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2. IDENTIFYING AND DEFINING THE

RESEARCH PROBLEMS
 2.1 What is the research problem?
 A research problem is a definite or clear
expression (statement) about:
Chapter Two
 an area of concern,
 a condition to be improved upon,
 a difficulty to be eliminated, or
 a troubling question that exists in scholarly
literature, in theory, or within existing
practice that need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation.
Type text here

2.1 What is the research problem? 2.1 What is the research problem?

 Any question that you want to answer or any

 It decides what you want to find out
assumption or statement that you want to
challenge or investigate can be a research  As a student, you must remember that
problem formulating research problem is the most
crucial step.
 A research problem : outlines the problem
addressed by a study.  So take time in formulating your research
problem because a clearer research problem
 It indicates, What is the problem that the
means clearer research output and progress.
research will address?
 it identifies your destination.
 It tells what you intend to do.

2.2 Methods used for research problem

identification 2.1 Methods used for research
problem…cont’d
 Researchable problems can arise from any of many
varied sources.  (a) Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
1. Personal experience can be a quite a strong source of  Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) is a systematic
researchable problems. but semi - structured activity carried out in
2. observation the filed by a multidisciplinary team and
3. Conferences could also be great sources of new designed to acquire quickly new information
research ideas and problems. on, and new hypotheses about rural life.
4. Funding agencies and professional associations draw
 RRA is intended to bridge the gap between
up a list of research priorities.
the academic and practical ways of
5. Exploratory survey (RRA and PRA) and study of the
situation. acquiring information.

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2.1 Methods used for research
problem…cont’d
 RRA uses several information gathering
techniques like
 interview with farmers and resource persons,
 group interviews,
 direct observation on the farm,
 secondary sources of information, etc.
 Interviews are carried out by the researchers
using a check list rather than a questionnaire
 RRA used to explore more complicated issues
2.1 Methods used for research
problem…cont’d
 (b) Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
 PRA is a technique in which rural people are
involved, not only as sources of information, but
also in analysis, planning and dissemination.
 The participants consist of groups of rural
people carefully selected to work together and
create a pictorial representation of some process
or set of circumstances with readily available
materials.

2.3 Characteristics of good

Methods used for research problem…cont’d
6. The literature can also be a veritable source of
research
researchable problems for a researcher.  The first step in choosing a research problem is to
understand what makes “good” research. Good
 Reviewing the literature is usually time consuming but
research is defined by the following characteristics:
rewarding.
 It is feasible
 A literature review has the following functions: It help

the researcher to:  It is novel

1) Bring clarity and focus to the research problem.  It is ethical
2) Improve the methodology; and  It is relevant, and
3) Broaden the knowledge base in the research area.  It is interesting
4) formulate the research problem.

2.4 Criteria in the formulation of research

2.4 CRITERIA considered…cont’d
problem
 There are two key sets of factors (criteria) considered
in the formulation of research problems.  A. Internal Criteria
 These are 1. Interest
 internal and  the researcher need to choose a topic which
 external factors interests and challenges him/her.
 The internal factors or criteria are those criteria that  It is important to sustain necessary levels of
are determined by the researcher.
determination and motivation.
 External factors are those that are not by researcher
 Interest in a problem is often driven by the
 Considering these factors will ensure that your research
process is more manageable and you will remain
researcher’s educational background,
motivated. experience, outlook and sensitivity

