What is research?

Research is

- A study/investigation

- A scientific investigation

- Is a study on investigation which is done systematically, empirically, scientifically, and logically for the purpose
of achieving knowledge and helping solve situational problems.

Characteristics of a Research Process

- Systematic - well defined designs, an orderly procedure

- Empirical – measurable and observable things or phenomenon that you can put in print on the bases of your
senses.

- Scientific – can be tested

- Logical – justifiable and acceptable by reason

Purpose of Research

1. Discover new knowledge

2. Help solve situational problems

1. Background of the Problem

It is the presentation of the concept of the study in a very effective manner.

1. It must include an assumption of significance.

2. It must be a loaded statement that would drive an impact to emote interest from the reader.

3. It must be simple, clear, specific and related to the topic.

Background of the Problem

 This introductory page acquaints the reader with the problem to be dealt with. This orientation is best
accomplished by providing rationale or background.
 The background intends to draw a clearer picture of what you want to say. It describes clearly, colorfully and
vividly the problem situation which serves as the rationale of the study.
 It presents in details the problem situation based on what you
 The purpose of the background is to highlight the need for the study by presenting what is happening at
present and what ought to be using the data that the researcher has gathered.
 It identifies the area in which the problem is to be found, and points out that the problem had not been fully
studied.
2. Conceptual Framework

This deals with the key concepts and related literature underlying the framework that guides the study. The purpose
of this is:

1. To expand the context and background of the study

2. To help further define the problem

3. To provide an empirical basis for the subsequent development/formulation of hypothesis.

The initial step is to identify the key variables of the study. This refers to the independent, dependent and moderator
variables to be investigated.

The second step is to look for the definitions of the variables. For the dependent variables the following should be
done:
 1. Define the variable (universal definition)

2. Describe its characteristics and indicators

3. Discuss its importance (how it affects other variables) and how it is affected by other variables (independent
variables)

 For the independent variable, define and describe its characteristics and indicators. Discuss its effect on the
dependent variable on the basis of the review of related literature and studies. The same should be done for
the moderator variables.
 The discussion should point out how the previous studies relate to the present investigation by highlighting
their similarities and differences. More importantly, it must include some relevant theories and concepts that
help in the development of the present study.
 Organizing the literature review section by subheadings makes it easier for the researcher to follow. To be
meaningful, this subheadings should reflect the variables and their relationship.
 We should remember that the purpose of literature review is to provide a basis for the formulation of
hypothesis.
 The conceptual framework is summarized or synthesized into a logical network of relationship of the key
concepts or variables involved in the study. This is further simplified by presenting a research paradigm or
hypothetical illustration of the relationship of variables and their corresponding indicators.
3. Research Hypothesis (for quantitative research)

Hypothesis – is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables. It is a tentative or
temporary answer to a research problem.

It has the following characteristics:

1. It should conjecture upon a relationship between two or more variables.

2. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously in a declarative statement.

3. It should be testable; that is it should be possible to restate it in an operational form which can be evaluated
based on data.

Example:

I.Q. and achievement test are positively related.

There are two approaches for developing hypothesis:

Deduction – starts from generalization or theory by logical deduction.

Induction – starts from observation, opinions to generalizations.

General Classification of Hypothesis

RESEARCH/ This temporarily asserts the relationship of variables

ALTERNATIVE (H1)

NULL/TEST (Ho) Denies the relationship of variables

4. Statement of the Problem

The advantages of stating the statement of the problem are:

1. It provides the reader with an immediate basis from which to interpret subsequent statements

2. It makes it possible to quickly determine the purpose of the study. The reader will not have to search for the
introduction and background to discover the problem being examined.

A problem statement must have the following characteristics:

1. It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables.

2. It should be stated clearly, unambiguously and usually in question form.

 3. It should be possible to collect data to answer the question asked.

4. It should not represent a moral or ethical position.

One or two sentences will normally suffice to state the problem. Often the statement begins as follows:

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between…….(state the variables, locale and time as the case
maybe).

Specifically, it seeks answers to the following questions:

1. What is the relation between I.Q. and achievement?

2. Is there a relationship between economic background and dropout rate?

5. Definition of Terms

The definition is based on the observable characteristics of that which is being defined.

What is important is the nature of these observations upon which definitions are based.

There are 3 approaches or types of constructing definitions. These are arbitrarily labelled as A, B, and C by Bruce W.
Tuckman.

A type A definition can be constructed in terms of the operations that must be performed to cause the phenomenon or
state being defined to occur.

An intelligent child can be defined operationally as the child produced by the marriage of above average, intelligent
couples.

A type B definition can be constructed in terms of how the particular object or thing defined operates, that is what it
does or what constitute its dynamic properties.

Thus an intelligent student can be operationally defined as a person who gets high grades in school or a person who
demonstrates capability for solving complicated mathematical problems.

A type C definition can be constructed in terms of what the object or phenomenon being defined looks like that is
what constitutes its static properties. Thus, an intelligent student can be defined for instance as a person who has a
good memory, large vocabulary, good reasoning ability, good mathematical skills, etc.

