Mathematics

A. Algebra
a. Basic Axioms of Algebra
Let a, b and c be any real number.
1. Closure Axiom for Addition, a+b=c
2. Closure Axiom for Multiplication, ab = c
b. Basic Law of Natural Numbers
Let a, b and c be any number.
1. Commutative Law for Addition, a+b=b+a
2. Associative Law for Addition, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
3. Commutative Law for Multiplication, axb=bxa
4. Associative Law for Multiplication, a(bc) = (ab)c
5. Distributive Law, a(b + c) = ab + ac

c. Basic Property of Algebra

Let ‘a’ be any number.
1. Additive Identity Property, a+0=a
2. Additive Inverse Property, a + (-a) = 0
3. Multiplicative Identity Property, ax1=a
4. Multiplicative Inverse Property, a(1/a) = 1 where a ≠ 0

d. Basic Laws of Equality

Let a, b, c and d be any number.
1. Reflexive Property, a=a
2. Symmetric Property, If a = b then b = a
3. Transitive Property, If a = b and b = c, then a = c
4. If a = b and c = d, then a + c = b + d.
5. If a = b and c = d, then ac = bd.

e. Inequality – a statement that one quantity is greater than or less than the other quantity.
1. Symbols used in Inequality
i. > is greater than iii. ≥ is greater than or equal to
ii. < is less than iv. ≤ is less than or equal to
2. Theorems on Inequality
i. a > b if and only if -a < -b vi. If a > b, c > d and a, b , c, d > 0,
ii.If a > 0, then -a < 0 then ac > bd
iii.
If -a < 0, then a > 0 vii. If a > 0, b > 0 and a > b,
iv.If a > b and c < 0, 1 1
then >
then ac < bc a b
v. If a > b and c > d,
then (a + c) > (b + d)
f. Effects of Zero and Negative
Let a ≠ 0.
1. a x 0 = 0 5. -1(a) = -a
0
2. =0
a 6. -1(-a) = a
a 7. -1(a + b) = -a – b
3. = undefined
0 8. -1(a – b) = -a + b
a 9. a(-b) = (-a)(b) = -(ab)
4. =0
∞ 10. (-a)(-b) = ab
g. Laws of Exponent (Index Law)

1. a n=an 1 x a n 2 x an 3 x … an m
7. a n =√n am
2. a m x an=am +n 1
am ∧1
3. n =a
m−n
8. −m am
a a = −m =a m
n
a
4. ( a m ) =amn 9. a 0=1 provided a≠0
5. ( abc )m=am bm c m 10. If a m=a n, then m=n provided
a m am a≠0
6. ()
b
= m
b

h. Properties of Radicals
1
1. a n =√n a 4. √n a x √n b=√n ab
√n a = n a
m
2. a n =√n am =( √n a )m
n
5. n
√b b √ provided b ≠0

3. ( √n a ) =√n an =a

i. Properties of Logarithm
1. log a MN =log a M +log a N then M =N
M 9. Napierian Logarithm
2. log a =log a M −log a N log e M =ln M
N
3. log a M n=n log a M e=2.718281828
4. log a a=1 10. Common Logarithm
log 10 M =log M
5. log a a x =x log a a=x
log M ln M
6. log a 1=0 11. log N M = =
log N ln N
7. If log a M =N , then a N =M
12. If log b x=a,
8. If log a M =log a N
then x=antilo g b a
 13. a x =antilo g a x 3 , the integral part is called
14. log 10 1250=log 10 ( 1000 x 1.25 ) the characteristic
log 10 1250=log 1000+ log 1.25 0.09691, the non-negative
log 10 1250=3+ 0.09691 decimal fraction part is called
mantissa
Where:

