What is research?
Is the problem sufficient in magnitude and scope
Research is
- A study/investigation
- A scientific investigation
- Is a study on investigation which is done
systematically, empirically, scientifically,
and logically for the purpose of achieving
knowledge and helping solve situational
problems.
Characteristics of a Research Process
- Systematic - well defined designs, an
orderly procedure
- Empirical – measurable and observable
things or phenomenon that you can put in
print on the bases of your senses.
- Scientific – can be tested
- Logical – justifiable and acceptable by
reason
Purpose of Research
1. Discover new knowledge
2. Help solve situational problems
System Framework of research
- INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
System Framework of research
Critical Researcher- has the “3 rd eyes”, seeks the
truth from what he reads, does not take them hook-
line and sinker, does not jump into conclusions.
Treat opinions as opinions
Brainstorming for Research Topics
I. Brainstorming for Research Topics
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Specific Consideration in Choosing a Problem
Workability
Is it within the limit and range of your resource and
time constraints?
Will you have access to the number of samples
required?
Is there reason to believe that you can come up
with the answers to the problem?
Is the required methodology manageable and
understandable?
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Specific Consideration in Choosing a Problem
Critical Mass
(are there enough variables and potential results)?
Interest
Are you interested in the problem?
Does it relate to your career interest?
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Specific Consideration in Choosing a Problem
Theoretical Value
Does the problem fill a gap in the literature?
Will it contribute to the advancement in your field?
Does it improve the “state of the art”?
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Specific Consideration in Choosing a Problem
Practical Values
Will the solution to the problem improve practice?
Are practitioners likely to be interested in the
results?
Will the findings aid the managers in making
sound decisions?
Will the system be changed by the outcome?
Situational Problem – Research Problem
Example
Knowledge of child abuse existing in the
environment are problems that can be derived
from this situation. Problems would be –
a. Do children abused sexually come from
-broken homes or not
-one-parent homes or not
-poor families or not
The research problem is just a part of the whole
pie. It investigates two or more variables,
particularly, how these variables are related.
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
It is the presentation of the concept of the study in
a very effective manner.
1. It must include an assumption of
significance.
2. It must be a loaded statement that would
drive an impact to emote interest from the
reader.
 3. It must be simple, clear, specific and
related to the topic.
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
This introductory page acquaints the reader with
the problem to be dealt with. This orientation is
best accomplished by providing rationale or
background.
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
The background intends to draw a clearer picture
of what you want to say. It describes clearly,
colorfully and vividly the problem situation which
serves as the rationale of the study.
II. Identifying the Problem and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
It presents in details the problem situation based
on what you
1. Background of the Problem
The purpose of the background is to highlight the
need for the study by presenting what is
happening at present and what ought to be using
the data that the researcher has gathered.
It identifies the area in which the problem is to be
found, and points out that the problem had not
been fully studied.
2. Conceptual Framework
This deals with the key concepts and related
literature underlying the framework that guides the
study. The purpose of this is:
1. To expand the context and background of
the study
2. To help further define the problem
3. To provide an empirical basis for the
subsequent development/formulation of
hypothesis.
2. Conceptual Framework
The initial step is to identify the key
variables of the study. This refers to the
independent, dependent and moderator variables
to be investigated.
2. Conceptual Framework
The second step is to look for the
definitions of the variables. For the dependent
variables the following should be done:
1. Define the variable (universal definition)
2. Describe its characteristics and indicators
3. Discuss its importance (how it affects other
variables) and how it is affected by other
variables (independent variables)
2. Conceptual Framework
For the independent variable, define and
describe its characteristics and indicators.
Discuss its effect on the dependent variable on the
basis of the review of related literature and studies.
The same should be done for the moderator
variables.
2. Conceptual Framework
The discussion should point out how the
previous studies relate to the present investigation
by highlighting their similarities and differences.
More importantly, it must include some relevant
theories and concepts that help in the
development of the present study.
2. Conceptual Framework
Organizing the literature review section by
subheadings makes it easier for the researcher to
follow. To be meaningful, this subheadings should
reflect the variables and their relationship.
2. Conceptual Framework
We should remember that the purpose of
literature review is to provide a basis for the
formulation of hypothesis.
The conceptual framework is summarized
or synthesized into a logical network of
relationship of the key concepts or variables
involved in the study. This is further simplified by
presenting a research paradigm or hypothetical
illustration of the relationship of variables and their
corresponding indicators.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)
Hypothesis – is a conjectural statement of
the relation between two or more variables. It is a
tentative or temporary answer to a research
problem.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)
It has the following characteristics:
1. It should conjecture upon a relationship
between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and
unambiguously in a declarative statement.
3. It should be testable; that is it should be
possible to restate it in an operational form
which can be evaluated based on data.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)
Example:
I.Q. and achievement test are positively related.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)
There are two approaches for developing
hypothesis:
Deduction – starts from generalization or theory by
logical deduction.
Induction – starts from observation, opinions to
generalizations.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)
General Classification of Hypothesis
4. Statement of the Problem
The advantages of stating the statement of the
problem are:
1. It provides the reader with an immediate
basis from which to interpret subsequent
statements
2. It makes it possible to quickly determine
the purpose of the study. The reader will
not have to search for the introduction and
background to discover the problem being
examined.
4. Statement of the Problem
A problem statement must have the following
characteristics:
1. It should ask about a relationship between
two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly, unambiguously
and usually in question form.
3. It should be possible to collect data to
answer the question asked.
4. It should not represent a moral or ethical
position.
4. Statement of the Problem
One or two sentences will normally suffice to state
the problem. Often the statement begins as
follows:
The purpose of this study is to examine the
relationship between…….(state the variables,
locale and time as the case maybe).
4. Statement of the Problem
Specifically, it seeks answers to the following
questions:
1. What is the relation between I.Q. and
achievement?
2. Is there a relationship between economic
background and dropout rate?
5. Definition of Terms
The definition is based on the observable
characteristics of that which is being defined.
What is important is the nature of these
observations upon which definitions are based.
5. Definition of Terms
There are 3 approaches or types of constructing
definitions. These are arbitrarily labelled as A, B,
and C by Bruce W. Tuckman.
A type A definition can be constructed in terms of
the operations that must be performed to cause
the phenomenon or state being defined to occur.
An intelligent child can be defined operationally as
the child produced by the marriage of above
average, intelligent couples.
5. Definition of Terms
A type B definition can be constructed in terms of
how the particular object or thing defined operates,
that is what it does or what constitute its dynamic
properties.
Thus an intelligent student can be operationally
defined as a person who gets high grades in
school or a person who demonstrates capability
for solving complicated mathematical problems.
5. Definition of Terms
A type C definition can be constructed in terms of
what the object or phenomenon being defined
looks like that is what constitutes its static
properties. Thus, an intelligent student can be
defined for instance as a person who has a good
memory, large vocabulary, good reasoning ability,
good mathematical skills, etc.
5. Definition of Terms
Ideally, the operational definition should contain
three parts. The first part is its universal meaning.
The second part is how it is being used in the
study. The third is how it is being measured.
6. Importance of the Study
It is at this point that the researcher described who
will benefit and what benefits can be derived from
the findings of the study. The writer, under this
section, tries to sell its importance to the panel or
to the funding agency.
7. Scope and limitations of the Study
This tells the specific boundaries of the
study by describing the place or venue of the
study, the population, subjects/respondents, time
frame, the variables and their indicators.
Any weakness of the study such as failure
to use a more precise data gathering or measuring
instrument or failure to execute an important
procedure due to certain circumstances beyond
the researcher’s control form part of the study’s
limitations.
Learner’s Output:
List of Related Literature
LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a re-view of something that
has already been written
Why do a literature review?
A literature review can be a precursor in
the introduction of a research paper
A literature review is a critical and in depth
evaluation of previous research. It is a summary
and synopsis of a particular area of research,
allowing anybody reading the paper to establish
why you are pursuing this particular research
project.
Tips for Searching for Resources on the Internet
Finding related research articles typically requires
competence on the internet.
Search through databases that have indexed
information on thousands of research articles that
have been conducted
Tips for Searching for Resources on the Internet
List the major or key variables/concepts in the
study
List synonyms for each variable
Outline the major points to be made in the
literature review
Do not limit your search to only studies that
examine all of the same variables as your study. 
Put key phrases in quotation marks
When searching online, use the limit function to
reduce searches that have too many results. 
Limit your use of Google
Do not cite wikipedia as a source. Like Google,
anybody can edit articles on wikipedia. Therefore,
wikipedia should never be used as a source for an
academic paper.
Use the resources you have to find additional
resources.
Tips for Searching for Resources on the Internet
Boolean logic is the way to put terms together in a
search by using AND, OR, NOT
Using AND
When you use AND you will be looking for articles
containing two or more words within each article.
For example, employee AND motivation would
retrieve articles with both words in the article.
Use AND when you are searching for concepts and
want to be more specific in your search (to narrow
it down).
Using OR
When you use OR you will be looking for articles
containing either one word or the other word.
For Example, employee OR personnel OR staff.
You would use OR for similar concepts and
alternative words or synonyms (to broaden out
your search).
Using NOT
When you use NOT you will be looking for one
term but not the other.
For example, you might search for broadband NOT
wireless. You would use NOT to exclude irrelevant
results (to narrow down your search).
Writing the Literature Review
Rule 1: State the theory
Suggested Sentence Stems
The theoretical basis of this paper is
This paper is theoretically anchored on
This paper is premised on
The theory of ______ underpins this study
We draw on ___________ to (state the objective of
the paper)
Rule 2: Explain the theory
Rule 3: Contextualize the theory
Rule 1: Synoptic Dimension
Defining what the construct is all about
Stating what has been said about the variable
(relationship, effect, difference) or it historical
development
 