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2.4 Criteria considered…cont’d
 2. Expertise
 This refers to the competence of the
researcher to design and undertake research
(including data collection, data analysis, etc.).
 Mere interest in a problem is not enough.
 A researcher must must possess adequate
knowledge of:
 the subject-matter,
 relevant methodology and
 statistical procedures.
Crireria considered…cont’d
 B. External Criteria
 1. Data availability
 If the research needs collection of information
(journal, reports, proceedings) before finalizing
the title, it is important to ensure that relevant
materials are available.
2. Relevance. It is important to always choose a
topic that suits one’s interest and profession.
It is necessary to ensure that one’s study adds to the
existing body of knowledge. Applicability
critera considered…cont’d
5. Novelty of the problem:
 The problem must have novelty- innovativeness.
 There is no use of wasting one’s time and energy on a
problem already studied thoroughly by others.
6. Importance and urgency:
 This refers to how urgently the results are
needed to develop interventions of the problem.
 relative importance and significance should be
considered.
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2.4 Criteria considered…cont’d
 3. Researcher’s own resource
 In the case of researcher-funded research,
consideration of researcher’s own financial
capacity is quite pertinent.
 Research is a time consuming process; hence
consider time take by a given research
Criteria considered…cont’d
3. Ethics.
 In formulating the research problem, one should
consider some ethical issues such as cultural
sensitivity, involvement of human subject, or
consent of the research subjects and other
related issues.
 especially research related information security, which
might concern certain authorities.
4. Researchability of the problem:
 The problem should be researchable, i.e., is it possible
to finding answers to the questions through the
scientific method?.
Factors considered…cont’d
 7. Facilities
 Research requires certain facilities such, as well
equipped library facility or laboratory suitable and
competent guidance, data analysis facility, etc.
 8. Feasibility: A problem may be a new one and
also important, but if research on it is not feasible,
it cannot be selected.
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criteria considered…cont’d
9. Usefulness and social relevance:
 the study of the problem should make a
significant contribution to the concerned body
of knowledge or to the solution of some
significant practical problem.
 It should be socially relevant.
2.6 Steps to formulate …cont’d
4. Raise research questions need to be answered.
5. Formulate objectives.
6. Assess your objective (s) to ascertain their
feasibility of attaining them in view of time,
logistics and technical expertise.
7. Double-check
2.8 What is Hypothesis?
 Hypothesis is an assumption that is made on
the basis of some evidence.
 This is the initial point of any investigation
that translates the research questions into a
prediction.
 A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is
used to test the relationship between two or
more variables.
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2.6 Steps to formulate research problem
 There are no specific guidelines to formulate a
research problem; however, a researcher can
follow the following steps
1. Identification of a broad area of interest in
his/her academic/professionals field.
2. Dissect broad areas into subareas-this needs a
brain storming session with oneself, peers,
professionals).
3. Select of subarea (select what is of most interest
to you).
2.7. Importance of formulating
research problem
The way we formulate research problem
determines almost every steps follow.
 The type of the study design that can be used
 The type of sampling strategy that can be
employed
 The research instrument that can be used or
developed
 The type of analysis that can be undertaken.
Types of Hypothesis
 1. Simple Hypothesis:
 It is also known as composite hypothesis.
 It predicts relationship between two variables i.e.
the dependent and the independent variable. For
example
 Smoking leads to Cancer
 The higher ratio of unemployment leads to
crimes.
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 2. Complex Hypothesis:
 Complex hypothesis is that one in which as
relationship among variables exists.
 dependent as well as independent variables are
more than two. For example
 The higher ration of unemployment, poverty,
illiteracy leads to crimes like Robbery, Rape,
prostitution and killing etc.
4. Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis is a
general statement which states no relationship
between two variables or two phenomena.
 It is usually denoted by H0.
 5. Alternative Hypothesis: An alternative
hypothesis is a statement which states some
statistical significance between two
phenomena.
 It is usually denoted by H1 or HA.
Chapter 3: research design
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 3. Working or Research Hypothesis:
 It is a preliminary assumption of the research
work about the research topic.
 Subject to modification /trial hypothesis
 For example
 Educational school increases the living
standard of a community.
 6. Logical Hypothesis: A logical hypothesis is a
planned explanation holding limited evidence.
 7. Statistical Hypothesis: A statistical
hypothesis, sometimes called confirmatory data
analysis, is an assumption about a population
parameter.
 Although there are different types of hypothesis,
the most commonly and used hypothesis are
Null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis.
Research Design
 Research design is the decision regarding what,
where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study.
 Research design is the plan, structure and
strategy of investigation.
 “A research design: is a plan of action, a plan for
collecting and analyzing data in an economic,
efficient, and relevant manner”
 It constitutes the blue print for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
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 The research design constitutes decision
making about:
 What is the study about?
 when in the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
