq) and SO4 (aq)
ions). Hence, it can conduct electricity.
(d) Add a few drops of the two acids separately to some white sugar. Concentrated sulphuric acid can turn the sugar black but dilute sulphuric 47 19
29
acid cannot. (Accept other appropriate chemical tests.)
IV Acids and bases
17. A student performed an experiment to determine the relative atomic mass of calcium. 0.77 g of calcium
3
granules was dissolved in 25.0 cm of 2.0 M hydrochloric acid. When the reaction stopped, the resultant
3 3
mixture was made up to 250.0 cm with distilled water. 25.0 cm of the diluted solution was withdrawn and
titrated with 0.10 M sodium hydroxide solution, using methyl orange as indicator. The mean titre was
3
14.00 cm . (Answers on the back page of p.19-55.)
3
(a) Suggest an apparatus used to withdraw 25.0 cm of the diluted solution for titration.
(b) What is the colour change at the end point of the titration?
(c) Calculate the relative atomic mass of calcium.
(d) The relative atomic mass of calcium found in the Periodic Table is 40.1. Explain why the relative atomic
mass of calcium calculated in (c) is not 40.1.
(e) Can sulphuric acid be used to replace hydrochloric acid in this experiment? Explain your answer.
18. Citric acid is a weak tribasic acid commonly found in citrus fruits. To determine the concentration of citric
acid in a sample of lemon juice, microscale titration can be used. The lemon juice is titrated against 0.2 M
sodium hydroxide solution. The following diagram shows the set-up used in the microscale titration.
syringe
0.2 M sodium
hydroxide solution
adaptor
3
2.00 cm pipette
3
5.0 cm lemon juice
(a) What is the meaning of the term ‘weak acid’?

(b) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between citric acid and sodium hydroxide solution.
(Hint: You may use H3A to represent the formula of citric acid here.)
3
(c) The volume of 0.2 M sodium hydroxide solution required to reach the end point is 1.30 cm . Calculate
–3
the concentration (g dm ) of citric acid in the sample of lemon juice.
–1
(Molar mass of citric acid = 192.0 g mol )
(d) State ONE assumption that you have made in your calculation in (c).
(e) State ONE advantage of using microscale titration.
18. (a) Weak acid is an acid which ionizes only slightly in water.
(b) H3A(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na3A(aq) + 3H2O()
1.30 –4
(c) Number of moles of NaOH used = 0.2 × mol = 2.6 × 10 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to H3A = 3 : 1.
–4
2.6 × 10 –5
 number of moles of citric acid = mol = 8.7 × 10 mol
3
Concentration of citric acid in the sample of lemon juice
–5 1000 3 –1 –3
= 8.7 × 10 mol × dm × 192.0 g mol = 3.34 g dm
5.0
(d) The lemon juice does not contain other chemicals (except the citric acid) that will react with the sodium hydroxide solution.
(e) The amount of chemicals used in the experiment can be saved. OR
19 48 The time for carrying out the experiment is shorter. (Any ONE)
IV Acids and bases
Public examination questions