Ideally, the operational definition should contain three parts. The first part is its universal meaning. The second part is
how it is being used in the study. The third is how it is being measured.

6. Importance of the Study

It is at this point that the researcher described who will benefit and what benefits can be derived from the findings of
the study. The writer, under this section, tries to sell its importance to the panel or to the funding agency.

7. Scope and limitations of the Study

This tells the specific boundaries of the study by describing the place or venue of the study, the population,
subjects/respondents, time frame, the variables and their indicators.

Any weakness of the study such as failure to use a more precise data gathering or measuring instrument or
failure to execute an important procedure due to certain circumstances beyond the researcher’s control form part of
the study’s limitations.
Learner’s Output:
List of Related Literature

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is a re-view of something that has already been written

Why do a literature review?

A literature review can be a precursor in the introduction of a research paper

A literature review is a critical and in depth evaluation of previous research. It is a summary and synopsis of a
particular area of research, allowing anybody reading the paper to establish why you are pursuing this particular
research project.

Tips for Searching for Resources on the Internet

Finding related research articles typically requires competence on the internet.

Search through databases that have indexed information on thousands of research articles that have been conducted

Tips for Searching for Resources on the Internet

List the major or key variables/concepts in the study

List synonyms for each variable

Outline the major points to be made in the literature review

Do not limit your search to only studies that examine all of the same variables as your study. 

Put key phrases in quotation marks

When searching online, use the limit function to reduce searches that have too many results. 

Limit your use of Google

Do not cite wikipedia as a source. Like Google, anybody can edit articles on wikipedia. Therefore, wikipedia
should never be used as a source for an academic paper.

Use the resources you have to find additional resources.

Tips for Searching for Resources on the Internet

Boolean logic is the way to put terms together in a search by using AND, OR, NOT

Using AND

When you use AND you will be looking for articles containing two or more words within each article.

For example, employee AND motivation would retrieve articles with both words in the article.

Use AND when you are searching for concepts and want to be more specific in your search (to narrow it down).

Using OR

When you use OR you will be looking for articles containing either one word or the other word.
For Example, employee OR personnel OR staff. You would use OR for similar concepts and alternative words or
synonyms (to broaden out your search).

Using NOT

When you use NOT you will be looking for one term but not the other.

For example, you might search for broadband NOT wireless. You would use NOT to exclude irrelevant results (to
narrow down your search).

Writing the Literature Review

Rule 1: State the theory

Suggested Sentence Stems

The theoretical basis of this paper is

This paper is theoretically anchored on

This paper is premised on

The theory of ______ underpins this study

We draw on ___________ to (state the objective of the paper)

Rule 2: Explain the theory

Rule 3: Contextualize the theory

Rule 1: Synoptic Dimension

Defining what the construct is all about

Stating what has been said about the variable (relationship, effect, difference) or it historical development

Rule 2: Argumentative Dimension

Build arguments either through sentence of problematising (SOP) or the need for the study (NFS)

Variable: Teaching Beliefs

The Need for Dendrogramming

Example write-up (CF)

The conceptual framework underlying this study is anchored on the concepts of research capability, workload, and
research productivity.

Research Capability

Research capability is simply the capability of the faculty to undertake research. All the resources or inputs which
enable the faculty member to conduct research are considered as components of research capability (Deza, 1999;
Banaag, 1994). Salazar-Clemena and Almonte-Acosta (2007) enumerated indicators of research capability which
include budget for research, the ability to obtain research grants, the provision of research infrastructure, the ability to
collaborate with and access to research professionals, and the presence of rules and procedure on the granting of
rewards for research.

Example write-up (CF)

In this study, research capability is described in terms of technical skills in doing research, skills in conceptualizing a
research problem, knowledge and skills in designing the research plan, knowledge and skills on research data
processing, and knowledge and skills in writing the research paper. Technical skills include written communication
(expressing one’s ideas and arguments using language rules, presenting and packaging ideas effectively); oral
communication (expressing one’s ideas and arguments using language rules, presenting and packaging ideas
effectively); critical /analytical thinking (evaluating ideas, analyzing the arguments of others); problem-solving;
research organization (parts, format of a research paper); online search , use of electronic resources, databases &
search engines; use of computer commands/programs/ software; and acknowledging or citing sources/ cross-
referencing.

Example write-up (CF)

Determinants of Research Productivity

Previous foreign and local studies have revealed that the reasons for low research productivity among faculty
members are poor or lack of research skills (Anunobi & Emerole, 2008; Iqbal, 2011); lack of research funds (Anunobi
& Emerole, 2008; Iqbal, 2011; Mahilum, 2010); and heavy workload or teaching overload (Iqbal, 2011; Mahilum, 2010;
Mordeno, 2002). Iqbal (2011) added performance of administrative duties along with academic duties, nonexistence of
research leave, negative attitude of the faculty towards research and absence of professional journals while Anunobi
& Emerole (2008) included time constraints as impediments to research publication.

