Soil moisture modelling conception and

-
evolution of the VSMB
Wolfgang Baierl and Geo. W. Robertson2
Centre for Land and Biotogical Resources Research, Agriculture and Agri-Food C^anada, Ottawa, Ontario,
l

Canada K1A 0C6;and 2Coisuttins Asrometeorobgist, Kemptvitte, Ontario, Canada K]G 1J0'
:: g;Ilir0,
Baier, W. an<i Roberrson, G. W. I 996. Soil moisture modelling conception and evolution of the VSMB. Can' J. Soil Sci. 76:
251,261. The Versatile Soil Moisture Budget (VSMB), -
including the background leading to its development in the "early days"
meaning around 30 yr ago, is described. National and international efforts before that time created a healthy climate for the devel-
op11.nt of ugrometeorology in Canada and the pioneering work in soil moisture and crop-weather modelling.
E,ventsln the early d-ays leading ro a concertetl end-eauour of soil moisture modelling included: (i) a small group of highly
qualified professionals from differenidisciphnes, as well as support stafi had been established under the guidance ofa team leader
and crop data
at the thcn Plant Research Institute (PRIj; ii) a Canada wide crop-weather study had produced daily climatological
at nine Canada Departnrenr of Agriculture establishments over l0 yr (1953-1 962); iii) a computer becamc available to PRI staff
(lBM 1620 with l6K); and (v) several sub-models providing the necessary input to the sorl moisture model were at varrous stages
of development (e.g. the "latent" evaporation and the biometeorological time scale sub-models).
This paper pre.sents an overview of the development of the VSMB using standard climatological data for generating daily soil
moisture estimates under crops. lts concept, design and widespread applications in Canada and abroad are discussed. A more
detailed analysis is left to the other presentations at this Symposium'

Key words: Soil moisture, modelling. applications

Baier, W. ancl Robertson, G. w. 1996. La modilisation de I'eau du sol-La conception et l'6volution du bilan hydrique des
sols polyvaf ent. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76: 251 2.61 . Le Bilan Hydrique des Sols Polyvalent (BHSP) de. memc que les efforts
qui ont
travaux aux echelles nationale et internationale dans les annees
n1anJ 2, ia conceptron, il y a environ trente ans, sont present6s. Les
qui ont prcced..r..tt. epoque ont cr66 un climat fivorable pour le developpement de l'agrometdorologie au Canada et les pre-
mieres tentatives de moddlisation de la croissance des cultures et de I'eau du sol.
Les facteurs qui ont contribue d susciter un effort concert6 dans le but de mod6liser l'eau du sol sont: (i) un
groupe de pro-
fessionnels hautement qualifies a ere reuni au sein de I'Institut de Recherches sur les Plantes (IRP); (ii) une etude pan-canadi-
sur
enne sur l,interactiol entre le climat et les cultures avait genere des observations climatologiques quotidiennes et des donnees
les plantes ir neuf etablissements de recherche d'Agriculture et Agroalimentaire Canada sur une p6riode de dix ans (1953 1962);
(iii)unordinateuraetdmisdladispositiondesmembrestiulRP(lBM 162avec l6K); et(iv)plusieurssous-moddlesproduisant
les donnees ecessaires au modele de l'eau du sol etaient'adivers stades de developpement (e.g. les sous-moddles de l'evaporation
"latente" et del'6chellc de temps biometcorologique).
Cet article presente un apergu du developpement du BHSP qui utilise des observations climatoiogiques standard pour estimer
quotidiennement lu tan"u. en eau du sol sous des culturcs agricoles. Sa conception, sa forme et ses nombreuses utilisations au
Canada et a I'etranger sont discutees. Une analyse plus detaill6e sera faitc par les autres pr6sentations de ce symposium.