CHAPTER FOUR
4. Sampling Methods and Procedures
 Sampling is a process of selecting a small
number of units from a population.
 A sample can provide very accurate estimates
about the population it represents if carefully
drawn using well established procedures.
 It’s the sampling method which actually
determines the generalizability of the research
findings.
Definitions of terms
 a) Sample design: is a first plan for obtaining a sample
from a given population.
 It refers to the technique the researcher would adopt in
selecting items for the sample.
 b) Population: refers to the totality of the material or
the elements to be studied. e.g.
 Population of Ethiopia;
 All the seeds in a bag;
 All trees in a forest,
 All students in a university etc.
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 What period of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What technique of data collection will be
used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style the report be prepared?
Sampling Methods…cont’d
 Four steps are involved in sampling, these are:
 i. Defining the population
 ii. Choosing and executing the sampling plan
 iii. Drawing conclusions based on information
extracted from the sample
 iv. Inferring conclusions back to the total
population.
 The first two steps must be involved in the planning
stage;
 the other two constitute the analysis and interpretation
stage.
Definitions of …cont’d
 c) Sample: A sample is a small proportion of a
population selected for observation and analysis
from a population in accordance with specified
procedures.
 d) Sampling unit: is that element or set of elements
considered for selection in some stage of sampling.
 e) Sampling frame: It contains the names of all items
of a universe from which the sample is to be drawn.
 f) Sample size: This refers to the number of items to
be selected from the universe to constitute a sample.
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Definitions of …cont’d
 g) Sampling error: is the extent to which the
sample mean is different from the population
mean.
 Why Sample?
 economic and manpower requirement.
 To save time.
Kinds of Probability sampling
a) Simple Random Sample
b) Systematic Random Sampling
c) Stratified Random Sampling
d) Cluster sampling (area sampling).
Kinds of Probability …cont’d
 b) Systematic Random Sampling
 This sampling method follows the same procedure
as simple random sampling with one exception.
 In this case the population is ordered in some
systematic manner (example in alphabetical
order).
 After deciding the sample size to be drawn, For
example; our college has 500 students (N) and you
have decided to draw a sample of 50 (n).
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Types of Sampling
 Sampling methods can be classified into three categories:
 P ro b a b i l i t y sa mp l e s
 N o n - p ro b a b i l i t y sa mp l e s and ‘mixed’ sampling.
 A) Probability Sampling
 It is also known as random sampling or chance
sampling.
 Under this design every item of the universe has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample.
 Probability sampling provides an efficient method for
selecting a sample that should adequately reflect the
variation in the population.
Kinds of Probability …cont’d
a) Simple Random Sample
 every individual has an equal chance of being selected
and
 each choice is independent of any other choice.
 each member of the population under study is listed
once and only once in the sampling frame.
 The sample is then chosen by some method like:
 flipping a coin.
 random numbers such as those found in statistics
textbooks.
 numbers drawn from a hat.
Kinds of Probability …cont’d
 first, number systematically the units in the population
from 1 to N.
 second, calculated the interval size (k),= N/n
 in the above example k is equal to (500/50) =10.
 Third, to start select a random number from 1 to k (10) .
Suppose, we have selected 7.
 Fourth, start with the 7th unit in the list, and keep on
adding k (10) to every new number to get all the
elements.
 Following the procedure, you will get a sequence of 7,
17, 27, 37…
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Kinds of Probability …cont’d
 Systematic random sampling is more
convenient than simple random sampling
 This is fitting for large populations.
 For example; you can divide the administration of our
college into two subgroups; teaching and non-
teaching staff.
 To ensure adequate representation of each stratum
(subgroup), the sample is then drawn from each
stratum randomly or systematically.
 For example, you may first choose districts
from a list of all districts in the country. But at
the district level, authorities don't have lists of
all households.
 As a result, within selected districts, you have
to choose smaller geographic units, such as
villages, which are small enough that local
authorities already have a list of households
or you can make a new list of all households.
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c) Stratified Random Sampling
 the population elements are divided into strata on the
basis of some characteristics.
 In this case, the population is subdivide into smaller
homogeneous groups (strata) in order to get more
accurate representation.
 This process is called stratification.
 As far as possible the units within the strata should be
similar and
 the strata should differ as much as possible from each
other.
Kinds of Probability …cont’d
 d) Cluster sampling (area sampling).
 one reason to select cluster sampling over simple or
systematic random sampling (SRS) is if there is no
list of ALL households in the population it is
impossible to use SRS.
 Cluster sampling is just a way to randomly choose
smaller and smaller geographic areas until you get to
a small enough area.
 so that you can find or create a list of all households
in order to do simple or systematic random sampling.
 This is an economical method and saves the
time of researcher.
 Suppose, you want to study the average
woman’s height in Ethiopia.
 It is not possible to get a list of everyone.
 In such a case, you will divide the areas into
clusters and draw a sample randomly from
those clusters.
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Non-probability Sampling Non-probability … cont’d