Multiple-choice questions A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
1. A colourless aqueous solution of compound Z C. (2) and (3) only
can conduct electricity and turns blue litmus D. (1), (2) and (3)
paper red. It can be deduced that
(HKDSE 2012 Paper 1A Q20)
A. Z must be an ionic compound.
B. Z must contain hydrogen in its chemical 5. Which of the following statements about
formula. potassium hydroxide solution is INCORRECT?
C. solution of Z must contain more ions than A. When potassium hydroxide solution is added
molecules. to iron(III) sulphate solution, a dirty green
+
D. solution of Z must contain more H (aq) ions precipitate is formed.
–
than OH (aq) ions. B. When potassium hydroxide solution is heated
(HKCEE 2009 Paper 2 Q7) with ammonium chloride solution, ammonia
gas is liberated.
2. Which of the following statements about limestone C. Dilute potassium hydroxide solution contains
is/are correct? + + –
K (aq) ions, H (aq) ions and OH (aq) ions.
(1) It gives a golden yellow flame in a flame test. D. Concentrated potassium hydroxide solution
(2) It gives a colourless gas when heated is corrosive.
strongly. (HKDSE 2013 Paper 1A Q9)
(3) It dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid to give a
clear solution. 6. Consider the four solutions W, X, Y and Z listed
below:
A. (1) only
–3
B. (2) only W: 0.01 mol dm HNO3(aq)
–3
C. (1) and (3) only X: 0.01 mol dm H2SO4(aq)
–3
D. (2) and (3) only Y: 0.01 mol dm KOH(aq)
–3
Z: 0.10 mol dm KOH(aq)
Which of the following represents the four
3. A mixture of (NH4)2SO4(aq) and MgSO4(aq) is solutions arranged in increasing order of pH?
heated with excess NaOH(aq). Which of the
A. W, X, Y, Z
following observations is correct?
B. W, X, Z, Y
A. No pungent gas is evolved and no precipitate C. X, W, Y, Z
is formed. D. X, W, Z, Y
B. No pungent gas is evolved but a white
precipitate is formed.
C. A pungent gas is evolved but no precipitate is 7. Which of the following statements concerning
formed. CH3COOH and HCl is correct?
D. A pungent gas is evolved and a white A. CH3COOH is a stronger acid than HCl.
precipitate is formed. B. The pH of 0.1 M CH3COOH(aq) is lower
(HKCEE 2010 Paper 2 Q20) than that of 0.1 M HCl(aq).
C. Both CH3COOH(aq) and HCl(aq) react with
4. Which of the following methods can be used to
NH3(aq), each giving a salt.
distinguish between ZnCl2(aq) and CaBr2(aq)?
D. Both CH3COOH(aq) and HCl(aq) react with
(1) Adding NH3(aq) Ag(s), each giving a colourless gas.
(2) Performing flame test
(3) Evaporating to dryness
49 19
29
IV Acids and bases
8. The following table shows some information on H2SO4(aq)

A. BaCO3(s) BaSO4(s)
mixing hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide
conc. H2SO4
solution: B. BaCO3(s) BaSO4(s)
HCl(aq)
Temperature C. BaCO3(s) BaCl2(aq)
Mixture
rise/°C H2SO4(aq)
BaSO4(s)
3 3
25 cm of 1 M HCl + 25 cm of conc. HCl
w D. BaCO3(s) BaCl2(aq)
1 M NaOH
3 3 Na2SO4(aq)
50 cm of 1 M HCl + 50 cm of BaSO4(s)
x
1 M NaOH
3 3
25 cm of 2 M HCl + 25 cm of
y
2 M NaOH 12. In an experiment, a solution containing 3 moles of
3
50 cm of 2 M HCl + 50 cm of
3 KOH reacts with another solution containing 1
z mole of an acid for complete neutralisation. Which
2 M NaOH
of the following deductions is/are correct?
Which of the following concerning the values of +
(1) 1 mole of the acid provides 3 moles of H (aq)
temperature rise is correct?
ions.
A. w<x<y<z (2) The acid is three times as concentrated as the
B. w<x=y<z KOH(aq).
C. w=y<x=z (3) The acid is a strong acid.
D. w=x<y=z
A. (1) only
(HKCEE 2008 Paper 2 Q37) B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
9. A small amount of a powder can dissolve in water
D. (2) and (3) only
to form a clear solution. When this solution is
mixed with K2CO3(aq), a white precipitate is (HKCEE 2008 Paper 2 Q45)
obtained. What can the powder be?
13. Solid acid T has a relative molecular mass of 192.0.
A. Sodium sulphate A sample of 0.80 g of T is dissolved in water to
B. Calcium sulphate 3
form a solution which requires 25.0 cm of 0.50 M
C. Sodium hydroxide sodium hydroxide solution for complete
D. Calcium hydroxide neutralisation. What is the basicity of T?
(HKDSE 2012 Paper 1A Q2) A. 1 B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
10. Solid Y is soluble in cold water. When an aqueous
solution of Y is added separately to sodium (HKCEE 2010 Paper 2 Q35)
hydroxide solution and to acidified silver nitrate 3
14. In an experiment, 10 cm of 1.0 M sulphuric acid
solution, a white precipitate is formed in both 3
is mixed with 30 cm of 0.5 M sodium hydroxide
cases. Which of the following compounds might
solution. Which of the following statements
Y be?
concerning this experiment is/are correct?
A. Ammonium carbonate
(1) 0.015 mole of water is formed.
B. Zinc carbonate
(2) The pH of the resulting mixture is greater
C. Lead(II) chloride
than 7.
D. Magnesium chloride
(3) After water is completely evaporated from the
(HKDSE 2013 Paper 1A Q3) resulting mixture, pure sodium sulphate solid
can be obtained.
11. Which of the following reaction routes can best be
used to prepare barium sulphate from barium A. (1) only
carbonate? B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
D. (2) and (3) only
19 50 (HKCEE 2011 Paper 2 Q43)
IV Acids and bases
Assertion-reason question (a) (i) For Step 1,