Mots cl6s: Teneur en eau du sol, modclisation, applications pratrques

The objective of the "Baier and Robertson" sympostum was
to assess the state of the art in soil water modelling in
Canada from the early days to the present. In this context,
"early days" means a period of about 10 yr stafiing in 1965,
or 30 yr ago, when researchers at the Central Experimental
Farm in Ottawa developed and applied a series of crop-soil-
weather models and associated sub-models.
But even before that time or during the "formative years"
from 1935 to 1965, forward-looking individual researchers
and administrators at the policy level realized that Canadian
agriculturc would greatly benefit from enhanced meteoro-
logical applications. These early efforls included: (i) studies
of the Canadian climate in relation to soils and crops by the
National Research Council (NRC); (ii) the establishment
251
of committees. university departments and institutions that
addressed climate and agriculture, especially drought and
soil moisture deficiencies on the Prairies [e.g. the Prairie
Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA)I; (iii) coop-
eration between the Canada Department of Agriculture
(CDA) and the Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC)
in the application of climatological data and meteorological
information to agriculture; and (iv) liaison with the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) and especially with
the Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM).
In these early years, other positive factors at the technical
level also contributed to the advanccment of agrometeorol-
ogy. A small but highly qualified group of professionals
from different disciplines with support staff had been estab-
 252 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
lished in the then Department of Agriculture at Ottawa.
Several meteorologists were seconded from the Canadian
Meteorological Service. A homogeneous meteorological
data base was created. Data processing facilities became
available. Demands for agrometeorological information
increased from other disciplines. A healthy climate for agri-
cultural research prevailed. This situation fostered a con-
certed program of modelling the effects of weather and
climate on soils. crop growth and development, yields and
agroclimatic resources. Soil moisture modeliing using stan-
dard climatological data and other sub-models as input
emerged as the focal point.
The developmental research phase was followed during
the 1970s by applications of these modelling techniques in
studies concerned with the assessment of agro-climatologi-
cal resources, crop-weather analysis, agro-climatic map-
ping, drought or aridity indices, planning farming
operations, and other agrometeorological topics.
During the 1980s, agricultural researchers recognized the
potential value of the output from soil moisture models and
associated sub-models for their research into crop produc-
tion potentials, climatic risk analysis for agricultural pro-
duction, physical and economical strategies of farming, and
broader perspectives of the prudent use of agricultural
resources.
Finally. in the 1990s and with increasing emphasis on
sustainable land management, agroclimatic methodologies
including soil moisfure models
were integrated with
-land resource information for the spatial
- and temporal char-
acterization of land and soil in terms of yield potentials,
yield variability and production risk.
This paper describes: (i) the evolution of agrometeorolo-
gy and especially soil moisturc studies in Canada before the
early days, (ii) the development of the Versatile Soil
Moisture Budget during the early days. (iii) selectcd
improvements of the original version, (iv) applications by
researchers in Canada and abroad dunng the past 20 years,
and (v) more recently the integration of the VSMB output
with land resource information for developing a better
understanding of sustainable land management and other
emcrging cnvironmental issues.
THE FORMATIVE YEARS
From the inception of Experimental Farms across Canada in
the late 1880s, the keeping of daily weather records was a
top priority and one ofthe first projects to be authorized. in
cooperation with the MSC, at newly established Farms.
These records formed the basis for a great deal ofthe ongo-
ing qualitative assessment of the effects of climate on soils
and crops. By the late 1940s soil and crop scientisrs realized
that these data might form the basis foi more informative
and useful quantitative analysis of crop-weather relation-
ships.
Earlier, starting about 1853, the International
Meteorological Organization (IMO) was organized and
had many interests including the effects of weather and cli-
mate on agricultural activities. This organization, ultimate-
ly, was to have an influence on later agrometeorological
developments in Canada.
After the Second World War, IMO was reorganized as
one of several Technical Commissions of the United
Nations and became known as WMO. Although most of the
organizational sessions of WMO were held in Washington,
DC, the sessions concerning agrometeorology were held in
Toronto at the invitation of the MSC. It was there. in 1947,
that CAgM was bom (Baier et al. 1991).
Dr. P. O. Ripley. Director of the Division of Field
Husbandry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering of the
Experimental Farms Service (EFS), CDA and Dr. J. L.
Doughty Officer-in-Charge of the Swift Currenr Soil
Research Laboratory, EFS, were invited to attend the scs-
sions in Toronto. They must have been favourably
impressed as shortly afterwards they began looking for a
scientist with training and experience in both soil science
and climatology (Robenson 1990a).
In the meantime, the severe drought on the Canadian
Prairies during the thirties prompted consideration of the
effect of temperature and rainfall on wheat production by
NRC in collaboration with CDA. Dr. J. W. Hopkins, biolo-
gist with the National Research Laboratories in Ottawa,
undertook a number of studies of the climate of the Prairies,
particularly in relation to crop production. These studies led
to the development of the first simple quantitative crop-
weather models in Canada (Hopkins 1936).
Following the Second World War there was a flurry of
activities in soil survey work throughout Canada. In Alberta
a Soil-Climate Committee was fomed consisting of A. E.
Bowser. soil scientist with EFS of CDA. and Dr. A. G.
McCalla. Dean of Agriculture at the University of Alberta.
G. W. Robertson. meteorologist with MSC at the airport in
Edmonton was asked to join the committee. Using Hopkins'
weather/wheat yield model. Robertson prepared a potential
wheat yield distribution map of Alberta based on estirnated
stored soil moisture (pre-season ratnfall) and growing sea-
son rainfall and temperatures, probably the first of its kind
in Canada.
A short time later (in 195 l) an agreement was reached
between MSC and CDA to loan (second) Roberlson to the
latter; in turn, CDA would hire an agricultural scientist as a
counterpaft. Dr. J. L. Dionne, an agricultural chemist, had
held the position for about 3 yr when he was replaced in
1955 by Dr. R. M. Holmes. a graduate in soil science.
With the arrival of Holmes, research on soil moisture and
evapotranspiration started by Robertson (Robertson 1954)
was intensified. A comprehensive model was developed for
estimating soil moisture in a number of soil layers within the
root zone of a crop and allowed for a decreasing rate of
evapotranspiration as the soil moisture was depleted
(Holmes and Robefison 1959). This was a major improve-
ment over the concept of climatological water budgets
which had treated the soil within the root zone as a sinsle
Iayer.
In some of the earlier budgets (Thornthwaite 1948) it was
assumed that evaporation and transpiration proceeded at the
potential rate until all the available water was used up.
Holmes left the Service in 1964 and was replaced by Dr.
W. Baier.