Rule 2: Argumentative Dimension
Build arguments either through sentence of
problematising (SOP) or the need for the study
(NFS)
Variable: Teaching Beliefs
The Need for Dendrogramming
Example write-up (CF)
The conceptual framework underlying this study is
anchored on the concepts of research capability,
workload, and research productivity.
Research Capability
Research capability is simply the capability of the
faculty to undertake research. All the resources or
inputs which enable the faculty member to conduct
research are considered as components of
research capability (Deza, 1999; Banaag, 1994).
Salazar-Clemena and Almonte-Acosta (2007)
enumerated indicators of research capability which
include budget for research, the ability to obtain
research grants, the provision of research
infrastructure, the ability to collaborate with and
access to research professionals, and the
presence of rules and procedure on the granting of
rewards for research.
Example write-up (CF)
In this study, research capability is described in
terms of technical skills in doing research, skills in
conceptualizing a research problem, knowledge
and skills in designing the research plan,
knowledge and skills on research data processing,
and knowledge and skills in writing the research
paper. Technical skills include written
communication (expressing one’s ideas and
arguments using language rules, presenting and
packaging ideas effectively); oral communication
(expressing one’s ideas and arguments using
language rules, presenting and packaging ideas
effectively); critical /analytical thinking (evaluating
ideas, analyzing the arguments of others);
problem-solving; research organization (parts,
format of a research paper); online search , use of
electronic resources, databases & search engines;
use of computer commands/programs/ software;
and acknowledging or citing sources/ cross-
referencing.
Example write-up (CF)
Determinants of Research Productivity
Previous foreign and local studies have revealed
that the reasons for low research productivity
among faculty members are poor or lack of
research skills (Anunobi & Emerole, 2008; Iqbal,
2011); lack of research funds (Anunobi & Emerole,
2008; Iqbal, 2011; Mahilum, 2010); and heavy
workload or teaching overload (Iqbal, 2011;
Mahilum, 2010; Mordeno, 2002). Iqbal (2011) added
performance of administrative duties along with
academic duties, nonexistence of research leave,
negative attitude of the faculty towards research
and absence of professional journals while
Anunobi & Emerole (2008) included time
constraints as impediments to research
publication.
Example write-up (CF)
Determinants of Research Productivity
Predictors of research productivity include
teachers training or having research orientation
(Finkelstein, 1984, Banaag, 1994, Mordeno, 2002);
academic rank (Flanigan, et al.,1988; Banaag,
1994); highest educational attainment (Finkelstein,
1984; Flanigan, et al.,1988; Banaag, 1994);and
sufficient time allocated to research (Finkelstein,
1984).
Example write-up (CF)
While several studies have been made to
investigate correlates of research productivity,
studies on research capability in terms of specific
research skills of teachers were lacking. In this
end, the researchers were motivated to conduct
this research that explored the levels of
proficiency of teachers on different skills that
determine their capability in doing research and
how this capability can be associated to research
productivity. Workload in terms of hours of work
and number of teaching preparations was also
investigated to verify its impact on faculty
productivity in research. In the end, it is aimed that
this research may contribute to the existing
literatures on determinants of research
productivity.
Remember!
Read enough background material to discuss the
research and the theory giving a reasonably
complete account of our knowledge of the topic
Present data that are based on data and theory,
including conflicting views of different
researchers.
Make it easy for the reader to understand how all
of the studies interrelate.
Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction
Make a compelling statement about an important
issue
Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction
Identifying the Scope of Previous Research
Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction
Presenting a Statistics
Some Approaches to Starting the Introduction
Describing common occurrences
Plagiarism
“Authors do not present the work of another as if it
were their own work”.
Whether paraphrasing, quoting an author directly,
or describing an idea that influenced your work,
you must credit the source. To avoid charges of
plagiarism, take careful notes as you research to
keep track of your sources and cite those sources
according to the guidelines.
References
Beins, B.C. APA simplified style: Writing in
psychology, nursing, education, and sociology.
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
De Guzman, A.B. Writing for international
publication. Presented in a seminar-workshop 2012
explorable.com/what-is-a-literature-review
Korb, K. (2015). Conducting educational research:
Search the Research Literature
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
A research design is a plan or strategy in
order to answer the research problem and control
(variance) for validity. This is the over-all plan for
the conduct of the investigation.
Hence, substantially a design is intended to
answer the problem; and, technically it provides
control for validity.
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
Essentially, research designs may be
classified only in two (2) categories on the basis of
maximum control for validity:
1. non-design or non-experimental
(descriptive)
2. True Design or experimental design
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
Not recommended for use
-designs which do not control adequate against
sources of internal validity
1. One shot case study
2. One-group pre-test-post-test design
B. Quasi-experimental design
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
-this design controls some but not all sources of
internal invalidity due to existing conditions by
which experimental control is difficult if not
impossible.
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design – This is the study in
which the researcher examine the effects of
naturalistically occurring treatment after
that treatment has occurred rather than
creating the treatment itself. The
researcher attempts to rotate this after the
fact.
2. Co-relational standard
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design
2. Co-relational standard – this involves two
or more sets of data from a group of
subjects with an attempt to determine the
subsequent relation between those sets of
data.
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design
2. Co-relational standard – serve as useful
purpose in determining the relationship
among measures and suggesting possible
bases for causality, while correlation does
not necessarily imply causation.
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
C. True Experimental Design – provide complete
adequate controls for all sources of internal
invalidity (only possible for non-human subjects
1. Post-only control group design
2. Pretest-post test control group design
Experimental Research
Most powerful design
Used to establish cause and effect by manipulating
(influencing) an IV (independent variable, aka
treatment or experimental variable) to see its effect
on a DV (dependent variable ,aka criterion or
outcome variable)
Goes beyond description and prediction
Experimental Research
Comparison of groups (at least two groups of
subjects, called treatment and control groups)
Manipulation of the IV (experimenter changes
something for the treatment group that’s different
than the control group)
Randomization (true experiments require random
assignment into treatment/control conditions…
after random selection of subjects to participate in
study)
Assignment takes place at start of experiment
Experimental Research
Do not use already formed groups
Groups should be equivalent (any differences due
to chance)
Randomization eliminates threats from extraneous
variables
Groups must be sufficiently large to be equivalent
Experimental Research
All extraneous variables must be controlled to
eliminate threats to validity/rival hypotheses
Ensure groups are equivalent to begin using
randomization
Hold certain variables constant (i.e. age, IQ) or
build them into to the design
Experimental Research
Use matching when necessary
Use subjects as their own controls (treat same
group first in control condition then in treatment
OR use pre-test/posttest on same group)
Use analysis of covariance to statistically equate
unequivalent groups
Experimental Research
(Group Designs)
Weak Designs(Pre experimental Designs)
True Experimental Designs
Quasi Experimental Designs
Pre-Experimental Designs Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Do not adequately control for the problems A.K.A., Before-After with Control
associated with loss of external or internal validity
True experimental design
Cannot be classified as true experiments
Experimental group tested before and after
Often used in exploratory research treatment exposure