Example write-up (CF)

Determinants of Research Productivity

Predictors of research productivity include teachers training or having research orientation (Finkelstein, 1984, Banaag,
1994, Mordeno, 2002); academic rank (Flanigan, et al.,1988; Banaag, 1994); highest educational attainment
(Finkelstein, 1984; Flanigan, et al.,1988; Banaag, 1994);and sufficient time allocated to research (Finkelstein, 1984).

Example write-up (CF)

While several studies have been made to investigate correlates of research productivity, studies on research
capability in terms of specific research skills of teachers were lacking. In this end, the researchers were motivated to
conduct this research that explored the levels of proficiency of teachers on different skills that determine their
capability in doing research and how this capability can be associated to research productivity. Workload in terms of
hours of work and number of teaching preparations was also investigated to verify its impact on faculty productivity in
research. In the end, it is aimed that this research may contribute to the existing literatures on determinants of
research productivity.

Remember!

Read enough background material to discuss the research and the theory giving a reasonably complete account of
our knowledge of the topic

Present data that are based on data and theory, including conflicting views of different researchers.

Make it easy for the reader to understand how all of the studies interrelate.

Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction

Make a compelling statement about an important issue

Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction

Identifying the Scope of Previous Research

Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction

Presenting a Statistics

Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction

Describing common occurrences

Plagiarism

“Authors do not present the work of another as if it were their own work”.

Whether paraphrasing, quoting an author directly, or describing an idea that influenced your work, you must credit the
source. To avoid charges of plagiarism, take careful notes as you research to keep track of your sources and cite
those sources according to the guidelines.

References

Beins, B.C. APA simplified style: Writing in psychology, nursing, education, and sociology. USA: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

De Guzman, A.B. Writing for international publication. Presented in a seminar-workshop 2012

explorable.com/what-is-a-literature-review

Korb, K. (2015). Conducting educational research: Search the Research Literature

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design

A research design is a plan or strategy in order to answer the research problem and control (variance) for
validity. This is the over-all plan for the conduct of the investigation.

Hence, substantially a design is intended to answer the problem; and, technically it provides control for
validity.

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design

Essentially, research designs may be classified only in two (2) categories on the basis of maximum control for
validity:

1. non-design or non-experimental (descriptive)

2. True Design or experimental design

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)

Not recommended for use

-designs which do not control adequate against sources of internal validity

1. One shot case study

2. One-group pre-test-post-test design

B. Quasi-experimental design

C. True Experimental Design

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)

B. Quasi-experimental design

-this design controls some but not all sources of internal invalidity due to existing conditions by which experimental
control is difficult if not impossible.

C. True Experimental Design

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)

B. Quasi-experimental design

1. Expost facto design – This is the study in which the researcher examine the effects of naturalistically occurring
treatment after that treatment has occurred rather than creating the treatment itself. The researcher attempts
to rotate this after the fact.

2. Co-relational standard

C. True Experimental Design

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)

B. Quasi-experimental design

1. Expost facto design

2. Co-relational standard – this involves two or more sets of data from a group of subjects with an attempt to
determine the subsequent relation between those sets of data.

C. True Experimental Design

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)

B. Quasi-experimental design

1. Expost facto design

2. Co-relational standard – serve as useful purpose in determining the relationship among measures and
suggesting possible bases for causality, while correlation does not necessarily imply causation.

C. True Experimental Design

Understanding Ways to Collect Data

1. Research Design
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)

B. Quasi-experimental design

C. True Experimental Design – provide complete adequate controls for all sources of internal invalidity (only possible
for non-human subjects

1. Post-only control group design

2. Pretest-post test control group design

Experimental Research

Most powerful design

Used to establish cause and effect by manipulating (influencing) an IV (independent variable, aka treatment or
experimental variable) to see its effect on a DV (dependent variable ,aka criterion or outcome variable)

Goes beyond description and prediction

Experimental Research

Comparison of groups (at least two groups of subjects, called treatment and control groups)

Manipulation of the IV (experimenter changes something for the treatment group that’s different than the control
group)

Randomization (true experiments require random assignment into treatment/control conditions…after random
selection of subjects to participate in study)

Assignment takes place at start of experiment

Experimental Research

Do not use already formed groups

Groups should be equivalent (any differences due to chance)

Randomization eliminates threats from extraneous variables

Groups must be sufficiently large to be equivalent

Experimental Research

All extraneous variables must be controlled to eliminate threats to validity/rival hypotheses

Ensure groups are equivalent to begin using randomization

Hold certain variables constant (i.e. age, IQ) or build them into to the design

Experimental Research

Use matching when necessary

Use subjects as their own controls (treat same group first in control condition then in treatment OR use pre-
test/posttest on same group)

Use analysis of covariance to statistically equate unequivalent groups

Experimental Research
(Group Designs)

Weak Designs(Pre experimental Designs)

True Experimental Designs

Quasi Experimental Designs

Pre-Experimental Designs

Do not adequately control for the problems associated with loss of external or internal validity

Cannot be classified as true experiments

Often used in exploratory research

Three Examples of Pre-Experimental Designs

One-Shot Design

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

Static Group Design

One-Shot Design

A.K.A. – after-only design

A single measure is recorded after the treatment is administered

Study lacks any comparison or control of extraneous influences

No measure of test units not exposed to the experimental treatment

May be the only viable choice in taste tests

Diagrammed as: X O1

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

Subjects in the experimental group are measured before and after the treatment is administered.