BAIER AND ROBERTSON- SYMPOSIIJM ON MODELLING AND MEASUREMENT OF SOIL
CLIMATIC
IMPUT
PHYSICAL
IMPUT
SUB_MODELS
VSMB AE and SM
OUTPUT
APPLICATIONS and INTEGRATION
THE EARLY DAYS
Recognizing the inherent limitations of soil moisture mea-
surements for spatial and temporal integration, researchers
in many countries developed climatological techniques for
estimating the water content and its distribution in the soil
from climatologrcal data. This approach became popular
after Thornthwaite (1948) and Penman (1948) independent-
ly introduced the concept of potential evapotranspiration
(PE). These methods were then extensively used to atalyze,
assess and monitor the occurrence and distribution of soil
water content and drought in many parts of the world. De
Jong (1984) reviewed general features of such soil water
models.
By 1965 a group of professionals with support staff
formed the agrometeorology section under Mr. Robertson's
leadership in the then Plant Research Institute at the Central
Experimental Farm Ottawa of the CDA. The activities of
this group focused on the effects of the environment on
plant growth, development, yield and quality. It was recog-
nized that soil moisture either lack of it or surplus
-
was
a critical factor for crop- production in Canada, but very lit-
tle soil moisture data were available.
Climatological data however were available from the
CMS and crop-weather data had been collected in a country-
wide project in cooperation with the personnel at CDA sta-
tions over the period from 1953 to 1957. This siruation
initiated the developrnent of agrometeorological techniques
for estimating soil moisture from climatological data. These
techniques included sub-models for estimating PE, crop
development (biometeorological time scale), astronomical
parameters (energy at the top of the atmosphere and
daylength), soil characteristics and crop parameters.
The VSMB emerged as the focal point for these model-
ling efforts. The concept was introduced by Baier and
Robertson ( 1966); the computer program was ftrst described
by Baier et al. (1972) and subsequently improved (Baier et
al. l9'/9\. Dver and Mack (1984) described the VSMB -
WATER CONTENT 253
Fig. Schematic summary of the data flow in the
l.
VSMB. [Taken from Baier (1973).]
Version 3, including further improvements and a field per-
formance appraisal. Boisvert et al. (1992) developed
Version 4 of the VSMB including a watertable function and
prepared a reference manual (J. B. Boisvert' J. A. Dyer and
D. Brewin. The Versatile Soil Moisture Budget (VB)
Reference Manual, Version 4.0. Personal Communication
from J. B. Boisvert). A schematic summary of the data flow
from primary input to output is shown in Fig. I
Baiic primary input consists of daily maximum and min-
imum air temperatures, and daily precipitation. Two sub-
models using these input variables provide secondary
-
input: -
(i) daily PE from the Baier and Robertson (1965) PE
estimating technique, and (ii) biometeorological time (/)
from / = 0 at Planting to / = 5 at Ripe from the
Biometeorological Time Scale technique by Robertson
(1963). However, actual data or any valid technique for esti-
mating PE and / can be used as inPut.
The basic water withdrawal equation is:
-l s,
AE:>,k,,'*.zi.PE
' L,
i-l, /
Daily actual evapotranspiration (AE) is derived from
daily (measured or estimated) PE adjusted by soil and crop
Darameters. Water is withdrawn simultaneously from all
iones reached by plant roots or from the surface layers in the
case of bare soil. The withdrawal rate is in relation to PE
rate, crop rooting pattern (ft-coefficients), soil type as
reflected in soil dryness curves (Z), and the ratio of available
soil moisture (,S) to capacity soil moisture (C) in each zone
fi) at the morning observation of day (i).
The ouQut of the VSMB consists of: (i) daily plant-avail-
able soil moisture in each of six or fewer zones in the soil
profile, (ii) daily AE, and (iii) daily runoff and drainage
water losses. Daily input PE is included in the output for use
in secondary models or applications. A schematic summary
 254 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