Three Examples of Pre-Experimental Designs Control group tested at same two times without
exposure to experimental treatment
One-Shot Design
Includes random assignment to groups
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be
Static Group Design the same on both groups
One-Shot Design Do run the risk of a testing effect
A.K.A. – after-only design Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
A single measure is recorded after the treatment is Diagrammed as
administered
Experimental Group: O1 X O2
Study lacks any comparison or control of
extraneous influences Control Group: O3 O4

No measure of test units not exposed to the Effect of the experimental treatment equals
experimental treatment
(O2 – O1) -- (O4 – O3)
May be the only viable choice in taste tests
Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Diagrammed as: X O1
A.K.A., After-Only with Control
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
True experimental design
Subjects in the experimental group are measured
before and after the treatment is administered. Experimental group tested after treatment
exposure
No control group
Control group tested at same time without
Offers comparison of the same individuals before exposure to experimental treatment
and after the treatment (e.g., training)
Includes random assignment to groups
If time between 1st & 2nd measurements is
extended, may suffer maturation Effect of all extraneous variables assumed to be
the same on both groups
Can also suffer from history, mortality, and testing
effects Do not run the risk of a testing effect

Diagrammed as O1 X O2 Use in situations when cannot pretest

Static Group Design Posttest-Only Control Group Design

A.K.A., after-only design with control group Diagrammed as

Experimental group is measured after being Experimental Group: X O1

exposed to the experimental treatment Control Group: O2
Control group is measured without having been Effect of the experimental treatment equals
exposed to the experimental treatment
(O2 – O1)
No pre-measure is taken
Example
Major weakness is lack of assurance that the
groups were equal on variables of interest prior to Assume you manufacture an athlete’s foot remedy
the treatment
Want to demonstrate your product is better than the
Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X O1 competition

Control Can’t really pretest the effectiveness of the remedy

Group O2
Solomon Four-Group Design The intentional or unintentional influence that an
experimenter (researcher) may exert on a study
True experimental design
Correlation Research
Combines pretest-posttest with control group (Predicting Outcomes Through Association)
design and the posttest-only with control group
design Correlational research involves study of existing
relationships between two variables
Provides means for controlling the interactive
testing effect and other sources of extraneous Descriptive in nature
variation
Often a precursor to experimental research
Does include random assignment
Positive correlation is Hi/Hi and Lo/Lo (coeff. +r)
Solomon Four-Group Design
Negative correlation is Hi/Lo and Lo/Hi (-r)
Diagrammed as
Purpose is to explain relationships or to predict
Experimental Group 1: O1 X O2 outcomes

Control Group 1: O3 Correlation Research

O4 (Predicting Outcomes Through Association)

Experimental Group 2: X O5 Explanatory studies examine relationship to

identify possible cause/effect
Control Group 2:
O6 Relationship might or MIGHT NOT mean causation

Effect of independent variable (O2 – O4) & (O5 – O6) For causation: 1) A before B; 2) A and B related; 3)
Rule out other causes of B (need experiment)
Effect of pretesting (O4 – O6)
Prediction studies identify predictors of criterions
Effect of pretesting & measuring (O2 – O5) (i.e. HS GPA and College GPA)
Effect of random assignment (O1 – O3) The stronger the correlation the better the
Quasi-Experimental Designs prediction

More realistic than true experiments Correlation Research

Researchers lacks full control over the scheduling
of experimental treatments or
They are unable to randomize
Includes
Time Series Design
Multiple Time Series Design
Same as Time Series Design except that a control
group is added
Time Series Design
Involves periodic measurements on the dependent
variable for a group of test units
After multiple measurements, experimental
treatment is administered (or occurs naturally)
After the treatment, periodic measurements are
continued in order to determine the treatment
effect
(Predicting Outcomes Through Association)
Complex Correlation Techniques, such as multiple
regression allow use of several predictors for one
criterion
Coefficient of multiple correlation (R) gives
strength of correlation between predictors and
criterion
Coefficient of determination (r2) is amount x and y
vary together
Descriminant function analysis is for non-
quantitative criterion (predict which group
someone will be in)
Other techniques also used (factor analysis, path
analysis, structural modeling)
Correlation Research
(Predicting Outcomes Through Association)
Problem selection – usually it’s are x and y related
or how well does p predict c