(See the back inside cover for instructions.) (1) write a chemical equation for the
1st statement 2nd statement reaction involved, and
15. Solid citric acid can Solid citric acid (2) explain why copper(II) oxide should
turn dry blue litmus contains hydrogen be in excess.
paper red. ions. (ii) For Step 2, suggest how to remove the
remaining copper(II) oxide.
(HKCEE 2010 Paper 2 Q28) (iii) For Step 4, explain why crystals would be
obtained when the saturated solution is
16. A solution of hydrochloric acid has pH 3.0. When
allowed to cool down.
it is made 10 times more dilute, the pH is
(iv) For Step 6,
A. 0.3
(1) explain why the crystals obtained
B. 2.0
should not be dried by heating, and
C. 4.0
D. 13.0 (2) suggest an appropriate method to
dry the crystals.
(Edexcel, GCEAL, Unit 4, Q7, JUN 2011)
(6 marks)
17. An example of a strong acid solution is perchloric (b) A student finally obtained 16.2 g dry copper(II)
acid, HClO4, in water. Which statement is correct sulphate crystals through the above steps by
for this solution? 3
reacting 150 cm of 1.0 M sulphuric acid with
A. HClO4 is completely dissociated in the excess copper(II) oxide.
solution. (i) Calculate the number of moles of
B. HClO4 exists mainly as molecules in the copper(II) sulphate in the solution
solution. obtained in Step 1.
C. The solution reacts only with strong bases.
(ii) Calculate the number of moles of
D. The solution has a pH value greater than 7.
copper(II) sulphate crystals finally
obtained.
(IB, IBO, Standard level, Paper 1, TZ2, Q23, MAY (iii) Assuming the student dried the crystals
2009) in Step 6 by an appropriate method,
comment on whether there should be
Structured questions any difference between the answers
obtained in (i) and (ii) above.
18. Copper(II) sulphate crystals (CuSO4․5H2O) can (3 marks)
be prepared in a laboratory by the following steps. (HKCEE 2008 Paper 1 Q11)
Step 1: Add excess copper(II) oxide to dilute
* 19. Outline the steps in preparing solid lead(II)
sulphuric acid and warm the mixture.
sulphate from solid lead(II) nitrate. You have to
Step 2: Remove the remaining copper(II) oxide
state the additional chemical reagents that are
from the solution obtained.
required, but need NOT mention the apparatus
Step 3: Evaporate the solution until it becomes
involved. (4 marks)
saturated.
Step 4: Allow the saturated solution to cool down (HKDSE 2012 Paper 1B Q6)
to obtain copper(II) sulphate crystals.
Step 5: Separate the crystals from the saturated
solution.
Step 6: Dry the crystals obtained.
51 19
29
IV Acids and bases
20. A fertilizer only contains ammonium nitrate (e) Suggest a test to show the presence of a
(NH4NO3) and potassium chloride (KCl). An potassium-containing compound in the
experiment was performed to determine the fertilizer. (1 mark)
percentage by mass of NH4NO3 in this fertilizer. (HKDSE 2012 Paper 1B Q7)
The set-up used is shown below:
21. The structure of a dibasic acid with chemical
formula H2C2O4 is shown below:
50.0 cm of
3 COOH
8 M KOH(aq)
COOH
(a) Give the systematic name of this dibasic acid.
(1 mark)
water
–3
(b) A student expected a 0.0500 mol dm
standard H2C2O4(aq) to have a pH of 1.0.
However, the pH of the solution, when
3.150 g of water measured with a calibrated pH meter, was
fertilizer
found to be greater than 1. Explain this
heat
inverted funnel observation with the aid of a chemical
equation. (2 marks)
HCl(aq)
(c) Solid sodium hydroxide is available in school
The KOH(aq) was added slowly to the fertilizer laboratories. However, standard NaOH(aq)
and the mixture formed was heated gently. The CANNOT be directly prepared by weighing
ammonia liberated from the reaction between NaOH(s) and then dissolving it in water.
NH4NO3 and KOH was first cooled in a Explain why. (1 mark)
condenser, and then passed through an inverted (d) In a titration experiment, 25.00 cm of a
3
funnel to a solution containing 0.0485 mol of HCl. –3