j. Polynimials
1. Expanding Brackets – by multiplying two brackets together, each term in one
bracket is multiplied by each term of the other bracket.
(a + b + c)(x + y) = ax + ay + bx + by + cx + cy
2. Factorization – opposite process of expanding brackets.
2x2 – 6x + 4 = 2(x – 2)(x – 1)
3. Special Products and Factoring
i. (x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2
ii. (x + y)2 = x2 +2xy + y2
iii. (x - y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
iv. (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz
v. x3 + y3 = (x + y)(x2 – xy +y2)
vi. x3 – y3 = (x – y)(x2 +xy + y2)
vii. xn + yn = (x + y)(xn – 1 – xn – 2y + xn – 3y2 – xn – 4y3 +… yn – 1)
viii. xn – yn = (x – y)(xn – 1 + xn – 2y + xn – 3y2 + xn – 4y3 +… yn – 1)
4. Division of Polynomials
i. By Long Division ii. Synthetic Division
5. Factor Theorem – Consider a function f(x). If f(a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of f(x).
6. Remainder Theorem – if a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x – r) until a remainder
which is free of x is obtained, the remainder is f(r). If f(r) = 0 the (x – r) is a factor of
f(x).
7. Binomial Theorem - (x + y)n
i. Properties
 The number of terms in the expansion is n + 1.
 The first exponent xn & the last term is yn.
 The exponent x descends linearly from n to zero.
 The exponent of y ascends linearly from zero to n.
 The sum of the exponents of x & y in any of the terms is equal to n.
 The coefficient of the second term and the second from the last term is n.
ii. Pascal’s Triangle – used to determine the coefficients of the terms in a
binomial expansion.
n
iii. r th term of ( x + y )
 n!
r th = x n−r +1 y r−1
( n−r +1 ) ! ( r −1 ) !
n
To get the middle term (for even value of n). Set r = +1
2
iv. Coefficient of Next Term
(Coefficient of previous term)(exponent of x)
C=
( exponent of y )+ 1
v. Sum of Coefficient of Variables – Substitute unity (1) to each variables. If
( x +a )n, subtract the value of a n.

8. Quadratic Formula – For quadratic equation a x 2+ bx+ c=0

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a
i. Sum of Roots, x 1+ x2=−b/a ii. Product of Roots, x 1 x 2=c /a

k. Partial Fractions – Functions of x that can be expressed in the form of P(x)/Q(x), where
both P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials of x, is known as rational functions.
1. Improper Functions – if the degree of P(x) is ≥degree of Q(x).
2. Proper Functions - if the degree of P(x) is <degree of Q(x).
3. Methods of Resolving Proper Fractions into Partial Fraction
i. Case 1 – Factors of the denominator all linear, none repeated.
2 x 2+3 x−1 A B C
= + +
( x−1 )( x +2 ) ( x −3 ) x −1 x+2 x−3
Multiply it by LCM and solve for A, B and C.
ii. Case 2 – Factors of the denominator all linear, some repeated.
2 x 2 +2 x−1 A B C D
= + + +
( x−1 )( x +2 ) x −1 x+2 ( x+2 ) ( x +2 )3
3 2

Multiply it by LCM, expand and equate the coefficients of like powers to solve
for A, B, C and D.
iii. Case 3 – Some factors of the denominator quadratic, none repeated.
2 x 2+2 x−1 A Bx+ C Dx+ E
2 2
= + 2 + 2
( x−1 ) (x +2)( x + 2 x +4 ) x−1 x +2 x +2 x + 4
Multiply it by LCM, expand and equate the coefficients of like powers to solve
for A, B, C, D and E.
iv. Case 4 – Some factors of the denominator quadratic, some repeated.
2 x 2+ 2 x−1 A Bx +C Dx+ E
2
= + 2 + 2
( x−1 ) ( x +2 ) x−1 x + 2 ( x 2+2 )
2