No control group

Offers comparison of the same individuals before and after the treatment (e.g., training)

If time between 1st & 2nd measurements is extended, may suffer maturation

Can also suffer from history, mortality, and testing effects

Diagrammed as O1 X O2

Static Group Design

A.K.A., after-only design with control group

Experimental group is measured after being exposed to the experimental treatment

Control group is measured without having been exposed to the experimental treatment

No pre-measure is taken

Major weakness is lack of assurance that the groups were equal on variables of interest prior to the treatment

Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X O1

Control Group O2

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

A.K.A., Before-After with Control

True experimental design

Experimental group tested before and after treatment exposure

Control group tested at same two times without exposure to experimental treatment

Includes random assignment to groups

Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be the same on both groups

Do run the risk of a testing effect

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Diagrammed as

Experimental Group: O1 X O2

Control Group: O3 O4

Effect of the experimental treatment equals

(O2 – O1) -- (O4 – O3)

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

A.K.A., After-Only with Control

True experimental design

Experimental group tested after treatment exposure

Control group tested at same time without exposure to experimental treatment

Includes random assignment to groups

Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be the same on both groups

Do not run the risk of a testing effect

Use in situations when cannot pretest

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

Diagrammed as

Experimental Group: X O1

Control Group: O2

Effect of the experimental treatment equals

(O2 – O1)

Example

Assume you manufacture an athlete’s foot remedy

Want to demonstrate your product is better than the competition

Can’t really pretest the effectiveness of the remedy

Solomon Four-Group Design

True experimental design

Combines pretest-posttest with control group design and the posttest-only with control group design

Provides means for controlling the interactive testing effect and other sources of extraneous variation

Does include random assignment

Solomon Four-Group Design

Diagrammed as

Experimental Group 1: O1 X O2

Control Group 1: O3 O4

Experimental Group 2: X O5

Control Group 2: O6

Effect of independent variable (O2 – O4) & (O5 – O6)

Effect of pretesting (O4 – O6)

Effect of pretesting & measuring (O2 – O5)

Effect of random assignment (O1 – O3)

Quasi-Experimental Designs

More realistic than true experiments

Researchers lacks full control over the scheduling of experimental treatments or

They are unable to randomize

Includes

Time Series Design

Multiple Time Series Design

Same as Time Series Design except that a control group is added

Time Series Design

Involves periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a group of test units

After multiple measurements, experimental treatment is administered (or occurs naturally)

After the treatment, periodic measurements are continued in order to determine the treatment effect

Diagrammed as:

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

Experimenter Bias Effect

The intentional or unintentional influence that an experimenter (researcher) may exert on a study

Correlation Research
(Predicting Outcomes Through Association)

Correlational research involves study of existing relationships between two variables

Descriptive in nature
Often a precursor to experimental research

Positive correlation is Hi/Hi and Lo/Lo (coeff. +r)

Negative correlation is Hi/Lo and Lo/Hi (-r)

Purpose is to explain relationships or to predict outcomes

Correlation Research
(Predicting Outcomes Through Association)

Explanatory studies examine relationship to identify possible cause/effect

Relationship might or MIGHT NOT mean causation

For causation: 1) A before B; 2) A and B related; 3) Rule out other causes of B (need experiment)

Prediction studies identify predictors of criterions (i.e. HS GPA and College GPA)

The stronger the correlation the better the prediction

Correlation Research
(Predicting Outcomes Through Association)

Complex Correlation Techniques, such as multiple regression allow use of several predictors for one criterion

Coefficient of multiple correlation (R) gives strength of correlation between predictors and criterion

Coefficient of determination (r2) is amount x and y vary together

Descriminant function analysis is for non-quantitative criterion (predict which group someone will be in)

Other techniques also used (factor analysis, path analysis, structural modeling)

Correlation Research
(Predicting Outcomes Through Association)

Problem selection – usually it’s are x and y related or how well does p predict c

Sample – random selection of at least 30

Measurement – need quantitative data

Design/Procedures – need two measures on each subject

Data collection – usually both measures close in time

Data analysis – correlation coefficient, r, and plot (r is -1 to +1, and the closer to plus or minus 1, the stronger the
relationship)

Correlation Research

General guidelines:

 +.75 to +1.0 Very strong relationship

 +.50 to +.75 Moderate strong relationship

 +.25 to +.50 Weak relationship

 +.00 to +.25 Low to no relationship

Need .5 or better for prediction of any use, and .65 for accurate predictions

Reliability coefficients should be .7 up

Validity coefficients should be .5 up

Correlation Research

Remember correlation is not causation (lurking variables)

Subject characteristics – may get different correl w/ different ability levels, gender, etc. (can control with partial
correlation)

Location – testing conditions can impact results

Instrumentation problems – helps to standardize instrument and data collection for both groups

Correlation Research

What factors could affect the variables being studied?