 Unlike probability sampling method, non-
probability sampling technique uses non-
randomized methods to draw the sample.
 It is mostly involves judgment.
 Instead of randomization, participants are
selected because they are easy to access.
 Non-probability samples do not allow statistical
inferences (lack generalizability).
 but they may be very useful in selecting respondents for
an informal survey.
 this is done when precise representativeness is not
necessary or required.
 This method of sampling is considered

 . It is highly biased but can achieve some less expensive, less complicated and easy to apply as
purpose. compared to its counterpart.
Through this method we can study particular phenomena
with a potential to generate valuable insights.

Non-probability … cont’d
Non-probability … cont’d
1. Convenience or Accidental Sampling
 in this type of sampling, researchers prefer
 Some non-probability methods of sampling
participants as per their own convenience.
are as follows:
 Sampling made by selecting those who are met
1. Convenience Sampling accidentally.
2. Purposive (Judgmental )Sampling  In convenience sampling, subjects who are readily

3. Quota Sampling accessible or available to the researcher are selected.

 For example,
4. Snowball sampling
 you will choose your classmates and friends for the

study as per your convenience.

 stopping people at a street corner and asking
questions.

Non-probability … cont’d Non-probability … cont’d

2. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling  For example: For studying attitude toward

 The process involves deliberately selecting a sample
to answer a set of questions.
 This is done on the basis of own knowledge of the
population, its elements and general characteristics.
 It is somewhat
any national issue, a sample of journalists,
teachers and lawmakers may be selected for
the study

 less costly,
 more readily accessible,
 more convenient.
 Nevertheless, the result may not represent any
meaningful population.

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Non-probability … cont’d
 3. Quota Sampling
 You select your sample according to some fixed
quota.
 In this sampling method, we pre-plan the number of
participants in specified categories (For example;
100 literates, 100 illiterate).
 This type of sampling method may be further divided
into two:
 uncontrolled quota sampling and
 controlled quota sampling.
Non-probability … cont’d
4. Snowball Sampling: also called "chain
referral sampling,”
 this method is appropriate when the
members of a special population are difficult
to locate for example homeless people,
migrant workers etc.
 It begins by the collection of data from one or
more contacts usually known to the
enumerator.
CHAPTER FIVE
5. RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
 5.1 Definition of Research Proposal
 A research proposal is a plan employed to
solve a given problem.
 It is a written document requesting both
authorization and funds to undertake a
specific project in laboratory, library, field, etc.
 A research proposal is a concise and
coherent summary of a proposed research.
 .
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Non-probability … cont’d
 In uncontrolled quota sampling, the
researcher selects the sample as per her own
convenience.
 Where as in in controlled quota sampling,
some restrictions are imposed to limit
researcher’s choice.
Non-probability … cont’d
 At the end of the data collection process (e.g.,
questionnaire, survey, or interview), the data
collector asks the respondent to provide
contact information for other potential
respondents.
 These potential respondents are contacted,
interviewed and further asked to provide more
contacts.
 This process goes on till the purpose of the
researcher is achieved.
5.1 Definition of Research …CONT’D
 It answers what a researcher proposing to
do, how is he/she plan to proceed and how
the proposed strategy is selected.
 the research proposal should not be too long,
nor should it be clattered with too many
technical terms or scientific jargons
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5.1 Definition of Research …cont’d
 The main purposes of writing a research
proposal are:
 To convince others that the proposed research
is worth undertaking.
 To enable the researcher to demonstrate his
expertise and competency in the particular area
of study.
 To serve as a planning tool for the researcher.
5.2 Quality of research …cont’d
3. Specific Aims/Hypothesis:
 State concisely what the research described is
intended to accomplish and/or what hypothesis (es)
is (are) to be tested.
4. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework or Rationale:
 Summarize the theoretical framework or rationale as
appropriate, addressing the relationship among the
specific aims, the literature, key concepts,
variables, and instruments.
Quality of research …cont’d
6. Methods:
 Discuss in detail:
 the methodological approach,
 the research design, and
 the procedure to be used to accomplish the
specific aims.
A. Research Design: Describe the design of the
research.
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5.2 Quality of research proposal
 The quality proposal will be developed with the
following consideration. i.e. It includes:
1. Purpose of the Study:
 State clearly the purpose of the study, including how
the project makes an original contribution to research.
2. Significance:
 Provide the background of your proposal.
 critically evaluate existing knowledge.
 Specify the gaps that the project is intended to fill.
 State concisely the importance of the research.
Quality of research …cont’d
5. Literature Review:
 Literature may be reviewed as a separate
section or as part of background,
significance, and/or conceptual framework.
 Include current literature that is directly
pertinent to the project and that assists in
clarification of purpose and procedures.
6.2 Quality of research …cont’d
B. Subjects and Setting:
Describe the target population and
characteristics of the subjects. Including:
 the number of subjects,
 the rationale for sample size,
 the sampling procedure, and the setting for
data collection.
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5.2 Quality of research …cont’d

Quality of research …cont’d
D. Procedure:
C. Apparatus and/or Instruments:  Describe the design and the procedure to be used for the

proposed data collection.