Multiply it by LCM, expand and equate the coefficients of like powers to solve
for A, B, C, D and E.
l. Proportion – is a statement of equality between to ratios. In the following proportion
a c
a :b=c :d∨ =
b d
b and c are called the means.
a and d are the extremes
d is the fourth proportional to a, b and c
In the ratio a/b, a is the antecedent and b is the consequent.
1. Mean Proportional - the mean proportional between two terms a and b = √ ab.
2. Properties of Proportion
i. Proportion by Inversion iv. Proportion by Division
a c b d a c a−b c−d
If = , then = If = , then =
b d a c b d b d
ii. Proportion by Alteration v. Proportion by Composition
a c a b and Division
If = , then =
b d c c a c a+b c +d
If = , then =
iii. Proportion by Composition b d a−b c−d
a c a+b c +d
If = , then =
b d b d

m. Variation – a mathematical function that relates the value of one variable to those of
other varianles.
1. Direct Variation – x ∝ y∨x=ky
2. Inverse Variation – x ∝ 1/ y∨x=k / y
3. Joint Variation – x ∝ y / z2 ∨x=ky / z 2

n. Progressions
1. Arithmetic Progressions – a sequence of numbers in which the difference of any
two adjacent terms is constant.
i. nth term of A . P . a n=a1 + ( n−1 ) d or a n=am + ( n−m ) d
n n
ii. ∑ of nterms of A . P . S= ( a1 +a n ) or S= [ 2 a1+ ( n−1 ) d ]
2 2
2. Geometric Progression – a sequence of numbers in which the ratio of any two
adjacent terms is constant.
i. nth term of G. P . a n=a1 r n−1 or a n=am r n −m
ii. ∑ of nterms of G. P .
a 1 ( r n −1 )
S= when r >1
r −1
a ( 1−r n )
S= 1 when r <1
1−r
 a1
iii. ∑ of Infinite G . P. S=
1−r
3. Harmonic Progression – a sequence of numbers in which their reciprocal forms an
arithmetic progression.

o. Worded Problems
1. Work Problem: Work Done=Rate x Time
1
Rate= finishthe work ¿
Time ¿
2. Age Problem: The difference of the ages of two persons is constant.
3. Digit Problem: For 3-digit number: 100h + 10t + u
Let: h = hundred’s digit
t = ten’s digit
u = unit’s digit
4. Number Problem
5. Clock Problem:
i. If the minute hand moves a distance of x, the hour hand moves x/12.
ii. If the second hand move a distance x, the minute hand moves x/60 and the hour
hand moves x/720.
iii. In 12 hours, the minute-hand and the hour-hand of the clock overlap each other
for 11 times.
iv. Each five-minute mark is subtends an angle of 30° from the center of the clock.
6. Mixture Problem
7. Motion Problem (Uniform Motion or Constant Speed)
S = vt, S = Distance, v = Speed, t = time