Does any factor affect BOTH variables? (this is where threats occur)

Figure a way to control any lurking variables

Causal Comparative Research

(Ex Post Facto)

Determines cause (or effect) that has occurred and looks for effect (or cause) from it

Start w/ differences in groups and examine them

Examples: Difference in math abilities of male/female students

No random assignment to treatment (it already occurred)

Associational like correlation but primarily interested in cause/effect

IV either cannot (ethnicity) or should not (smoking) be manipulated

Causal Comparative versus Correlational Research

Often an alternative to experimental (faster and cheaper)

Serious limitation is lack of control over threats to internal validity

Need to remember the cause may be the effect; they may only be related and there is some other variable that is the
cause (lurker)

Causal Comparative versus Correlational Research

Both are associational (looking for relationship)

Both are often prelude to experiments

Neither involves manipulation of variables

Causal Comparative works with different groups; correlation examines one group on different variables

Correlation is measured w/ coefficient while Causal comparative compares means/medians/percents of group

members

Causal Comparative Research

versus Experimental Research

Both compare group scores of some type

In experimental the IV is manipulated, but not in CC (already took place)

CC does not provide as strong evidence as experimental for cause and effect

Causal Comparative Research

(Steps)

Problem formation – identify phenomena and look for causes or consequences of it

Sometimes several alternate hypotheses investigated

Sample – define (operationally) characteristics of study carefully, then select individuals who possess

Groups should be homogeneous in regard to several important variables (to control for them as causes) then match
control/experimental groups on one or more variables

Instruments – use any type to compare the groups

Design – basic CC involves 2 or more groups that differ on variable of interest (basic design is one group possesses
trait (athlete) other doesn’t compare DV (GPA)

Causal Comparative Research

(Threats to Internal Validity)

Subject characteristics – since don’t select subjects and form groups, there may be unidentified lurking variables

Can use matching to control for any identified differences, but limits samples size

Can find or create homogeneous groups (for example compare only high GPA students to other high GPA students)
on attitudes toward x

Statistical matching – adjusts posttest scores based on some initial difference

Other threats – location, instrument, history, maturation, loss of subjects can be concerns

Need to control as many as possible to eliminate alternate hypotheses

Survey Research
(Used to describe what people think/do/believe)

Types

Cross sectional provide a snapshot in time

Longitudinal collect data at different points in time to study changes over time

Trend study - random sample each year on same topic

Cohort study - sample from same cohort members year after year

Panel study - same individuals surveyed year after year (mortality a problem over long time periods)

Often surveys are the data collection instrument in correlation (or cc/exp’l) studies

Steps to conduct Survey Research

Define the problem

 Needs to be important enough respondents will invest their time to complete it

 Must be based on clear objectives

Identify the target population

 Defined by sample unit or unit of analysis

 Unit can be a person, school, classroom, district, etc.)

  Survey a sample or do a census of the population

Survey Research
(Steps to conduct survey research)

Methods of data collection

 Direct administration to a group (such as at a meeting) - good response rate, limited generalize.

 Mail survey (inexpensive way to get large amount of data from widespread pop) - lower response rates, not in-
depth info, illiterate missed

 Telephone survey (cheap/fast) - response rates higher due to encouragement (“I’m not selling…”); miss some
pop members, interviewer bias possible

 Personal interviews (face-to-face has good response rate but time and cost high) - lack anonymity, interviewer
bias

Survey Research
(Steps to conduct survey research)

Select the sample (randomly, but check to see respondents are qualified to answer)

 Pilot test can indicate likely response rate and problems with data collection or sample

Prepare instrument (questionnaire and interview schedule)

 Appearance important - look short and easy

 Clarity in questions is essential

Survey Research
(Steps to conduct survey research)

Question types (same questions need to be asked of all respondents)

 Closed ended (multiple choice) - easier to complete, score, analyze

 Categories must be all inclusive, mutually exclusive

 Open ended - easy to write, hard to analyze and hard on respondents

Population

This describes the population of the study and the method of getting the representative sample (of the population).
The total population of interest and the number of the sample subjects of the study are given and embodied in a table.

Sample and Population

Sample – any group on which info is obtained

Population – group that researcher is trying to represent

Population must be defined first; more closely defined, easier to do, but less generalizable

Study a subset of the population because it is cheaper, faster, easier, and if done right, get same results as a census
(study of whole population)

Accessible population – the group you are able to realistically generalize to…may differ from target population

Sampling Method

Random v. Nonrandom Sampling

 Random – every population element has an equal and independent chance to participate
  Uses names in a hat or table or random numbers

 Elimination of bias in selecting the sample is most important (meaning the researcher does not influence who
gets selected)

 Ensuring sufficient sample size is second most important

Random v. Nonrandom Sampling

Nonrandom/purposive - troubles with representativeness/generalizing

Simple Random Sampling

 Names in a hat or table of random numbers

 Larger samples more likely to represent population.