 Report the specific characteristics of the
 Give details of client/subject selection and intervention, if
instruments, including their reliability,
one is involved.
validity, and/or sensitivity.
E. Plan for Data Management/Analysis:
 Address how the tool will be used. The
 Describe the means by which the data will be
instrument(s) (e.g., a questionnaire) merged, analyzed, and/or interpreted
 F. Limitations:
 Describe the limitations of the study including those
related to design and methods.


3.2 Techniques and formats of research

6.1 Quality of research …cont’d
Proposals

7. Time Frame:  Basically, a proposal follows the sequence of

 Provide a 12-month schedule that specifies the
timing of the main steps of the investigation.
 Justify that the project can be completed
within the time frame.
8. Facilities/Resources:
 Describe the facilities and other physical
the steps of the scientific method.
 The proposal formats of different institutions
may vary.
 But there are basic components that are
common to all well-constructed proposals.


resources available for this study (e.g.,

laboratories, clinical resources, office space,
etc.)

5.3 Components of research proposal Proposal Title

 The following are the major components of all research
proposals:
 The title of the proposal
 The title must concisely and clearly indicate:
 Table of contents  the key variables in the study;
 List of Table
 the types of relationship between the
 List of Figure
 List of Abbreviation/Acronyms
variables; and,
 Abstract (Optional)  the population to which the results may be
1. Introduction applied.
2. Literature review
3. Materials and methods/ Methodology
4. Research outcome
5. Work plan
6. Logistics
7. References

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Cover Page
The following layout consists of the major
Proposal Title… components of the title or cover page.

 Titles longer than fifteen to twenty substantive . [TITLE OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL]

words are usually too cumbersome. BY

[FULL NAME OF INVESTIGATOR(S) / RESEARCHER(S)]
 avoid Unnecessary words or waste words such as
A SENIOR RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF
 "A Study of ...," AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND
NATURAL RESOURCES, DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY
 “Observation of ....”,
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
 “Examination of....”, BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

 “A note on...”, ADVISOR: [NAME OF ADVISOR]

 “Investigation on...” etc. MONTH YEAR

DEBRE BERHAN, ETHIOPIA

Abstract (optional) 1. INTRODUCTION

 The abstract provides a summary of the
problem to be investigated and how
 the objectives
 Hypotheses and
 the methods to be developed and
 the expected outcome.
 Introduction also referred to as Background
and justification,
 it should describe the nature and purpose of
the study;
 presents the guiding research questions,
 explain the significance of and justification
to conduct the study
 The introduction part is generally divided into
three main parts.

Objectives of the study

INTRODUCTION…
1. a literature review
 summarizing and synthesizing or paraphrasing
of the information in the source material
related to the topic.
2. the gap of the knowledge i.e statements of
problem that the proposed research is going to
answer and
3. the main objective(s) of the research.
 The objectives of a research project are a summary
of what is to be achieved by the study.
 It should be related to the statement of the problem
and must be stated using action verbs such as to
determine, to compare, to verify, to calculate, to
describe and to establish, which are specific enough
to be evaluated.
 The objective must be also attainable,
measurable and time limited.
 Objectives are of two types:
 general and specific objectives.

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Research question
Hypothesis
 Hypothesis is a hypothetical statement about the relation
 It is an interrogative form of research objective between two or more observed phenomena or variables.
 A hypothesis should be conceptually clear in terms of

common definitions.
 Two types of hypothesis:

a)Alternative hypothesis
 Is a research hypothesis, and states that there is a
significant difference between parameters.
b) Null hypothesis
 It states that there is no significant difference between

parameters

Significance of the study

Scope and limitation of study
 This is a place where researchers offer brief
and realistic explanations regarding
 the outcome of the research,
 the role of the research in overcoming the
existing problem and generatingnew
knowledge or information.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2. LITERATURE REVIEW…

 Importance of review of literature
 Review of literature has the following advantages:  The possible sources of review of literature
 It improves the researcher’s understanding of the can be
research area
 published information (books, articles,
 It prevents unnecessary duplication of research work
abstracts),
that has been done before
 It helps to get more familiar with the various  unpublished information (reports, records),
research approaches or methods that might be used  and online information from internets,
in current research problem  personal communications, etc
 It helps to know the gap that exists between proposed
study and the previous works in the subject.

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3. MATERIALS AND
METHODS/methodology 3. MATERIALS AND …cont’d
 Methodology presents detailed descriptions of the steps
or procedures to be used in study design, data  Materials and methods normally include:
collection and analysis for the study.  Site (location) characterization/description
 This should be in future tense.  Procedures of investigation /sampling design
 However, a method selected must fulfill the following  Data to be collected and sources of data
criteria :  Method of data collection & analysis
 It should not be too complicated for researcher to apply  Duration
 It should not be costly
 It should not take too long time, and
 It should allow achieving the objectives of the research.