Diagrammed as: Sample – random selection of at least 30

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 Measurement – need quantitative data

O7 O8
Design/Procedures – need two measures on each
Experimenter Bias Effect subject
Data collection – usually both measures close in
time
Data analysis – correlation coefficient, r, and plot (r
is -1 to +1, and the closer to plus or minus 1, the
stronger the relationship)
Correlation Research
General guidelines:
 +.75 to +1.0 Very strong relationship
 +.50 to +.75 Moderate strong relationship
 +.25 to +.50 Weak relationship
 +.00 to +.25 Low to no relationship
Need .5 or better for prediction of any use, and .65
for accurate predictions
Reliability coefficients should be .7 up
Validity coefficients should be .5 up
Correlation Research
Remember correlation is not causation (lurking
variables)
Subject characteristics – may get different correl
w/ different ability levels, gender, etc. (can control
with partial correlation)
Location – testing conditions can impact results
Instrumentation problems – helps to standardize
instrument and data collection for both groups
Correlation Research
What factors could affect the variables being
studied?
Does any factor affect BOTH variables? (this is
where threats occur)
Figure a way to control any lurking variables
Causal Comparative Research
(Ex Post Facto)
Determines cause (or effect) that has occurred and
looks for effect (or cause) from it
Start w/ differences in groups and examine them
Examples: Difference in math abilities
male/female students
No random assignment to treatment (it already
occurred)
Associational like correlation but primarily
interested in cause/effect
IV either cannot (ethnicity) or should not (smoking)
be manipulated
Causal Comparative versus Correlational Research
Often an alternative to experimental (faster and
cheaper)
Serious limitation is lack of control over threats to
internal validity
Need to remember the cause may be the effect;
they may only be related and there is some other
variable that is the cause (lurker)
Causal Comparative versus Correlational Research
Both are associational (looking for relationship)
Both are often prelude to experiments
Neither involves manipulation of variables
Causal Comparative works with different groups;
correlation examines one group on different
variables
Correlation is measured w/ coefficient while Causal
comparative compares means/medians/percents
of group members
Causal Comparative Research
versus Experimental Research
Both compare group scores of some type
In experimental the IV is manipulated, but not in
CC (already took place)
CC does not provide as strong evidence as
experimental for cause and effect
Causal Comparative Research
(Steps)
Problem formation – identify phenomena and look
for causes or consequences of it
Sometimes several alternate hypotheses
investigated
Sample – define (operationally) characteristics of
study carefully, then select individuals who
possess
Groups should be homogeneous in regard to
several important variables (to control for them as
causes) then match control/experimental groups
of on one or more variables
Instruments – use any type to compare the groups
Design – basic CC involves 2 or more groups that
differ on variable of interest (basic design is one
group possesses trait (athlete) other doesn’t
compare DV (GPA)
Causal Comparative Research
(Threats to Internal Validity)
Subject characteristics – since don’t select
subjects and form groups, there may be
unidentified lurking variables
Can use matching to control for any identified
differences, but limits samples size
Can find or create homogeneous groups (for
example compare only high GPA students to other
high GPA students) on attitudes toward x
Statistical matching – adjusts posttest scores
based on some initial difference
Other threats – location, instrument, history,
maturation, loss of subjects can be concerns
Need to control as many as possible to eliminate
alternate hypotheses
Survey Research
(Used to describe what people think/do/believe)
Types
Cross sectional provide a snapshot in time
Longitudinal collect data at different points in time
to study changes over time
Trend study - random sample each year on same
topic
Cohort study - sample from same cohort members
year after year
Panel study - same individuals surveyed year after
year (mortality a problem over long time periods)
Often surveys are the data collection instrument in
correlation (or cc/exp’l) studies
Steps to conduct Survey Research
Define the problem
 Needs to be important enough respondents
will invest their time to complete it
 Must be based on clear objectives
Identify the target population
 Defined by sample unit or unit of analysis
 Unit can be a person, school, classroom,
district, etc.)
 Survey a sample or do a census of the
population
Survey Research
(Steps to conduct survey research)
Methods of data collection
 Direct administration to a group (such as at
a meeting) - good response rate, limited
generalize.
 Mail survey (inexpensive way to get large
amount of data from widespread pop) -
lower response rates, not in-depth info,
illiterate missed
 Telephone survey (cheap/fast) - response
rates higher due to encouragement (“I’m
not selling…”); miss some pop members,
interviewer bias possible
 Personal interviews (face-to-face has good
response rate but time and cost high) - lack
anonymity, interviewer bias
Survey Research
(Steps to conduct survey research)
Select the sample (randomly, but check to see
respondents are qualified to answer)
 Pilot test can indicate likely response rate
and problems with data collection or
sample
Prepare instrument (questionnaire and interview
schedule)
 Appearance important - look short and
easy
 Clarity in questions is essential
Survey Research
(Steps to conduct survey research)
Question types (same questions need to be asked
of all respondents)
 Closed ended (multiple choice) - easier to
complete, score, analyze
 Categories must be all inclusive, mutually
exclusive
 Open ended - easy to write, hard to analyze
and hard on respondents
Population
This describes the population of the study and the
method of getting the representative sample (of the
population). The total population of interest and
the number of the sample subjects of the study are
given and embodied in a table.
Sample and Population
Sample – any group on which info is obtained
Population – group that researcher is trying to
represent
Population must be defined first; more closely
defined, easier to do, but less generalizable
Study a subset of the population because it is
cheaper, faster, easier, and if done right, get same
results as a census (study of whole population)
Accessible population – the group you are able to
realistically generalize to…may differ from target
population
Sampling Method
Avoid, if possible, since tend not to be
representative due to homogeneity of groups
Report large number of demographic factors to see
likeliness of representativeness