B. Probability and Statistics

a. Techniques of Counting
1. Tree Diagram - This technique is a visual form of counting technique.
2. Multiplication Principle - This counting technique is used when a situation becomes
somewhat complicated when we try to count the number of ways two or more events
can occur in succession or in order.
3. Permutation – is an arrangement of the elements of a set in a definite in a definite
order.
Rules on Permutation
i. Permutation of n Elements taken all at a Time
nPr=n! (if n=r )
ii. Permutation of n Elements taken r at a Time
n!
nPr= (if r <n)
( n−r ) !
iii. Permutation of n Elements with Some are Alike
 n!
n Pr 1 r 1 rk =
r1 ! r 2 ! … . rk !
(r 1 , r 2 , … . r k are cells containing objects that are of the same kind only)
iv. Circular Permutation (one position must be fixed)
( n−1 ) Pr ¿ ( n−1 ) !
4. Combination – A combination is an arrangement of objects which does not involve
the order of selection.
n!
nCr=
( n−r ) ! r !
i. Combination of n things taken 1, 2, 3… n at a time
nCr=( 2n−1 ) !
b. Probability – the chance of an event occurring.
1. A probability experiment is a chance process that leads to well-defined results
called outcomes.
2. An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability experiment.
3. A sample space, S, is the set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
4. An event is a subset of a sample space.
5. The complement of an event A with respect to S is the subset of all elements of S that
are not in A. the complement of A has the symbol A’.
6. The Probability of the Occurrence of an Event
i. Single Event
n ( E)
P ( E )=
n (S )
ii. Multiple Events
 Dependent and Independent Events – Two or more events are said to be
dependent if the happening of one affects the probability of the others. And
the independent if the happening of one does not affect the probability of the
other.
P ( E )=P ( E1 ) x P ( E2 ) x … P( E n)
 Mutually Exclusive Events – two or more events are said to be mutually
exclusive if it is impossible for more than one of them to happen in a single
trial
P ( E )=P ( E1 ) + P ( E2 ) + … P( En)
iii. Repeated Trials: The probability that an event can occur exactly r times in n
trials is:
P ( E )=nCr ( p )r ( q )n−r
Where p is the probability that the event will happen and q is the probability that
the event will fail.
iv. The “Atleast one” Condition: The probability that an event can occur at least
once in n trials is:
P ( E )=1−Q
Where Q is the probability that the event will totally fail.
 v. Venn Diagram – A mathematical diagram representing sets as circles with their
relationships to each other expressed through overlapping positions, so that all
possible relationships between the sets are shown.
c. Statistics - is the science that deals with the collection, organization, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of data.
1. Measures of Central Tendency of Ungrouped Data
i. Arithmetic Mean - the quotient of the sum of the values and the total number of
values.
N
1 x + x + x + …+ x N
x́= ∑ x i∨x́= 1 2 3
N i N
ii. Median - the midpoint of the data array.
iii. Mode - the value that occurs most often in a data set.
2. Measures of Variation for Ungrouped Data
i. Range: R = Highest observation – Lowest Observation
ii. Mean Absolute Deviation
x∨¿ ´
M AD=Σ ∨x− ¿
N
iii. Variance
Σ ( x− x́ )2
S2N−1=
N−1
iv. Standard Deviation: For fx991-ES Plus (Mode Stat: Shift 1 > 4 > 4)
s= √ S2N−1
C. Advance Mathematics
a. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers/quantities arranged in rows and columns
usually enclosed by a pair of brackets. A matrix is also denoted by a single capital letter.
1. Classification of Matrices
i. Square Matrix – a matrix in which the number of rows equals the number of
columns
ii. Zero or Null Matrix – a matrix wherein all elements are zero.
iii. Identity matrix – is a square matrix in which the diagonal elements are 1 (one)
and all the off-diagonal elements are zero.
iv. Row matrix – is a matrix having only one row and “n” columns. It is also called a
row vector.
v. Column matrix – is a matrix with “m” rows and only one column. It is also
called a column vector.
vi. Diagonal matrix – is a square matrix wherein all off-diagonal elements are zero.
vii. Scalar matrix – is a square matrix for which all elements on the main diagonal
are equal.
viii. Symmetric matrix – is a square matrix wherein the elements about its main
diagonal are symmetric (i.e. aij = aji).
ix. Lower triangular matrix – is a square matrix whose elements above its principal
diagonal are zero.
 x. Upper triangular matrix – is a square matrix whose elements below its principal
diagonal are zero.
xi. Triangular Matrix – has zeros in all positions above or below the diagonal.
2. Matrix Operations
i. Equality. Two matrices A and B are said to be equal (A = B) if and only if they
are of the same order, and each element of A is equal to the corresponding
element of B.
ii. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices. Two matrices A and B can be added (or
subtracted) if they are of the same order. Their sum or difference is obtained by
adding or subtracting their corresponding elements.
iii. Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar. The product of a scalar K and a matrix
A is obtained by multiplying each element of the matrix A by the scalar K.
iv. Transpose of a Matrix. The transpose of matrix A, denoted by AT (or A’) is
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A. The transpose of a
symmetric matrix is equal to the matrix itself, i.e. AT = A.
v. Multiplication of Matrices. The matrices A and B can be multiplied in the order
AB if and only if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of
B. Such matrices are said to be conformable for multiplication.
vi. Differentiation and Integration of Matrices. The derivative (or integral) of a
matrix is obtained by differentiating (or integrating) each element of the matrix.
vii. Conjugate of a Matrix. When A is a matrix having complex numbers as
elements, the conjugate of A, denoted by Ā, is obtained by replacing each element
by its conjugate. For the complex number a + bi, its conjugate is a – bi.
viii. Inverse of a Square Matrix. The inverse of a square matrix A is defined as a
matrix A–1 with elements of such magnitudes that the product of the original
matrix A and its inverse A–1 equals an identity or unit matrix, I; that is,
A A−1 =A−1 A=I
NOTE: Not every matrix has an inverse.
Theorems on Inverse of Matrix
 If A is non-singular matrix, then A−1is non-singular and ( A−1 ) = A .
−1