0.0500 mol dm standard H2C2O4(aq) and a
3
The solution was finally made up to 100.00 cm few drops of phenolphthalein indicator were
and labelled ‘S’. placed in a conical flask. NaOH(aq) of
(a) Write an ionic equation for the reaction unknown concentration was then added from
between NH4NO3 and KOH. (1 mark) 3
a burette into the flask. 17.20 cm of the
(b) Suggest the potential hazard of one of the NaOH(aq) was required to reach the titration
chemicals used. (1 mark) end point.
(c) Given that ammonia is very soluble in water, (i) State the colour change at the titration
state the advantage of using an inverted end point.
funnel. (1 mark) (ii) From the titration results, calculate the
3
(d) 25.00 cm of ‘S’ was transferred to a conical concentration of the NaOH(aq), in
–3
flask, and then titrated with 0.100 M mol dm .
NaOH(aq) using methyl orange as an (3 marks)
3
indicator. 41.00 cm of the NaOH(aq) was
(e) The following were considered as
required to reach the end point.
INAPPROPRIATE practices when carrying
(i) Name the apparatus that should be used out the experiment in (d). For each of them,
3
to transfer 25.00 cm of ‘S’. explain why it would lead to inaccurate
(ii) State the colour change at the end point titration results:
of the titration. (i) rinsing the conical flask with the standard
(iii) Calculate the percentage by mass of H2C2O4(aq) before transferring 25.00 cm
3
NH4NO3 in this fertilizer. of the acid solution to it