3. MATERIALS AND …cont’d 3. MATERIALS AND …cont’d

 Therefore, the following items in the materials and
methods section may require detailed descriptions. 2. sampling techniques
1. Description of the study area 3. Methods of data collections and Analysis-
 clearly describing biophysical environment of the study clearly describing step by step procedures used
area, such as in
 location,  Data collecting,
 climate,  analyzing
 soils,

 populations and production systems.

4. Expected output
4. WORK PLAN

 This is a place where researchers show
 the knowledge,
 technology and information to be produced
from their research project/activity.
 This refers to major activities and their time
schedule required (the length and time of the
activity) to accomplish the research task.
 There are three steps in the formulation of
work plan:
 Analysis of tasks
 Time estimates of each task
 Synthesis of the plan

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5. LOGISTICS
Sample work plan of a research project
S Major activities Months
 This is also called Budget Breakdown.
/
N
Jan Feb. March April May Jun Jul Aug Sep  The budget should not be overestimated
1 Literature search x x x x x x x x (funders may refuse to accept or it will lead to
2 Proposal writing x x
wastage of resources)
3 Proposal defense x
 Or not underestimated (this may create
4 Data collection x x x
problem to complete the project).
5 Data analysis x x x
6 Manuscript write x x x  The following items require budget estimation.
up
7 Final report
A. Staff (technical and secretarial staff).
submission
 The cost is estimated based on the activity to

be done and time spent by working days.

5. LOGISTICS….CONT’D 5. LOGISTICS….CONT’D

F. Telephone and postage. Costs due to

B. Equipment. This may include filing cabinet,
communications to different organizations and persons,
calculators, computers, etc., required for the project.
G. Printing and reporting services. Costs of journal
C. Materials. This usually involves stationary costs
publishers and costs related to submitting the reports
such as costs for duplicating and photocopy papers,
(e.g., travel costs to funders,), or costs related to
paper bags, envelopes, note books, etc.
presentation of the research output in workshops, etc.
D. Travel and subsistence cost. When the research site
H. Contingency. This might account 5-10% of the total
is away from researcher’s institution, costs are
budget.
estimated for travel (air, vehicle, or train), meal and
accommodation.

5. LOGISTICS….CONT’D 5. LOGISTICS….CONT’D

 Table 1. Personnel cost  Table 2. Stationery cost

 No. Qualification Quantity Duration (in Payment rate Total
(in number ) day / month) (per day/per month)
No. Item Unit Quantity Unit price (in Birr) Total

1 Researcher(s) 1 Books
2 Paper (lined and computer)
2 Enumerators
3 Blank Diskettes & CDs
3 Field 4 Pen
supervisors 5 Pencil
4. Others (if any)
6 Transparency
Sub-Total 7 Others (if any)
Sub-Total

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5. LOGISTICS….CONT’D
5. LOGISTICS….CONT’D

 Table 3. Travel cost  Table 4. Budget Summary

No. Item Sub-Total
No. Item Unit (in Lit/Kg) Quantity Unit price Total
1 Personnel cost
1 Fuel
2 Stationary Cost
2 Lubricant 3 Fuel and lubricant Cost
3 Maintenance
Total
4 Others (if any)
Contingency (10%)
Sub - Total
Grand Total
e.g. Budget source: Debre Berhan University

6. REFERENCES

 This component sometimes referred as Bibliography.  directly citing previous findings in any new
 Different forms of reference materials are used to work, e.g., Jones (2012) has reported that...
write a scientific paper. These include
 The citations that are collected in one list,
 books, commonly referred to as references.
 journals,
 In references section, only publications that are
 accepted papers for publication,
cited in the report are listed.
 theses (MSc and Doctoral),
 On the other hand, references should provide
 encyclopedia,
sufficient details to enable readers to
 personal communications, lecture notes/technical
repots (e.g., FAO, etc.).
accurately track down the information.

 Citation of references in the text:  1) The Name-year system

 The most commonly used reference styles are:
1) The Name-year system (Harvard System) (e.g.
Smith, 1983)
2) The Reference Number system (e.g. 2)
 The name-year system also referred to as the
Harvard system consists of citation of author name
and year within the parenthesis and corresponding
alphabetically arranged entries in the reference list.
 Harvard system is convenient to authors because
 unlike numbered references, the Harvard system
references can be easily added and deleted both in
the text and in reference list.