 If A and B are non-singular matrices, then AB is non-singular and

( AB )−1=B−1 A−1.
 If A is non-singular matrix, then ( AT )−1=( A−1)T .
 Two methods of finding the Inverse of a Square Matrix
 Gauss – Jordan Method
 Adjoint Method
3. Determinant of a Matrix. The determinant D, is a scalar calculated from a square
matrix.
i. Theorems on Determinants of Any Order
 Theorem 1: The number of terms in the expansion of a determinant of order n
isn !.
  Theorem 2: If the corresponding rows and columns of a determinant are
interchanged, its value is unchanged. | A|=| A T|∨det A=det AT .
 Theorem 3: If any two columns or rows of a determinant are interchanged,
the sign of the determinant is changed.
 Theorem 4: If all the elements in any two columns or rows of a determinant
are zero, the value of the determinant is zero.
 Theorem 5: If any two columns or rows of a determinant have their
corresponding elements identical or proportional, its value is zero.
 Theorem 6: If each element of a column or row in a determinant is multiplied
by the same number k, the value of the determinant is multiplied by k.
 Theorem 7: If three determinant D1, D2, and D3 have corresponding elements
equal, except for one column (or row) in which the element D1 are the sums of
the corresponding elements of D2 and D3, then D1 = (D2 + D3).
 Theorem 8: If each element of any column (or row) of a determinant is
multiplied by the same number k and added to the corresponding elements of
another column (or row), the value of the determinant is unchanged.
 Theorem 9: The value of the determinant is the algebraic sum of the products
obtained by multiplied each element of a column (or row) by its cofactor or
signed minor.
ii. Minors and Cofactors
The minor M ij of the element a ij in the i th row and j th column in any determinant of
order n is that new determinant of order (n−1) formed from the elements
remaining after deleting the i th row and j th column.