L trvn).ti^^ s ; ao^herce+>
-- -

Fallow or
pre emergence

Soil

o [,,1orslure slate
or rocalton
Conlrol rnpuls
MOISIU TE
conlenls
10r
day
eacn Runolf and drainage
water loss

Sub models and

IUNCIIONS (compute
and
pflnt)

Fig. 2. Soil-root-atmosphere pathways for water in the VSMB. [Taken from Barer et al. ( 1979).1

of the soil-root-atmosphere pathways for water in the VSMB APPLICATIONS

VSMB is shown in Fig. 2.
In developing the concept and semi-emprrical terms of
the VSMB, extensive use was made oi (i) meteorological
data taken at CDA establishments across the country during
many years and (ii) soil moisture data acquired in a collab-
orative project at selected CDA stations on the prairies. The
Canada (formerly National) Committee on Agro-
meteorology (CCA) of the Canadian Agricultural
Services Coordinating Committee (CASCC) played an
important role in coordinating this data acquisition and data
exchange between Agriculture Canada (AC formerly CDA)
and Atmospheric Environment Service (AES formerly
CMS). In the mid-1960s the CCA drscussed at its annual
meetings the need for standardized soil moisture determina-
tion and reporting. A soil moisfure sub-committee recom-
mended rn 1967 a twice-a-year (spring and fall) program
and deveioped guidelines for such a data collection network.
From 1968 to 1976 the network expanded to some ntne
experimental stations and 40 sampling sites (as reporled in
the CCA Annual Reports from 1964 to 1976).
Computerized listings of the verified data were made avail-
able to potential users. This factlitated fuither development
and verification ofthe /<-coefficients for croos and z-curves
for soils in the VSMB.
Table 1, based on an earlier review (Baier 1990), lists exam-
ples of the various types of VSMB appiications that were
made after the early days . These can be aranged as follows:
(i) Calibration, verification and statistical analysis of the
output from the VSMB.
(ii) Monitoring soil moisture reserves over large areas.
t iii t Planning farming operations.
(iv) Agroclimatic resource assessment and mapping.
Calibration, Verification and Statistical Analysis
Estimates from the VSMB were verified against lysimeter
readings, soil moisture measurements and results from other
techniques under a variefy of climates, soil and crop condi-
tions (Dyer and Mack 1984; Baier 1990). in these compar-
isons the VSMB gave reasonable estimates of soil moisture
distribution and plant stress (AE/PE).
De Jong (1988) compared the VSMB estimates with
results from a more sophisticated soil-plant-air-water
model (SPAW) and with soil water content measurcments
under wheat in the semi-arid region of Saskatchewan. This
comparison for 1973 at Swift Current is shown in Fig. 3.
Both models were driven by daily air temperatures and pre-
cipitation data. With either model the mean absolute differ-
 AND MEASIJREMENT OF SOIL WATEB CONTENT 255
BAIER AND ROBERTSOru_ SYMPOSIUM ON MODELLING