Random v. Nonrandom Sampling Purposive Sampling

 Random – every population element has an Using personal judgment to select sample that
equal and independent chance to should be representative (i.e., this faculty seems to
participate represent all teachers) OR selecting those who are
known to have needed info (interested in talking
 Uses names in a hat or table or random only to those in power)
numbers
Snowball is a type (used with hard to identify
 Elimination of bias in selecting the sample groups such as addicts)
is most important (meaning the researcher
does not influence who gets selected) Sampling

 Ensuring sufficient sample size is second Sample size affects accuracy of representation
most important
Larger sample means less chance of error
Random v. Nonrandom Sampling
Minimum is 30; upper limit is 1,000 (see table)
Nonrandom/purposive - troubles with
representativeness/generalizing Sampling

Simple Random Sampling Representative sample is required (not the same

thing as variety in a sample)
 Names in a hat or table of random numbers
High participation rate is needed
 Larger samples more likely to represent
population. Multiple replications enhance generalization when
nonrandom sampling is used
 Any difference between population and
sample is random and small (called random Ecological generalization (generalizable to other
sampling error) settings/conditions, such as using a method tested
in math for English class)
Stratified random sampling
Data Collection Procedure
Ensures small subgroups (strata) are represented
Data Collection Procedure
Normally proportional to their part of population
Data Collection Procedure
Break population into strata, then randomly select
w/in strata Instrumentation
(Measurement)
Multistage sampling
• Data – information researchers obtain
Cluster Random Sampling about subjects

Select groups as sample units rather than Demographic data are characteristics of subjects such
individuals as age, gender, education level, etc.

REQUIRES a large number of groups/clusters
Multistage sampling
Systematic (Nth) Sampling
Considered random is list if randomly ordered or
nonrandom if systematic w/ random starting point
Divide population size by sample size to get N
(ps/ss=N)
Systematic can be nonrandom if list is ordered
Convenience Sampling
Using group that is handy/available (or volunteers)
Assessment data are scores on tests, observations,
etc. (the device used to measure these is called the
measurement instrument)
Instrumentation
• Validity – measures what it is supposed to
(accurate)
• Reliability – a measure that consistently
gives same readings (repeatable)
Instrumentation
• Objectivity – absence of subjective
judgments (need to eliminate subjectivity in
measuring)
 • Usability of instruments
Consider ease of administration; time to administer;
clarity of directions; ease of scoring; cost;
reliability/validity data availability
Instrumentation
(Classifying Data Collection Instruments)
• By the group providing the data
Researcher instruments (researchers observes student
performance and records)
Subject instruments (subjects record data about
themselves, such as taking test)
Others/Informants (3rd party reports about subjects
such as teacher rates students)
Instrumentation
(Classifying Data Collection Instruments)
• By where instrument came from
Preference is for existing
Can develop your own (requires time, effort, skill,
testing;
• By response type
Written response – preferred – objective tests, rating
checklist
Performance instruments – measure procedure,
product
Instrumentation(Examples of Data Collection
Instruments)
• Researcher Completed Instruments
Rating scales (mark a place on a continuum for
example numeric rating 1=poor to 5= excellent)
Interview schedules (complete scales as interview
takes place; use precoding; beware of dishonesty)
Instrumentation(Examples of Data Collection
Instruments)
• Researcher Completed Instruments
Tally sheets (for counting/recording frequency of
behavior, remarks, activities, etc.)
Flow charts (to record interactions in a room)
Anecdotal records (need to be specific and factual)
Time/Motion logs (record what took place and when)
Instrumentation
• Item Formats
Selection items or closed response (T/F; Yes/No;
Right/Wrong; Multiple choice)
Supply items or open ended (short answer; essay)
Unobtrusive measures (no intrusion into event…
usually direct observation and recording)
Instrumentation
• Types of Scores
Raw scores (initial score or count obtained…w/out
context)
Derived scores (raw scores translated to meaningful
usage with standardized process)
Age/Grade equivalence; Percentile ranks; Standard
scores (how far a score is from a given reference point,
i.e. z and T scores);
Which to use depends on the purpose; usually
standard scores used
Instrumentation
• Norm Referenced v. Criterion Referenced
Tests
• Norm referenced scores give a score
relative to a reference group (the norm
group)
Criterion referenced scores determine if a criterion has
been mastered
These are used to improve instruction since they
indicate what students can or cannot do or do or do not
know
Instrumentation
(Measurement Scales)
• Nominal (in name only)
Numbers are only name tags, they have no
mathematical value (gender: 1=male and 2= female
OR race: 1= Blk, 2=Wht, 3=other)
• Ordinal (in name, plus relative order)
Numbers show relative position, but not quantity
(grade level, finishing place in a race)
Instrumentation
(Measurement Scales)
• Interval (in name w/ order AND equal
distance)
Numbers show quantity in equal intervals, but an
arbitrary zero (can have negative numbers; degrees C
or F)
• Ratio (in name, w/ order, eq. distance AND
absolute zero)
Numbers show quantity with base of zero where zero
means the construct is absent
• Higher levels more precise…collect data at
highest level possible; some statistics only
work with higher level data
Instrumentation
(Preparing for Data Analysis)
• Scoring data – use exact same format for
each test and describe scoring method in
text
• Tabulating and Coding – carefully transfer
data from source documents to computer
Give each test an ID number
Any words must be coded with numerical values
Report codes in text of research report
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments
Cognitive – measuring intellectual processes such as
thinking, memorizing, problem solving, analyzing, or
reasoning
Achievement – measuring what students already know
Aptitude – measuring general mental ability, usually for
predicting future performance
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments (continued)
Affective – assessing individuals’ feelings, values,
attitudes, beliefs, etc.
Typical affective characteristics of interest
Values – deeply held beliefs about ideas, persons, or
objects
Attitudes – dispositions that are favorable or
unfavorable toward things
Interests – inclinations to seek out or participate in
particular activities, objects, ideas, etc.
Personality – characteristics that represent a person’s
typical behaviors
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments (continued)
Affective (continued)
Scales used for responding to items on affective tests
Likert
Positive or negative statements to which subjects
respond on scales such as strongly disagree, disagree,
neutral, agree, or strongly agree
Semantic differential
Bipolar adjectives (i.e., two opposite adjectives) with a
scale between each adjective
Dislike: ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ :Like
Rating scales – rankings based on how a subject
would rate the trait of interest
Measurement Instruments
Types of instruments (continued)
Affective (continued)
Scales used for responding to items on affective tests
(continued)
Thurstone – statements related to the trait of interest to
which subjects agree or disagree
Guttman – statements representing a uni-dimensional
trait
Measurement Instruments
Issues for cognitive, aptitude, or affective tests
Problems inherent in the use of self-report measures
Bias – distortions of a respondent’s performance or
responses based on ethnicity, race, gender, language,
etc.
Responses to affective test items
Socially acceptable responses
Accuracy of responses
Response sets
Alternatives include the use of projective tests
Finding the Answers to the Research Question
Quantitative Analysis
Descriptive Statistics
For descriptive problems that require finding out
“what is,” as the term implies, descriptive
statistical analysis can be used to describe the
data. The mean, median, mode and standard
deviation are the main descriptive statistical
treatment applicable. The mean or median is used
to indicate the average while the standard
deviation provides the variability of the data/scores
in the sample.
Sample of Computer Output
Sample Frequencies
Illustration:
Characteristic Profile
A. Gender
Sample Interpretation
as to gender, the respondents were mostly female
(since the modal class is female).
Illustration 2.
Age Interval Data Pearson’s r