The cofactor Aij of the element aij in any determinant of order n is that signed
i+j
minor determined by Aij =(−1 ) M ij
iii. Evaluation of Determinants of Any Order
 Pivotal Element Method
 Expansion by Minors /Cofactor Expansion
 Chio’s Method
 Dodgson’s Method of Condensation
b. Complex Numbers
A complex number is of the form x +iy (standard form) wherex and y are real numbers
andi(i=√ −1), which is called the imaginary unit. Ifz=x +iy, then x is called the real part
of z and y is called the imaginary part of z and are denoted byℜ( z)and ℑ(z)
respectively. The symbolz, which can stand for any of a set of complex numbers, is
called a complex variable.
1. Operations of Complex Numbers
i. Addition/Subtraction of Complex Numbers. Add/Subtract real part to real part
and imaginary to imaginary part. And applyingi 2=−1.
ii. Multiplication of Complex Numbers. Similar to multiplication of polynomials.
 iii. Division of Complex Numbers. Multiply both numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator.
2. Conjugate of Complex Numbers. Simply change the sign of the imaginary part.
3. Theorems on Complex Numbers.
i. Ifx +iy=0 , thenx=0∧ y=0.
ii. If x 1+ i y 1=x 2 +i y 2 , then x 1=x 2∧ y 1= y 2.
iii. If( x 1 +i y 1 ) ( x 2+i y 2 )=0 , then one of the factors is zero.
4. Absolute Value. The absolute value or modulus of a complex number z=x +iy is
denoted by|z|. |z|=√ x 2 + y 2.
5. Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers. Since a complex number
z=x ++iy can be considered as an ordered pair of real numbers, we can represent a
complex number by a point in an xy− plane called the complex plane or Argand
Diagram or z-plane. The xy-axis consist of two perpendicular axes; the horizontal x-
axis called the real axis and the vertical y-axis called the imaginary axis.
6. Polar or Trigonometric Form of Complex Numbers.
Consider complex numberz=x +iy.
x=rcosθ ; y=rsinθ
Substitute x and y; z=r ( cos θ+i sin θ )∨z=rcisθ∨z=r ∠θ
General Polar Form: z=∠ ( θ+2 πk ) k =0 , ±1 , ±2 , … ; θ∈radians
z=r ¿
i. Multiplication of Polar Form
If z 1=r 1 ( cos θ1 +i sinθ 2 )=r 1 ∠ θ1 ; z 2=r 2 ( cos θ2 +i sinθ 2 )=r 2 ∠θ2
z 1 z 2=r 1 r 2 [ cos ( θ1 +θ2 ) +i sin ( θ1 +θ2 ) ] ∨z1 z 2=r 1 r 2 ∠ ( θ1 +θ2 )
ii. Division of Polar Form
If z 1=r 1 ( cos θ1 +i sinθ 2 )=r 1 ∠ θ1 ; z 2=r 2 ( cos θ2 +i sinθ 2 )=r 2 ∠θ2
z1 r 1 z1 r 1
= [ cos ( θ1−θ2 ) +i sin ( θ1−θ 2) ]∨ = ∠ ( θ1−θ2 )
z2 r 2 z2 r 2
7. Exponential Form of a Complex Number.
i(θ+2 kπ)
z=r e −exponential form , θ∈radians
i(θ+2 kπ )
General Exponential Form: z=r e , k =0 , ±1 , ±2 , ±3 …
i. Multiplication of Exponential Form
Ifz 1=r 1 ei θ ; z 2=r 2 e iθ
1 2

i θ1 +θ2
z 1 z 2=r 1 r 2 e ( )
ii. Division of Exponential Form
Ifz 1=r 1 ei θ ; z 2=r 2 e iθ
1 2

z1 r 1 i (θ −θ )
= e 1 2

z2 r 2
8. Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers (De Moivre’s Theorem)
n
z n=[ r ( cos θ+i sin θ ) ] =r n ( cos nθ +isin nθ )=r n ∠nθ
 1 1 1
θ+ 2 πk θ+2 πk
n n n
√ z=z =[ r ( cos θ+i sinθ ) ] =r cosn
[ ( +i sin
n ) ( n )]
Where: k =0 , 1 ,2 , 3 …(n−1)
9. Dot and Cross Product
Let z 1=x 1+i y 1 and z 2=x 2+ i y 2 be two complex numbers.
Dot Product: z 1 ∘ z2 =|z 1||z 2|cos θ=x 1 x 2+ y 1 y 2
1
¿ ℜ ( ź 1 z 2 )= ( ź 1 z 2+ z1 ź 2)
2
Cross Product: z 1 x z2=|z 1||z 2|cos θ=x1 x 2− y 1 y 2
1
¿ ℑ ( z´1 z2 ) = ( z´1 z2 −z1 ź 2)
2i
z z
If 1 and 2 are non-zero, then:
i. z 1 and z 2 are perpendicular if z 1 ∘ z2 =0
ii. z 1 and z 2 are parallel if z 1 x z2=0
iii. The magnitude of the projection of z 1 and z 2 is |z 1 ∘ z 2|/|z 2|
iv. The area of parallelogram having sides z 1 and z 2 is |z 1 x z 2|
10. Exponential and Trigonometric Functions
i. e z =e x+ iy=e x (cos x+ isin y )
ii. e z =e z lna
e iz −e−iz
iii. sin z=
2i
iz
e + e−iz
iv. cos z=
2
v. sin z=sin ( x +iy )=sin x cosh y +i cos x sinh y
vi. cos z=cos ( x+iy )=cos x cosh y−isin x sinh y
11. Hyperbolic Functions
e z −e−z
i. sinh z=
2
z
e + e−z
ii. cos z=
2
iii. sinh z=sinh ( x +iy )=sinh x cos y +i cosh x sin y
iv. cosh z=cosh ( x +iy )=cosh x cos y −isinh x sin y
12. Logarithmic Functions: ln z=ln ( x+ iy)=ln r +i(θ+2 πk)
13. Inverse Trigonometric Functions
i. sin−1 z=i ln(iz ¿ ± √ 1−z 2)¿ −i 1+ iz
ii. cos z=iln (iz ± √ z −1 ¿)¿
−1 2
−1
iii. tan z= ln
2 (
1−iz )
14. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
i. sinh−1 z=ln (z ± √ z 2 +1 ¿ )¿ −1 1+ z
ii. cosh−1 z=ln ( z ± √ z 2−1 ¿ ) ¿
iii. tanh−1 z=
2
ln ( )
1−z
c. Infinite Series – a series in which the number of terns is unlimited. It is denoted by the
symbol u1 +u2 +u3 +… u n+ … or expressed by Σ−notation
∞
u1 +u2 +u3 +… u n+ …= ∑ un
n→1