17

2. Reference Number system
 It involves citing the references by number in the
order that they appear in the text.
 That is the numbers in the text match with
numbers in reference list.
 For example, if there are 25 references in the
text, they are listed from 1-25 in the reference
list.
Citation styles in the text
 The reference, i.e., name and year as for name-year
system can be put both
 at the beginning or
 end of the sentence it refers to,
 e.g., Walker (2001) reported that the increase in P rate
increased total biomass or
 the increase in P rate has increased total biomass (Walker,
2001).
 For example if three or more sources for similar idea : the
increase in P rate has increased total biomass (Walker,
2001; Jones, 2003; Abebe, 2016).
 If two or more works belong to same author
(s), they appear in chronological order
irrespective of year of publication as:
 statement (Eagle, 1963, 1966a, b (same year);
1968; 1973; Smith and Jones, 1965; Walker et
al., 1967a, b).
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 You may cite like,
 statement (1)
 statement (1, 2, 3), or statement [1-3].
 In citation sequence system or number
system,
 the name and year, is replaced by number
designation as:
 the increase in P rate has increased total
biomass (1), or
 Walker (1) reported that the increase in P rate
increased total biomass.
 Also, for more than one author it appears for
example as: the increase in P rate has
increased total biomass (1, 2,3) or [1-3]..
 To cite works cited in another work, use “cited
in “and the two works are included in the
references list, i.e.,
 statement (author(s), Year, cited in author(s),
Year).
 the increase in P rate increased total biomass
(Girma, 2014, cited in Lemma et al., 2021).
 al. is an abbreviation for Latin word alia
meaning others,
 et al. = and others
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 It is used when there are more than two
authors.
 For example, for the work which Jones,
Walker and Park were involved, it is cited as:
it was reported that excess nitrogen
fertilization increased ground water pollution
(Jone et al., 2001).
 If two authors, e.g. Walker and Park
 (Walker and Park, 2008)
 Citation in the text- unpublished data
 The citations of unpublished reference in the
text do not appear in the reference list.
 For examples, statement (Mulatu, unplubl. or
unpublished),
 statement (Abebe and Asefa, unpubl.), or
 Jones et al. (unpubl.) statement.
 The basic entry information required
difference sources.
1. Books. Author(s)/ last name, first and/or
middle name initial, year of publication, title of
the book, publisher, place of publication.
 For example, Falconer, D.S. 1989. Introduction
to quantitative genetics, 3rd ed. Longman
Scientific and Technical. Essex, England.
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Citation in the text – published data
 Single author. Within the text, cite references by
author (surname), and Year, e.g. It has been
reported that tef has great diversity in Ethiopia
(Ketema, 1993), or
 Ketema (1993) reported that tef has great diversity in
Ethiopia.
 Two authors. The names of both authors are cited as:
statement (Abdissa and Alemu, 1997).
 Three or more authors. This uses et al. (and others)
after the name of first author as: statement (Jones et
al., 2001).
 Citation in the text- personal communication.
 Personal communication is not included in the
reference list.
 For example, acidic soils inhibit growth of
Rhizobium bactiera (Kebede, pers. Commun.
2012).
 Books (by contributors). Author(s) last name, first
and/or middle name initial, year of publication, title
of the contributed chapter, title of the book,
editors, publisher, place of publication, page of the
chapter from which information was taken.
 For example, Woldeab, A., Mamo T., Bekele M., and
Alema T.. 1991. Soil fertility management studies on
wheat in Ethiopia. In: Wheat research in Ethiopia: A
historical perspective, Gebre Mariam H., Tanner D.G.
and Huluka M. (eds.), IAR/CIMMYT, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia, pp.137-172.
19

 Journals. Author(s) last name, first and/or
middle name initial, year of publication, title
of the article, name of the journal, volume
number, page number of the article from
which the information was taken.
 For example, Shiferaw, W. and Mohammed H.
2012. Evaluation of drought tolerance indices
in tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.)Trotter]. African
Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(23): 3433-
3438.
 Thesis or Dissertation. Author last name, first
and/or middle name initial, year of publication,
title of the thesis, MSc/Doctoral/PhD thesis,
the name of the degree offering university, city
of the university, name of the country.
 For example, Shiferw, B. 1991. A study of
drought tolerance in tef (Eragrositis tef (Zucc.)
Trotter), PhD thesis, University of London,
London, UK
7.1. The nature of scientific writing
 Writing involves analyzing, revising, and
polishing the text.
 before starting to write, assess your results .
 In the process of writing, the researcher learns
from his mistakes and comments/advices he
gets from peers, reviewers, or advisors.
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 Accepted papers for publication. Author(s)
last name, first and/or middle name initial,
possible year of publication, title of the
article, name of the journal, the phrase “in
press”.
 For example, Shiferaw, W. Mohammed H.
2012. Evaluation of drought tolerance indices
in tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.)Trotter] African
Journal of Agricultural Research (in press).
Chapter seven
RESEARCH REPORT PREPARATION
 The key to scientific writing is clarity.
 write in clear and simple terms.
 Ideas should be explained in simple language and
short, coherent sentences.
 Avoid using personal pronouns (like I, we, you,
my, our and us) as the researcher or the
investigator.
 Minimize the use of jargons and imprecise words.
 The past tense should be used in describing
research procedures that have been completed.
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General format of a research report General format of a research report