F % Ranked Data Spearman rho

30-32 5 6.25 Kendall

Tau
27-29 43 53.75
Nominal data Chi square
24-26 29 36.25
Comparison of Groups
21-23 3 3.75
2 Groups T-test of Difference between means
Total 80 100 of Independent Data
Interpretation 2 sets of scores of 1 group (ie
Results on the table show that most of the respondents Comparison of Pre & Posttest) T-test of Difference
were within the age range of 27-39 (43 or 53.75%). Between Means of Correlated Data
However it could be seen that the combined ranges
from 24-26 to 27-39 composed almost 90% of the Comparison of 3 or more Groups – Analysis of
respondents. Variance.

From this, it could be said that most of the respondents Sample of a Correlation Matrix
were young adults.
Interpreting correlation coefficient
Descriptive Statistics Used in Evaluation Studies
Positive correlation:
Illustration
X Y
EVALUATION OF THE CONTEXTUAL TEACHING
MATERIALS BY EXPERTS X Y

Contents Mean Verbal Negative correlation:

Des. X Y
Concept definition 4.6  Excellent X Y
Presentation of concepts 4.6 Excellent Illustration
Sufficiency of Problem Subjects being Pearson’s r Significance
scenarios and examples 5.0 Related
Excellent
Mathvs.MathNEAT 0.77095 significant
Sufficiency of questions to
Sci vs.Sci(NEAT) 0.79908 significant
ignite the critical thinking  4.8 Excellent
Eng vs.Eng(NEAT) 0.69801 significant
Writing of the topics within
HEKASI vs HEKASI 0.23142 not sig.
to the level of the student’s
It is necessary to explore the statistical
understanding 4.8  Excellent significance by using the critical value, however, it
Interpret results on the context of the study is much better to determine whether the computed
Pearson's r denotes a high correlation between the
The concepts in the CTL were presented in real variable concerned because statistical significance
situations that are familiar to the students (X=4.6). may only be negligible or too low to consider.
This is the basic principle strictly adhered to in a Computer statistical outputs provide the
contextual teaching approach, thus, if the probability of alpha which may indicate the percent
materials fail in this aspect, there is no contextual of occurrence of the error to reject the null
approach. Since the experts judged the criterion as hypothesis when it is true.
excellent, it only means that the CTL materials
were successful in translating the concepts to Sample Interpretation
true-to-life experiences. As shown in the table, math achievement is
Inferential Statistics significantly related to the result of the NEAT in
mathematics (r=.77). This means that the NEAT
Correlation Techniques results in mathematics relate to the math
achievement of the students in school. If a pupil
Bivariate Analysis
performs well in school mathematics, he is likely to means of the control (7.6) and experimental
get high in the NEAT. groups(7.4).