1. Sum of Infinite Series: Sn=u1+ u2+ u3+ … ; S=lim n→∞

Sn
2. Convergent Series. If the series has a sum S, if Sn approaches a limit whenn → ∞.
3. Divergent Series. If the limit does not exist.
4. Test for Convergence or Divergence of a Series
i. Ratio Test
|u n +1|
 If lim <1 , the series converges .
n →∞ |un|

|u n +1| |un +1|

 If lim >1∨if increases withou bound
n →∞ |un| |u n|
the series converges .
|u n +1|
 If lim =1 ,the test fails .
n →∞ |un|

ii. Root Test

n
 If lim √|un|<1 , the series converges .
n →∞

 If lim √n |un|>1∨if lim √n |u n|=∞ the series diverges .

n →∞ n→ ∞
n
 If lim √|un|=1 , the test fails .
n →∞

D. Plane and Spherical Trigonometry

a. Trigonometry: tri = three, gonia = angle and metron = measurement.
b. Kinds of Angels: Let A be∠ A.
i. Zero Angle: exactly 0° v. Straight Angle: A=180°
ii. Acute Angle: 0° < A < 90° vi. Reflex Angle: 180° < A < 360°
iii. Right Angle: A = 90° vii. One Revolution: A = 360°
iv. Obtuse Angle: 90° < A < 180°
 Complementary Angles are angles whose sum is 90°.
 Supplementary Angles are angles whose sum is 180°.
 Explementary Angles are angles whose sum is 360°.
c. Units of Angles
 π
90 °= radians=100 grades=1600 mils
2
1 radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length is one radius.
d. Kinds of Triangle
i. According to Angle
 Acute Triangle – all angles are acute angles
 Right Triangle – one angle is a right angle
B
 Obtuse Triangle – one of its angle is obtuse angle
ii. According to Sides c a
 Isosceles Triangle – two sides are equal
 Scalene Triangle – no sides are equal A C
 Equilateral Triangle – all sides are equal b
e. Functions of a Right Triangle
opp . side a hypotenuse c
i. sin θ= = iv . sec θ= =
hypotenuse c opp . side a
adj . side b hypotenuse c
ii . cos θ= = v . csc θ= =
hypotenuse c adj. side b
opp . side a adj . side b
iii . tanθ= = vi. cot θ= =
adj . side b opp . side a
f. Pythagorean Theorem – “In a right triangle, the sum of the square of the sides is
equal to the square of its longest side (hypotenuse)” c 2=a2+ b2
g. Trigonometric Identities:
Identity is a type of equation which is satisfied with any value of the variable/s.
Conditional Equation – an equation that is satisfied by some value of variable/s.
i. Basic Identity
a a /c sin θ c c /c 1
• tan θ= = = • secθ= = =
b b /c cos θ a a/c sin θ
b b/c cos θ c c /c 1
•cot θ= = = • cscθ= = =
a a/c sin θ b b/c cos θ