 Any difference between population and sample is random and small (called random sampling error)

Stratified random sampling

Ensures small subgroups (strata) are represented

Normally proportional to their part of population

Break population into strata, then randomly select w/in strata

Multistage sampling

Cluster Random Sampling

Select groups as sample units rather than individuals

REQUIRES a large number of groups/clusters

Multistage sampling

Systematic (Nth) Sampling

Considered random is list if randomly ordered or nonrandom if systematic w/ random starting point

Divide population size by sample size to get N (ps/ss=N)

Systematic can be nonrandom if list is ordered

Convenience Sampling

Using group that is handy/available (or volunteers)

Avoid, if possible, since tend not to be representative due to homogeneity of groups

Report large number of demographic factors to see likeliness of representativeness

Purposive Sampling

Using personal judgment to select sample that should be representative (i.e., this faculty seems to represent all
teachers) OR selecting those who are known to have needed info (interested in talking only to those in power)

Snowball is a type (used with hard to identify groups such as addicts)

Sampling

Sample size affects accuracy of representation

Larger sample means less chance of error

Minimum is 30; upper limit is 1,000 (see table)

Sampling

Representative sample is required (not the same thing as variety in a sample)

High participation rate is needed

Multiple replications enhance generalization when nonrandom sampling is used

Ecological generalization (generalizable to other settings/conditions, such as using a method tested in math for
English class)

Data Collection Procedure

Data Collection Procedure

Data Collection Procedure

Instrumentation
(Measurement)

• Data – information researchers obtain about subjects

Demographic data are characteristics of subjects such as age, gender, education level, etc.

Assessment data are scores on tests, observations, etc. (the device used to measure these is called the
measurement instrument)

Instrumentation

• Validity – measures what it is supposed to (accurate)

• Reliability – a measure that consistently gives same readings (repeatable)

Instrumentation

• Objectivity – absence of subjective judgments (need to eliminate subjectivity in measuring)

• Usability of instruments

Consider ease of administration; time to administer; clarity of directions; ease of scoring; cost; reliability/validity data
availability

Instrumentation
(Classifying Data Collection Instruments)

• By the group providing the data

Researcher instruments (researchers observes student performance and records)

Subject instruments (subjects record data about themselves, such as taking test)

Others/Informants (3rd party reports about subjects such as teacher rates students)

Instrumentation
(Classifying Data Collection Instruments)

• By where instrument came from

Preference is for existing

Can develop your own (requires time, effort, skill, testing;

• By response type
Written response – preferred – objective tests, rating checklist

Performance instruments – measure procedure, product

Instrumentation(Examples of Data Collection Instruments)

• Researcher Completed Instruments

Rating scales (mark a place on a continuum for example numeric rating 1=poor to 5= excellent)

Interview schedules (complete scales as interview takes place; use precoding; beware of dishonesty)

Instrumentation(Examples of Data Collection Instruments)

• Researcher Completed Instruments

Tally sheets (for counting/recording frequency of behavior, remarks, activities, etc.)

Flow charts (to record interactions in a room)

Anecdotal records (need to be specific and factual)

Time/Motion logs (record what took place and when)

Instrumentation

• Item Formats

Selection items or closed response (T/F; Yes/No; Right/Wrong; Multiple choice)

Supply items or open ended (short answer; essay)

Unobtrusive measures (no intrusion into event… usually direct observation and recording)

Instrumentation

• Types of Scores

Raw scores (initial score or count obtained…w/out context)

Derived scores (raw scores translated to meaningful usage with standardized process)

Age/Grade equivalence; Percentile ranks; Standard scores (how far a score is from a given reference point, i.e. z and
T scores);

Which to use depends on the purpose; usually standard scores used

Instrumentation

• Norm Referenced v. Criterion Referenced Tests

• Norm referenced scores give a score relative to a reference group (the norm group)

Criterion referenced scores determine if a criterion has been mastered

These are used to improve instruction since they indicate what students can or cannot do or do or do not know

Instrumentation
(Measurement Scales)

• Nominal (in name only)

Numbers are only name tags, they have no mathematical value (gender: 1=male and 2= female OR race: 1= Blk,
2=Wht, 3=other)
 • Ordinal (in name, plus relative order)

Numbers show relative position, but not quantity (grade level, finishing place in a race)

Instrumentation
(Measurement Scales)

• Interval (in name w/ order AND equal distance)

Numbers show quantity in equal intervals, but an arbitrary zero (can have negative numbers; degrees C or F)

• Ratio (in name, w/ order, eq. distance AND absolute zero)

Numbers show quantity with base of zero where zero means the construct is absent

• Higher levels more precise…collect data at highest level possible; some statistics only work with higher level
data

Instrumentation
(Preparing for Data Analysis)

• Scoring data – use exact same format for each test and describe scoring method in text

• Tabulating and Coding – carefully transfer data from source documents to computer

Give each test an ID number

Any words must be coded with numerical values

Report codes in text of research report

Measurement Instruments

Types of instruments

Cognitive – measuring intellectual processes such as thinking, memorizing, problem solving, analyzing, or reasoning

Achievement – measuring what students already know

Aptitude – measuring general mental ability, usually for predicting future performance

Measurement Instruments

Types of instruments (continued)

Affective – assessing individuals’ feelings, values, attitudes, beliefs, etc.