ffiles of the VSMB applicationl lpo. u"tuit, una t

Location or area of Years o1' Specilic apPllcattolls
General fields of aPPlication
publication selected tbr derntltlstt atiorr
apphcatton
of ret-erences in in this paper:
[r.ro.
Table5ofBaier(1990)l Author and year
(Table or Figure)

1969 -1988 Compat-ison ol' VSMU rvith

l. Calibrations, veriflcations and Ottawa. Swifl Current.
Prairies, Saskatchervan, SPAW against measured
statistical analysis of VSMB output
South Africa. SW Ontario water use at Swifl C'un-ent'
1973: De.long (l98ti)
(I I ref'erences)
(Fig. 3)

Southem Saskatchewan, l97l-1988 Prairie Provinces Watcr-

2. Monitt-rring ol-soil muisttrrc
reserves over large areas
3. Plannirrg ot lartrling operalions
Praines. Canada, South
Ati ican Highlands
(9 re1-erences)
Canada. Atlantic Region,
Supply Condirions Report:
Prairie Farm Rchabilitatiorr
Adminisn-ation Rcports
(Fig. a)
972- I 988 Weather-based estitratiou ol
l

Prairies, PIil Quebec field workdays in fall:

(6 r'elerences) Dyer and Baier I 979
(Table 2)
.1. Canada, Prairies 1970-r992 Agroclimatic maPs fbr'
Agroclimatic resource assessment
( I 5 ref'erences) Canada - Derivcd data
and mapping
Sly and Coligado I 97:l
(Fig. s)

ence between estimated and obserrred soil water content to a
deoth of 120 cm was less than 2.0 cm at any growth stage
Ouring the 12 yr of investigation. Both models perfomed
well in characterizing the soil water regime, but the VSMB
required less detailed soil and crop infomation as input'
boisvert et al. (1992) introduced in the VSMB an empir-
ical sub-model for predicting the watertable depth' The
watertable function is based on porosity of subsoil below the
rooting depth, outflow rate and maximum watefiable depth'
The coefficients were developed from 2 years offield obser-
vations at three drained sites near St. Hyacinthe, Quebec,
and verified against independent data at St. Hyacinthe and
Ottawa. Ontario. The sub-model showed good potential for
predicting and analyzing watertable depths throughout the
St. Lawrence Lowlands, where excess of soil moisture and
chronically high watertables have been a major problem in
agriculture.
Monitoring Soil Moisture Reserves over large
Areas
VSMB applications include near real-time monitoring of
soil moisture reserves and drought conditions. A Soil
Moisture Evaluation Project (SMEP) for the Prairies was
initiated in 1975 by the Agrometeorology Section,
Chemistry and Biology Research Institute of AC, and suc-
cessfully maintained for more than l5 years' It provided
maps of estimated soil moisture conditions for the main
grain-producing areas of the Prairies for two cropplng con-
ditions (wheat on fallow and wheat on stubble), three differ-
ent soil textures (sand, loam and clay), on a weekly basis
during the growing season.
The SMEP program with associated mapping techniques
was transferred in 199 I to the PFRA and adapted for its
periodic Prairie Provinces Water Supply Condition Report'
The report presents information in text, tables and maps of
the water supply and soil moisture conditions on the
Canadian prairies. It identifies drought risks, surface and
groundwater supplies. soil moisture and ciimate fbr pasture,
iorage and crop production. An example is shown in Fig 4
illusirating prairie provinces available soil n-roisture on 4
July 1993 in loam soils under continuous wheat cropptng
(PFRA 1993). The Canadian Wheat Board also adapted the
VSMB for its global rnonitoring system of yield prospects'
A drought early warning system fbr Prairie pasture land
oDerated fiom 1982 to 1990 (Dyer 1988). It projected likely
soil moisture conditions in late spring, thereby assisted in
grazingland management by providing.lead time to produc-
ers for alternative practlces to overgrazlng'
Planning Farming OPerations
Soil moisture estimates generated by the VSMB for the near
surface layers have been used to determine the average and
probable number of days when weather and soil conditions
allow field work. The estimates were analyzed for selected
periods
^Canada
in spring, summer and fall, for locations across
and especially in the Atlantic Provinces and
Quebec. These VSMB applications were
provided for the
tillage and seeding machinery,
silection of tractor size,
length of
crops and cropping practices, and for detemining
growing season based on variability of soil moisture at
planting and harvest time.
^
As an example, Table 2 shows a comparison of workday
estimates to field observations during fall on a day-to-day
basis (Dyer and Baier 1979).It Prince Edward Island (PEI)
observations were taken by three farmers near
Charlottetown from 197 4 to 197 6 and by three f-armers near
O'Leary for 1975 and I9l6.In Quebec, obsewations were
taken by a dairy farmer near St. Clet from 19'74 to 1976'
Daily weather observations as well as PE estimates were
avaiiable for all three sites. Averaged over the period of the
test. 88% of the estimates were coffect at Charlottetown,
860/o at O'Leary and 80% at St. Clet. Thus, a reasonable
 256 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