(Molar mass of NH4NO3 = 80.0 g)
(5 marks)
19 52
IV Acids and bases
(ii) carrying out the titration with the filter (b) Calculate the concentration of the
funnel remained on top of the burette hydrochloric acid in the 1.00 L volumetric
after using it to fill the burette with the flask after the student added the sodium
NaOH(aq) hydroxide solution. Give your answer to
(2 marks) correct significant figures. (2 marks)
(HKDSE 2013 Paper 1B Q4) (c) The student then uses this contaminated
hydrochloric acid solution to determine the
22. Nitric acid, HNO3, is a strong acid which can react
accurate concentration of the unknown
in a similar way to hydrochloric acid.
sodium hydrogencarbonate solution.
(a) Explain, with the aid of an equation, the
Will the calculated concentration of sodium
meaning of the term ‘strong’ applied to nitric
hydrogencarbonate solution be greater or
acid. (2 marks)
smaller than the true value? Justify your
(b) (i) Write the equation for the reaction that answer. (1 mark)
occurs when solid magnesium carbonate,
(Examination question © VCAA (VCE Chemistry
MgCO3, is added to aqueous nitric acid.
Examination, Written examination 1, Section B,
(1 mark)
Q3, 2009))
(ii) What is observed when solid magnesium
carbonate is added to aqueous nitric 24. Chemicals called ‘acids’ have been known
acid? (1 mark) throughout history. The word acid comes from
the Latin ‘acidus’ meaning sour. Dilute sulphuric
(iii) Write the ionic equation for the reaction
acid, H2SO4, is a common laboratory acid.
between solid magnesium carbonate and
aqueous nitric acid. (1 mark) (a) (i) State the formulae of two ions released
when sulphuric acid is in aqueous
(c) Nitric acid reacts with ammonia, NH3, to form
solution.
ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3.
(ii) A student adds a sample of solid
NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
potassium carbonate, K2CO3, to an excess
NH4NO3 can be used as a fertilizer because it of dilute sulphuric acid. Describe what
contains a high percentage of nitrogen. the student would see and write the
(i) Why does ammonia react with nitric equation for the reaction which takes
acid? (1 mark) place.
(5 marks)
(ii) Calculate the percentage, by mass, of
nitrogen in NH4NO3. (2 marks) (b) Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with alkalis such
as sodium hydroxide. Solid sodium hydroxide
(OCR, ASGCE, 2813/01, Q5, JUN 2009)
is known as caustic soda. It has a household
23. A student is to accurately determine the use as a drain cleaner.
concentration of a solution of sodium A student believes a box of caustic soda has
hydrogencarbonate in a titration against a been accidentally contaminated.
standard solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl. The
• To prove this, the student dissolves
first step in this experiment is to accurately dilute
2.00 g of the impure caustic soda in water
100.0 ml of a 1.00 M HCl stock solution to a 3
and the solution is made up to 250 cm .
0.100 M solution using a 1.00 L volumetric flask. 3
• 25.0 cm of this solution of caustic soda
However, instead of using distilled water in the 3
is neutralized by 24.60 cm of 0.100 mol
dilution, the student mistakenly adds 900.0 ml of –3
dm dilute sulphuric acid.
0.0222 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH, solution.
(a) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O()
in the 1.00 L volumetric flask. (1 mark)
53 19
29
IV Acids and bases
(i) Calculate the amount, in moles, of H2SO4 Calculate the empirical formula of the
used. compound. Show your working. (2 marks)
(ii) Determine the amount, in moles, of (d) Pharmacists sell tablets containing
3
NaOH in the 25.0 cm used. magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, to combat
(iii) Calculate the percentage, by mass, of indigestion. A student carried out an
NaOH in the impure caustic soda. investigation to find the percentage by mass
(5 marks) of Mg(OH)2 in an indigestion tablet. The
student reacted the tablet with dilute
(OCR, ASGCE, Chemistry A, F321, Q2, JUN 2010)
hydrochloric acid.
25. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O()
in the Earth’s crust and many rocks are a source of
3
magnesium compounds. Magnesium carbonate, The student found that 32.00 cm of 0.500
–3
MgCO3, is present in dolomite, a rock found in the mol dm HCl was needed to react with the
Dolomite mountains in Italy. Mg(OH)2 in a 500 mg tablet. [1 g = 1000 mg]
A student collected two equal-sized samples of (i) Calculate the amount, in mol, of HCl
dolomite. These samples were put into two labelled used.
test tubes, A and B. Tube A was heated until there (ii) Determine the amount, in mol, of
was no further change in mass and was then Mg(OH)2 present in the tablet.
allowed to cool. Tube B was left unheated. (iii) Determine the percentage by mass of
(a) Write the equation for the action of heat on Mg(OH)2 present in the tablet.
the magnesium carbonate present in tube A. (5 marks)
(1 mark) (OCR, ASGCE, Chemistry A, F321, Q2, JUN 2011)
(b) The student wanted to make magnesium
26. A student was asked to perform titrations to
chloride crystals. The student added an excess
determine the relative molecular mass, and hence
of warm dilute hydrochloric acid to tube A
the identity, of a white solid which was known to
and to tube B.
be one of the following two organic acids.
(i) Write the equation for the reaction of
magnesium carbonate in tube B with A HOOC–CH2–COOH
dilute hydrochloric acid. Indicate state B HOOC–CH2CH2–COOH
symbols.
The student dissolved a weighed amount of the
(ii) State ONE similarity and ONE difference acid in water in a conical flask and titrated it
the student would see between the against sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.400
reactions in the two tubes. –3
mol dm . Phenolphthalein indicator was used to
(iii) From the solution in each tube, the obtain an accurate end-point. The results obtained
student obtained crystals with the are recorded in the table.
formula MgCl2․6H2O. Calculate the
relative formula mass of MgCl2․H2O.
Mass of acid Volume of NaOH
Give your answer to ONE decimal place. 3
used (g) used (cm )
(iv) Draw a ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram to show
the bonding in MgCl2. Show outer 0.25 12.0
electrons only.
0.40 15.0
(7 marks)
(c) A compound containing magnesium, silicon 0.46 22.1
and oxygen is also present in rock types in
0.65 31.3
Italy. A sample of this compound weighing
5.27 g was found to have the following 0.85 40.9
composition by mass:
Mg: 1.82 g; Si: 1.05 g; O: 2.40 g
19 54
IV Acids and bases
(a) Give the colour of phenolphthalein at the