Typical affective characteristics of interest

Values – deeply held beliefs about ideas, persons, or objects

Attitudes – dispositions that are favorable or unfavorable toward things

Interests – inclinations to seek out or participate in particular activities, objects, ideas, etc.

Personality – characteristics that represent a person’s typical behaviors

Measurement Instruments

Types of instruments (continued)

Affective (continued)

Scales used for responding to items on affective tests

Likert

Positive or negative statements to which subjects respond on scales such as strongly disagree, disagree, neutral,
agree, or strongly agree

Semantic differential

Bipolar adjectives (i.e., two opposite adjectives) with a scale between each adjective

Dislike: ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ :Like

Rating scales – rankings based on how a subject would rate the trait of interest

Measurement Instruments

Types of instruments (continued)

Affective (continued)

Scales used for responding to items on affective tests (continued)

Thurstone – statements related to the trait of interest to which subjects agree or disagree

Guttman – statements representing a uni-dimensional trait

Measurement Instruments

Issues for cognitive, aptitude, or affective tests

Problems inherent in the use of self-report measures

Bias – distortions of a respondent’s performance or responses based on ethnicity, race, gender, language, etc.

Responses to affective test items

Socially acceptable responses

Accuracy of responses

Response sets

Alternatives include the use of projective tests

Finding the Answers to the Research Question

Quantitative Analysis

Descriptive Statistics

For descriptive problems that require finding out “what is,” as the term implies, descriptive statistical analysis can be
used to describe the data. The mean, median, mode and standard deviation are the main descriptive statistical
treatment applicable. The mean or median is used to indicate the average while the standard deviation provides the
variability of the data/scores in the sample.

Sample of Computer Output

Sample Frequencies

Illustration:
Characteristic Profile
A. Gender

Sample Interpretation
as to gender, the respondents were mostly female (since the modal class is female).

Illustration 2.

Age

F %

30-32 5 6.25

27-29 43 53.75

24-26 29 36.25

21-23 3 3.75

Total 80 100

Interpretation

Results on the table show that most of the respondents were within the age range of 27-39 (43 or 53.75%). However
it could be seen that the combined ranges from 24-26 to 27-39 composed almost 90% of the respondents.

From this, it could be said that most of the respondents were young adults.

Descriptive Statistics Used in Evaluation Studies

Illustration

EVALUATION OF THE CONTEXTUAL TEACHING MATERIALS BY EXPERTS

Contents Mean Verbal Des.

Concept definition 4.6  Excellent

Presentation of concepts 4.6 Excellent

Sufficiency of Problem

scenarios and examples 5.0 Excellent

Sufficiency of questions to

ignite the critical thinking  4.8 Excellent

Writing of the topics within

to the level of the student’s

understanding 4.8  Excellent

Interpret results on the context of the study

The concepts in the CTL were presented in real situations that are familiar to the students (X=4.6). This is the basic
principle strictly adhered to in a contextual teaching approach, thus, if the materials fail in this aspect, there is no
contextual approach. Since the experts judged the criterion as excellent, it only means that the CTL materials were
successful in translating the concepts to true-to-life experiences.

Inferential Statistics

Correlation Techniques

Bivariate Analysis

Interval Data Pearson’s r

Ranked Data Spearman rho

Kendall Tau

Nominal data Chi square

Comparison of Groups

2 Groups T-test of Difference between means of Independent Data

2 sets of scores of 1 group (ie

Comparison of Pre & Posttest) T-test of Difference Between Means of Correlated Data

Comparison of 3 or more Groups – Analysis of Variance.

Sample of a Correlation Matrix

Interpreting correlation coefficient

Positive correlation:

X Y

X Y

Negative correlation:

X Y

X Y

Illustration

Subjects being Pearson’s r Significance

Related

Mathvs.MathNEAT 0.77095 significant

Sci vs.Sci(NEAT) 0.79908 significant

Eng vs.Eng(NEAT) 0.69801 significant

HEKASI vs HEKASI 0.23142 not sig.

It is necessary to explore the statistical significance by using the critical value, however, it is much better to determine
whether the computed Pearson's r denotes a high correlation between the variable concerned because statistical
significance may only be negligible or too low to consider. Computer statistical outputs provide the probability of alpha
which may indicate the percent of occurrence of the error to reject the null hypothesis when it is true.

Sample Interpretation

As shown in the table, math achievement is significantly related to the result of the NEAT in mathematics (r=.77). This
means that the NEAT results in mathematics relate to the math achievement of the students in school. If a pupil
performs well in school mathematics, he is likely to get high in the NEAT.