'1973

e MEASURED WATER USE

a
U
E
J
o
U
J
=
l
o
o
SOIL EVAPORATION - SPAW

AUGUST OCTOBEF SEPTEMBEF

Fig' 3. Comparison of VSMB and SPAW nrodel with measured water use by wheat at Swift Current, 1973.
fTaken from De Jong (1988).]

...\ Hiqh Level \ I r Stony Rapids

''!
'..,, Churchill
:{l.,,,.i.:',N '. }\ I '
!:i;:::$*,,i1..,,.,,\ trort Vermil onl :::::,)
::::::::::::::;1:i:::::.::\ t',,,,,,,,,,\ I Cottind
rbayl t''-
:!:,:,::\ | |
o Cree Lake
,;',
iiirjrr;}l);fifll'riiiiir:,:::,:;i:i:::iiiiir' ii,'r * o Lynn Lake
:,ii:::,::i;,:i"ii:iii:,i;i,:j,i':i::ii::::::::::::::::::ll:llll r',rcMutray
: l: :::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::i::ilili:ilil::i::jil::ii:::::::::::i;t :: :

o Thompson

,,, LEGEND

L__l </5
lsland Lake
Norway Hois,e'
sper I]IIII /o-ruu
i:i:Rocky l::::::::::r:J

filll
l::!:i:iiiil
1o'r-12q

Calgary ffi 12G-150

rlll
ffi 1sl-1zs
Pincher Creek Portage
r ,75
Source PFRA
(Climate data {rom AES)

Fig.4 Prairie Provrnces available soil moisture (rnm),4 July I993, loam soils-continuous cropping.
[Taken from PFRA (1993).1
 AND MEASIJREMENT OF SOIL WATER CONTENT 257
BAIEB AND BOBEBTSON- SYMPOSIUM ON MODELLING

-:^
Btofieldobservationsonaday-to-daybasis.lAdaptedfromD1'crandBaier(l979)|
NY Total Total
Location Year YY NN YN
corTect observed correcl

t1 92 105 88
t91 4 50 LO
Charlottetown,
PF]I to
I 976 g8
r'a 82 u4
O'Leary. I 975 40 l2 4

PEI to al
I l3 63 44 t7 l'76
1976
St. Clct, PQ 19t 4
to
1976
80
All sites all 203 111
years
both observed and estimated as non-wor-kdays. YN. number of days
YY. nun-rber- ol days both observed and estimated as workdays; NN, number of days
workdays but estimated as non-workdays NY, number of days observed as non-workdays but esrimated as workdays.
observed as