Test of Difference Between Groups Comparing 3 or More Groups By Analysis of

Variance
The Pretest/Posttest control group Design

Experimental grp. R O1 X O2 Illustrating an ANOVA Table

Control grp. R O3 O4
ANOVA Statistics for Weight Difference of Three
where: 01 and 03 are pretests Groups of Broilers
02 and 04 are posttest Source of Var. df SS MS F Prob. of F

Between G 2 0.0932 0.046 2.84 0.0429

Possible Results of the design Within G 9 0.1479 0.016

O2 = O4; The traditional and experimental Total 11 0.2411

approach have the same results.
Interpretation of the ANOVA table
O2 > O4; The experimental group have better
Analysis of Variance for the Three Groups
results.
The ANOVA table shows that the computed F is
O2 < O4: The control group have better results.
significant at 0.04 level. The difference was
Sample of T-test Output significant among the groups concerned. At 0.05
One-Sample Statistics level, the null hypothesis, which states that no
difference exists among the groups, was rejected.
T Stat continued It means that the three groups of broilers were
significantly different in terms of feed conversion.
Sample of T-test Output (It is necessary to show the basis of the difference,
Independent samples thus, the researcher must present next the means
Group Statistics of the three groups.

Tell the difference by the means

T Stat continued
Groups Mean
Sample result for Experimental Design and Group
Comparison By T-test Group A 18.5

Difference Between 2 Groups Group B 15.2

Difference Between the Experimental & Control Group C 15.4

groups in the pre-test Explain the reason
Statistics Experimental Control Group The difference was explicit on the weight of the
Mean 7.6 7.4 broilers. The broilers mixed fed with corn were
heavier than the rest. The two groups, those
SD 11.1 6.0 mixed fed with grass and camote tops had almost
similar mean weights. This shows that corn mixed
N 50 50
in feeds resulted to heavier chicken because of the
t – Value = 0.8972 high protein carbohydrate content of corn
compared to those mixed fed with plant products.
(Probability of t = 0.4831)
Two-Way ANOVA
Interpretation
Two-Way ANOVA
The computed t-value for the difference between
the pretest scores of the control and experimental To find Difference Among Groups
groups shows no significant difference since the
Mean1=Mean2=Mean3=…=Mean4
probability of error (.4831) is more than the target
level (.05). To find Interaction Between Variables
The two groups are equally prepared for the MeanB11=MeanB12=MeanB13…=MeanBij
experimentation as indicated by the very close
Illustration 1
Problem: Is constructivism strategy effective in
teaching Analytic Geometry?
One Solution: Test it between groups
1 group given the constructivist Strategy
1 group given the traditional approach
Is there an interaction between method of teaching
and the ability of the students?
Solution
Use two-way ANOVA to compare between groups
and determine interaction between variables.
Error 150.10 24 6.25
Total 377.90 35
To interpret the results, observe the probability of
alpha (p-value). This will indicate whether the
result is significant or not. Since alpha is the
probability of rejecting the Ho when it is true, its
value must be less than the targeted alpha.
Thus, the table shows that the interaction is
significant. This will be the basis for answering
the problem. If it is not significant, it follows that
the researcher should examine the significance of
the row or column differences between the means.

Since the Interaction effect is significant, the

researcher could pinpoint in the conclusion the
Is Constructivist Strategy In Teaching Effective? observe differences. The higher means could be
Is there an interaction between This Method and used as basis for the conclusions.
the ability of the students? Since the highest mean was observed for the
Using and Interpreting the Two-Way ANOVA average mathematics ability group, it could be said
Results that the constructivist method worked well with
them.
Performance in Analytic Geometry by treatment
group T2 had the higher mean score compared to T4
& Mathematical Background which is also an experimental group. Compared to
the control groups, both experimental groups had
Group Mathematical Background high mean performances.

High Average Low Total Conceptualized Framework for Qualitative

Research
T1 18.60 15.20 17.20 51
2. Conceptual Framework
T2E 20.00 21.70 19.00 60.7
This deals with the key concepts and related
T3 14.50 17.10 15.00 46.6 literature underlying the framework that guides the
T4E 19.20 19.60 13.90 52.7 study. The purpose of this is:

72.30 73.60 65.10 1. To expand the context and background of

211.0 the study

Analyze mean performances and try to find out the 2. To help further define the problem
highest and the lowest. 3. To provide an empirical basis for the
Observe that for those with high math ability group subsequent development/formulation of
the highest mean was for the T2 group. hypothesis.

For the Average and Low Math ability groups, the Summary of Findings
highest means were also recorded for the T2 Conclusions
Group.
Recommendations
Among the three math ability groups, the highest
recorded performance was for the average math List of References
ability group. APA Style

Written Research Report

Two-Way ANOVA Statistics Draft Written Research Report for Oral

Presentation
SV SS df X2 F F Prob
Final Written Research Report for Submission
Group 115.70 3 38.56 6.17 0.029

Math Bck 35.00 2 17.50 2.80 0.115

Interaction 7.10 6 12.85 2.05 0.045