ii. Pythagorean Relations

•sin 2 θ+cos 2 θ=1 •1+cot 2 θ=csc 2 θ
• tan 2 θ+ 1=sec 2 θ
h. Sum and Difference of Two Angles
i. sin ( x ± y )=sin x cos y ±sin y cos x tan x ± tan y
iii . tan ( x ± y ) =
ii . cos ( x ± y )=cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y 1 ∓tan x tan y
i. Double Angle Formula
i. sin 2 x=2 sin x cos x ¿ 2 cos2 x−1
ii. cos 2 x=cos 2 x−sin 2 x 2 tan x
iii . tan 2 x=
¿ 1−2 sin2 x 1−tan 2 x
j. Half Angle Formula: Let 2 x=θ , then x=θ/2
θ 1−cos θ θ 1−cos θ
i. sin =
√2
θ
2
1+cos θ
√
iii . tan =
2 1+ cos θ

√
ii . cos =
2
k. Powers of Functions
2

1−cos 2 x 1−cos 2 x
i. sin 2 x= iii . tan 2 x=
2 1+cos 2 x
1+cos 2 x
ii . cos2 x=
2
l. Product of Functions
1
i. sin x cos y= [ sin ( x+ y )+ sin ( x− y ) ]
2
1
ii. sin x sin y = [ cos ( x− y )−cos ( x + y ) ]
2
1
iii. cos x cos y= [ cos ( x + y ) +cos ( x− y ) ]
2
m. Sum and Difference of Functions (Factoring Formulas)
x+ y x− y
( ) ( )
i. sin x +sin y=2 sin
2
cos
2
x+ y x− y
( ) ( )
ii . sin x −sin y=2 cos
2
sin
2
x+ y x− y
( ) ( )
iii . cos x +cos y =2cos
2
cos
2
x+ y x−y
( ) ( )
iv . cos x−cos y =−2 sin
2
sin
2
sin(x + y ) sin( x− y)
v . tan x +tan y= vi. tan x−tan y=
cos x cos y cos x cos y
n. Oblique Triangle – is any
triangle that is not a right B
triangle. c a
Consider∆ ABC:
A C
i. Sine Law: In any triangle, the ratio of anyb side to the sine of its opposite angle is
constant. This constant ratio is the diameter of the circle circumscribing the
triangle.
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
ii. Cosine Law: In any triangle, the square of any side is equal to the sum of the
square of the two other sides minus twice their product to the cosine of its
included angle.
a 2=b2 +c 2−2 bc cos A b 2=a2 +c 2−2 ac cos B
 c 2=a2+ b2−2 ab cos C
iii. Law of Tangents
a−b [ ( A−B ) /2¿] c−a [ ( C− A ) /2¿]
=tan ¿ =tan ¿
a+b tan [( A + B)/2] c +a tan[(C + A)/2]
b−c [ ( B−C ) /2¿]
=tan ¿
b+ c tan [( B+C) /2]

iv. Mollweide’s Equations

a−b sin[( A−B)/2] a+b cos [( A−B)/2]
= =
c cos (C /2) c sin(C /2)
o. Spherical Triangle – a triangle enclosed by arcs of three great circles of a sphere.
The sum of the interior angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180° but less than
540°. 180 ° < ( A + B+C ) <540 °
p. Area of Spherical Triangle:
π R2 E
A=
180 °
Where : E is the spherical excess∈degrees
E=A + B+C−180°
E s s−a s−b s−c
4 √
tan = tan tan
a+ b+c
2 2
tan
2
tan
2
s=
2
For an arc of a great circle of the earth, the distance equivalent to 1 minute (0°1’) of
the arc is one (1) nautical mile (6080 ft.).
q. Right Spherical Triangle
c