trigh percentage of workday estimates were correct on a
aay-to-Oay basis considering the subjective nature of field
workday observations.
The concept of the VSMB has also been used in the
dcvelopment of '"IRRIGATE". a program for irrigation
management by computer (Boisvert et al. 1990). The output
Drovides estimates of the soil water status within the whole
ioil profile, the water deficit in the root zone, and the num-
ber of days before an irrigation is needed' It takes tnto
account many frelds each having a specific crop and soil.
irrigated or not. IRRIGATE is a complementary tool to
assist in judging the severity and the frequency of plant
stress during the growtng season.
Agroclimatic Resource Assessment and Mapping
An early application of the VSMB resulted in seven soil
water regime maps for the Agroclimatic Atlas of Canada at
a scale of 1:5 000 000 (Sly and Coligado 1974; Agriculture
Canada 1976). The initial maps depict seasonal water
dcficits at different probability levels (10 and 50%) and soil
water capacities (25 and 100 mm). The maps assisted in the
soil capability classifications that were undertaken in the
1970s by Canada Land Inventory and Agriculture Canada'
Additional maps showing soil water reselves at seeding for
spring wheat in crop-fallow rotations in the Prairies
Provinces were later included in the Atlas (Sly 1982)' Figure
5 shows an example of the water deficit map (irrigation
requirements) at 50o/o probability and 200 mm soil water
capacity. Baier (1989) reviewed these and other applications'
More recently, De Jong et al. (1992) chatacterized the soil
water regime of the Canadian prairies on the basis of
Agroecological Resource Areas (ARA). Each ARA was
considered to be generally similar in terms of agricultural
potential, land use and land management practices. These
detailed analyses of soil moisture conditions on the
Canadian prairies employed:
(i)
Estimates from the VSMB (Baier et al' 1979).
(ii) Agroecological Resource Areas (Kirkwood et al. 1993)'
(iii) Modelling methodology to simplify the presentation of
the data and to display their spatial distribution (De
Jong and Bootsma 1988).
lnformation was generated for seven variables character-
izing the components of the water balance for spring wheat
olanled in stubble and fallow soil' four available water
capacities (AWC), and expressed at seven probability
levels. Coloured maps present the information for the 10,
50 and 75 probability levels by selecting the data pertaining
to the dominant AWC in each ARA. Probabilities of
soil moisture reserves provide a sound basis for the
development of viable agricultural strategies for risk man-
agement.
A similar approach was used to assess variability of soil
water deficiencies for perennial forages in the Canadian
prairie region (De Jong et al. 199 l)' Probabilities of Forage
Aridity Indices. at the 10 and 50o/o probability lcvels were
mapped at a scale 1:8.5 mrllion' to assess regional water
supply and the impact and probability of drought'
R series of advisory bulletins depict maps of the probable
distribution of conserved soil moisture and stress indices for
spring wheat:
til Soil moisture available at seeding on the Canadian
nrairies (Bootsma et al. 1992b).
(ii) bstimated soil moisture conserved by summerfallowing
on the Canadian prairies (Bootsma et al. 1992c)'
(iii) Stress indices for spring wheat on the Canadian prairies
(Bootsma et al. 1992a)-
The objective of these bulletins is to present information
on the variability over time and space of the moisture
reserves in spring, in support of decisions if and where sum-
merfallowing can be eliminated from the crop rotation'
INTERNATIONAL APPLTCATIONS
Intemationally, the VSMB also received acclaim in a vari-
ety of practical applications. Several of these applications,
espectally in academic theses, became known to the authors
through personal
-by communications' Some of them were ref-
Baier et al. (1979). Other examples are listed
"."n."d
below.
In Malaysia the VSMB was adapted for the calculation of
soil moisture in palm plantations in connection with the
assessment of palm-oil yield (Robertson and Foong 1977)'
This application required adapting it to a two storey vegeta-
 258 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
,:-
,t: .-;
.4,i:1 u
i/ : 't
-. "a'.lr:.-1^
I lJ'.',:,:,.
r '{.''
trve canopy: palm trees and interplantcd ground cover
(Robertson 1976). ln India it was used to calculate soil
moisture in arid soils. Here it had to be modified to account
for serious cracking ofdry soiis (Robertson 1977). The Food
and Agriculture Organization made use of the model and
devised a simpler threc-layer rnodel which could be used on
a programmable pocket computer (Gommes 1983). In
Pakistan a simplified version of the model was used for cli-
matic assessmcnts in dryland farming areas (Robertson
1984, 1986. 1990b). A more comprehensive rnodel rvas also
developed in Pakistan to simuiate the daily soii moisture
balance in interplanted row crops involving three types of
surf-ace cover and varying amounts of canopy closure and
crop heights (Robcrlson 1985). In Sourh Africa the VSMB
was successfully tested against lysimeter measurements
under bare soil (Dyer et al. 1988). It was also used in the
prediction of summer drought conditions under grassland
based on estimated soil moisture stored in the deep soil
(Dyer and De Jager 1986).
INTEGRATION OF VSMB OUTPUT WITH OTHER
INFORMATION
The output variables from the VSMB reflect the interacrion
ofclimate. soil and crop conditions. In recent years, research
has focussed on the integratton ofagroclimatic data such
as thosc generated by the VSMB with soil attributes, land
- (Baier and Durnanski
management and land use information
199 l ).
';)
,) i
, \lr*r",4 --
a_),"
Fig.5. Water dcficits tirrrga-
tion requirements) for the
Prairie Provinces: l94l-1970.
50% probability Soil water
capacity 200 mm.- [Taken from
Sly ( le82).1
In this new approach, a series ofnested data bases at var-
ious scales (1:5 million and larger) are prepared according
to the agroecological concepts and stratifications. The nest-
ed data bases are matched with a collection of crop growth
models, using soil moisture as input, and other proccdures
of data analysis, each of which is specific to a general scale
of application. The system is supported by a geographic
information system. Figure 6 illustrates an operational sys-
tem, developed for western Canada, for linking integrated
data bases with crop growth and other physical process
models at different scales (Dumanski et al. 1993). In this
example, estimates of crop yield are expressed as long-term
mean yields (calculated from climatic normals), and mean
annual yields or biomass produced at varrous phenological
stages (calculatcd from daily weather data).
Applications of this principle have been used in a variety
of environmental and land use analyses. This enablcs analy-
sis of traditional long-term mean yields used in land evalu-
ation sfudies, as well as application of crop productivity
models to agricultural production risk issues and sustainable
land management. The linkage of databases with models at
various scales makes the analysis far more powerful and
useful (Dumanski 1993; Durnanski et al. 1993).
CONCLUSIONS
Because the VSMB operates on a daily basis and yet uses
only standard meteorological data as input, a wide variety of
applications has bcen reported in literature. Its applications
are not restricted to monthly or seasonal time intcrvals as
 AND MEASUREMENT OF SOIL WATER CONTENT 259
BAIER AND ROBERTSON- SYMPOSIIJM ON MODELLING