end-point. (1 mark)
(b) Plot these results on the grid below. The
position of one of the points indicates a poor
result that should be ignored; on the grid
draw a circle around that point. Using a ruler,
draw a straight line of best fit through the
other four points. (4 marks)
45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
(c) The equation for the reaction can be written

using H2X to represent the acid.
H2X + 2NaOH Na2X + 2H2O
(i) Use the graph to find the mass of acid
that would give a titration value of
3
25.0 cm of sodium hydroxide of
–3
concentration 0.400 mol dm .
(ii) Use the mass of acid in part (i) to find the
relative molecular mass of the acid, H2X.
(iii) Calculate the relative molecular mass of
each of the organic acids A and B and
hence identify the unknown acid.
(7 marks)
(Edexcel, London Examinations GCEOL, Paper 1,
Q12, JAN 2011)
55 19
29
(This is a blank page.)
3
15. (a) From experimental results, when acid X is diluted 10 times or 17. (a) 25.0 cm pipette
even 100 times, the pH of its aqueous solution is still low. This (b) From red to orange
suggests that acid X ionizes quite completely when dissolved (c) Number of moles of HCl added at the start
in water. Hence, it should be a strong acid. 25.0
= 2.0 × mol = 0.05 mol
+
(b) pH = –log [H (aq)] 1000
+
0.92 = –log [H (aq)] Number of moles of NaOH used to neutralize the unreacted
3
x = 0.12 HCl in 25.0 cm solution
14.00 –3
3 3
(c) Using a clean (25.0 cm ) pipette, transfer 25.0 cm of acid = 0.10 × mol = 1.4 × 10 mol
3 1000
solution X to a clean (250.0 cm ) volumetric flask. Add NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O()
distilled water up to the graduation mark of the volumetric From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to HCl = 1 : 1.
flask. Finally, stopper and invert the volumetric flask several 3
 number of moles of unreacted HCl in 25.0 cm of diluted
times to mix the contents well. solution
–3
= 1.4 × 10 mol
16. (a) CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O() 3
Number of moles of unreacted HCl in 250.0 cm of diluted
(b) The sodium hydroxide solution will first react with the excess
solution
sulphuric acid. When all the sulphuric acid in the filtrate has –3 250.0
= 1.4 × 10 × mol = 0.014 mol
been reacted, excess sodium hydroxide solution will react 25.0
with copper(II) ions to form copper(II) hydroxide. Hence, the Number of moles of HCl reacted with Ca
appearance of blue precipitate indicates the end point of the = (0.05 – 0.014) mol = 0.036 mol
titration. An acid-base indicator is not needed. Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(c) From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to Ca = 2 : 1.
filter paper 0.036
 number of moles of Ca in 0.77 g of Ca = mol
2
excess = 0.018 mol
malachite 0.77
filter funnel 0.018 =
molar mass of Ca
–1
Molar mass of Ca = 42.8 g mol
 relative atomic mass of Ca = 42.8.
(d) It may be due to the wrong detection of the end point. Excess
sodium hydroxide solution might have been added to
filtrate (CuSO4(aq)) 3
neutralize the excess hydrochloric acid in the 25.0 cm diluted
solution. As a result, the calculated amount of hydrochloric
(d) Let the number of moles of CuCO3 and Cu(OH)2 in the
acid that reacted with the calcium and hence, the calculated
sample be x mol and y mol respectively.
amount of calcium in 0.77 g of calcium would be smaller. A
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
smaller number of moles of Ca will give a larger relative
x mol x mol
atomic mass of Ca.
Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O()
(e) No. Sulphuric acid will react with calcium to form insoluble
y mol y mol
calcium sulphate, which will cover the surface of calcium
Total number of moles of H2SO4 added at the start
metal and prevent it from further reaction with the acid.
50.0
= 1.5 × mol = 0.075 mol
1000
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O()
Number of moles of NaOH reacted
28.65
= 2.0 × mol = 0.0573 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to H2SO4 = 2 : 1.
0.0573
 number of moles of unreacted H2SO4 = mol
2
= 0.0287 mol
Number of moles of H2SO4 reacted with the malachite
sample:
(x + y) mol = (0.075 – 0.0287) mol
(x + y) mol = 0.0463 mol
Number of moles of copper in the malachite sample
= 0.0463 mol
Mass of copper = 0.0463 × 63.5 g = 2.94 g
Percentage by mass of copper in the sample of malachite
2.94 g
= × 100% = 73.9%
3.98 g