Test of Difference Between Groups

The Pretest/Posttest control group Design

Experimental grp. R O1 X O2

Control grp. R O3 O4
where: 01 and 03 are pretests

02 and 04 are posttest

Possible Results of the design

O2 = O4; The traditional and experimental approach have the same results.

O2 > O4; The experimental group have better results.

O2 < O4: The control group have better results.

Sample of T-test Output

One-Sample Statistics

T Stat continued

Sample of T-test Output

Independent samples
Group Statistics

T Stat continued

Sample result for Experimental Design and Group Comparison By T-test

Difference Between 2 Groups

Difference Between the Experimental & Control groups in the pre-test

Statistics Experimental Control Group

Mean 7.6 7.4

SD 11.1 6.0

N 50 50

t – Value = 0.8972

(Probability of t = 0.4831)

Interpretation

The computed t-value for the difference between the pretest scores of the control and experimental groups shows no
significant difference since the probability of error (.4831) is more than the target level (.05).

The two groups are equally prepared for the experimentation as indicated by the very close means of the control (7.6)
and experimental groups(7.4).

Comparing 3 or More Groups By Analysis of Variance

Illustrating an ANOVA Table

ANOVA Statistics for Weight Difference of Three Groups of Broilers

Source of Var. df SS MS F Prob. of F

Between G 2 0.0932 0.046 2.84 0.0429

Within G 9 0.1479 0.016

Total 11 0.2411

Interpretation of the ANOVA table

Analysis of Variance for the Three Groups

The ANOVA table shows that the computed F is significant at 0.04 level. The difference was significant among the
groups concerned. At 0.05 level, the null hypothesis, which states that no difference exists among the groups, was
rejected. It means that the three groups of broilers were significantly different in terms of feed conversion.

(It is necessary to show the basis of the difference, thus, the researcher must present next the means of the three
groups.

Tell the difference by the means

Groups Mean

Group A 18.5

Group B 15.2

Group C 15.4

Explain the reason

The difference was explicit on the weight of the broilers. The broilers mixed fed with corn were heavier than the rest.
The two groups, those mixed fed with grass and camote tops had almost similar mean weights. This shows that corn
mixed in feeds resulted to heavier chicken because of the high protein carbohydrate content of corn compared to
those mixed fed with plant products.

Two-Way ANOVA

Two-Way ANOVA

To find Difference Among Groups

Mean1=Mean2=Mean3=…=Mean4

To find Interaction Between Variables

MeanB11=MeanB12=MeanB13…=MeanBij

Illustration 1

Problem: Is constructivism strategy effective in teaching Analytic Geometry?

One Solution: Test it between groups

1 group given the constructivist Strategy

1 group given the traditional approach

Is there an interaction between method of teaching and the ability of the students?

Solution

Use two-way ANOVA to compare between groups and determine interaction between variables.

Is Constructivist Strategy In Teaching Effective?

Is there an interaction between This Method and the ability of the students?
Using and Interpreting the Two-Way ANOVA Results

Performance in Analytic Geometry by treatment group

& Mathematical Background

Group Mathematical Background

High Average Low Total

T1 18.60 15.20 17.20 51

T2E 20.00 21.70 19.00 60.7

T3 14.50 17.10 15.00 46.6

T4E 19.20 19.60 13.90 52.7

72.30 73.60 65.10 211.0

Analyze mean performances and try to find out the highest and the lowest.

Observe that for those with high math ability group the highest mean was for the T2 group.

For the Average and Low Math ability groups, the highest means were also recorded for the T2 Group.

Among the three math ability groups, the highest recorded performance was for the average math ability group.

Two-Way ANOVA Statistics

SV SS df X2 F F Prob

Group 115.70 3 38.56 6.17 0.029

Math Bck 35.00 2 17.50 2.80 0.115

Interaction 7.10 6 12.85 2.05 0.045

Error 150.10 24 6.25

Total 377.90 35

To interpret the results, observe the probability of alpha (p-value). This will indicate whether the result is significant or
not. Since alpha is the probability of rejecting the Ho when it is true, its value must be less than the targeted alpha.

Thus, the table shows that the interaction is significant. This will be the basis for answering the problem. If it is not
significant, it follows that the researcher should examine the significance of the row or column differences between the
means.

Since the Interaction effect is significant, the researcher could pinpoint in the conclusion the observe differences. The
higher means could be used as basis for the conclusions.

Since the highest mean was observed for the average mathematics ability group, it could be said that the
constructivist method worked well with them.

T2 had the higher mean score compared to T4 which is also an experimental group. Compared to the control groups,
both experimental groups had high mean performances.

Conceptualized Framework for Qualitative Research

2. Conceptual Framework

This deals with the key concepts and related literature underlying the framework that guides the study. The purpose
of this is:
 1. To expand the context and background of the study

2. To help further define the problem

3. To provide an empirical basis for the subsequent development/formulation of hypothesis.

Summary of Findings

Conclusions

Recommendations

List of References
APA Style

Written Research Report

Draft Written Research Report for Oral Presentation

Final Written Research Report for Submission