INTEGRATED NESTED
DATABASES
Land Potential Database (1:5M)
Aqroecoloqical Resource Areas (1 :2M)
"Soil
Landscapes of Canada ( l .1 M)
Soil Survey (ProJect scales)

BIOLOGICAL/PROCESS MODELS
M3&il"iil33"r
<l+> vaAalirit'

National
Long Term
Yield Potential Yield Potentials
(FAo. FORYLD) Yield Risk Assessmenl
lmpact Evaluation:
Policy
Environment Fig. 6. Schematic reprcsentation of thc linkage of
Climate Change
n^^.^!^ri^^
uEv, duduur I
nested data bases with crop growth and physical
Others process models. [Takcn from Dunranskr ( I 993) ]

earlier traditional methods. Assessments of soil moisture ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

reserves from the VSMB (and similar techniques) proved to
be very useful for quantifying the soil and climate resources
of a region in terms of production potential of crops or nat-
ural vcgetation. Crop risk analysis and the associated prob-
abilities are far more powerful and useful analytical research
tools than the traditional methods using means and averages.
Likewise. near real-time soil moisture estimates and other
output from the VSMB have become an agricultural deci-
sion-making tool for irrigation management and drought
monitoring. Future VSMB applications are seen especially
in the area of integrating agroclimatic data including out-
put from the VSMB
- management
crop, soil and land
-with a more comprehensive under-
information in developing
standing of sustainable land management and olher cunent
environmental issues.
We wish to express our sincere thanks to Philippe Rochette
and Clarke Topp for initiating and organizing the Baier and
Robertson Symposium on Modelling and Measurement of
Soil Water Content. We also gratefully acknowledge the
helpful comments of R. De Jong and A. Bootsma' The assis-
tance given by the CLBRR Cartography section is much
appreciated.
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