Volumetric Analysis Involving Acids and Alkalis

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Volumetric Analysis Involving Acids and Alkalis

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Chapter 19

Volumetric analysis involving acids and

19.2 Acid-alkali titrations

19.3 Calculations on volumetric analysis

19.4 Writing a laboratory report on volumetric analysis

• calculate the concentrations of the solutions prepared

19.2 • describe and demonstrate the techniques of performing acid-alkali titration

A bottle of drain cleaner A student is performing an experiment to

volumetric analysis 容量分析

19.1 Standard solutions

2. Electronic balance It is used to weigh

electronic balance 電子天平 standard solution 標準溶液

Note 3 5. Pipette filler N3 It is used to suck up

6. Beaker It is used to hold

beaker 燒杯 pipette filler 移液管膠泵

Class practice 19.1

Preparing standard solutions

H20 Example 19.1

primary standard 基本標準 pellet 顆粒

To prepare a standard solution, we can either dissolve a pure solid in

Preparing a standard solution by dissolving a pure solid

Stage A: Weighing the pure solid

SBA note 1. Calculate the mass of anhydrous sodium carbonate required.

2. Use an electronic balance to weigh out accurately the required mass

Stage B: Dissolving the pure solid

dropper 滴管 meniscus 彎液面

2.65 g electronic anhydrous sodium sodium carbonate

(1) and (2) (3)

sodium washing distilled

beaker dropper invert it

(6) (7) (8)

Finally, we should calculate the concentration of the solution

H20 Example 19.2

Preparing a standard solution by diluting a concentrated

(1) and (2)

H20 Example 19.3 CE2011(I)9(b)

Calculating the concentration of solution prepared by diluting a concentrated solution of known

H20 Example 19.4 DSEPP2012(IB)4(a) CE2004(I)7(a)(i) DSE2014(IB)7(b)(i)

Preparing a standard solution of sodium carbonate by dissolving anhydrous sodium carbonate

Class practice 19.2 (Answers on p.19-11.)

Experiment 19.1 Experiment Workbook 2

Preparing a standard sodium carbonate solution

19.2 Acid-alkali titrations

Name Use Name Use

2. Conical flask It is used to hold a 4. White tile It is used to allow

burette 滴定管 titration 滴定

stand and clamp 夾和支架 volumetric analysis 容量分析

Procedure for acid-alkali titration

The equivalence point of an acid-alkali titration can be estimated by

CE2006(I)9(a) Detection of end point by using an acid-base indicator

acid-base indicator 酸鹼指示劑 jet 噴嘴

Figure 19.3 Procedure for performing an acid-alkali titration.

titre 滴定值 persistent 持久

Skill corner 19.1 CE1998(I)6(a)(i)(2) CE2011(I)9(c)

Drawing a labelled diagram of a set-up for acid-alkali titration Note 10

Methyl orange Red to orange Yellow to orange

1 Draw a conical flask alkali 3 Label the solution and the

H20 Example 19.5 DSE2013(IB)4(e)(i)

Cleaning conical flask before titration experiment

Class practice 19.3

A19.3 A student performed an acid-alkali titration.

Note 8 Choosing a suitable acid-base indicator N8

methyl orange phenolphthalein

4 Calculate the amount of substance in the sample.

5 Calculate the required information.