 A research report is typically made up of 1. Preliminary pages of research report includes:

three main divisions:  Title page

(1) preliminary,  Acknowledgements

 List of Abbreviations
(2) body and
 Table of Contents
(3) supplementary material.
 List of Tables

 List of Figures

 Abstract

2. Main body of the Research Report includes: 3. Supplementary includes

 Introduction  References

 Literature Review  Appendix

 Materials and Methods/research

Methodology
 Results and Discussion

 Conclusion and Recommendation

Format of the Research Report/ Guidelines

for preparing the Research Report

 I. Preliminary Section  2. Acronyms and Abbreviations (if any)

 1. Title Page: - usually includes
 The name of the topic (title)
 The name of the author/s
 The relationship of the report to a course or
degree requirement
 The name of the institution where the report
is submitted
 The date and place of the submission

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3. Acknowledgments (if any)
 Recognize institutions or individuals for a
significant help including funding,
assistantships, technical help, source of
special equipment, etc.
4. Table of Contents
 A good table of contents serves as an important
purpose in providing an outline of the content of the
report.
 Table of content is obligatory for a report of more
than five pages.
 Guides readers to find in the report what they want to
read without to read the whole report.
 Provides reference to pages in the report as well as an
overview of what is in the report.
 Listing is allowed only to the fourth level of
subdivision (heading four).

 An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph

of 300 words or less,
5. List of Tables (if any)
6. List of Figures (in any)  the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed
sequence that includes:
7. Abstract
 1) the overall purpose of the study and the
 It is essential in a research report and
research problem(s) you investigated;
 An abstract is a self-contained (independent) version of
actual work.  2) the basic design of the study;
 3) major findings or trends found as a result of
your analysis;
 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and
conclusions.

Writing Style (abstract) The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

 Writing Style (abstract)
 Use the active voice (Subject + verb + object
construct) when possible
 always use the past tense.
 Lengthy background information,
 References to other literature [say something
like, "current research shows that..." or
"studies have indicated..."],
 Using incomplete sentences [i.e., ending with
"..."] or
 non-standard abbreviations.
 jargon, or terms that may be confusing to the
reader, and
 Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table,
or references to them.

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II. Main Research Part

 This refers to the parts of the report starting from
the introduction up to the conclusion and
recommendation.
 1. Introduction
 The text of introduction part should be written in
present tense
 The introductory section includes:
 General background information and/ or
statement of the problem
 Justification/ rational for the study
 Objective of the study
 Research question
 Scope and limitation of the study
 Research hyphotesis

3. Material and Methods

 2. Literature Review
 the text of materials and method should be
 A literature review must be organized in relation
written in the past tense form.
to research topic you are developing.
3.1 description of the Study Area
 In the process you should synthesize results into
 This section covers the biophysical environment of
a summary of:
the study area (location, climate, geology, soil,
 what is and is not known; population, and production system).
 identify areas of controversy in the literature; 3.2 sampling Design and Procedure:
 formulate questions that need further
research.

 4. Results and Discussion

 3.3 type of Data and methods of data  This represents the core of your research
Collection report upon which it will be judged.
 3.4 Statistical Analysis  Result should be put in simple and clear words
i.e. not to be long and complex,
 Report representative data and the most
important findings in the text.
 Reduce massive data to means and
measures of variations.
 Report repetitive data in tables, figures and
graphs.
 Refer tables, figures and graphs in the text.

23

5. Conclusion and Recommendation
 In this section you should describe briefly
 what you did,
 the main results and recommendations for
further research or applicability.
 as well as what the limitations of the results
were and what new questions have been
opened.

THE
END
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III. Supplementary report
 This part includes the following sections
 A. References/ Bibliographical Description
 Include all cited works in the text
 list all references.
 List the references alphabetically.
 B. Appendices
24