theory: 2 cornerstone are – speculation and empirical observation

INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

3. Hypotheses
o educated guess or prediction to be tested
Sigmund Freud
o relation: a good theory is capable of generating many hypotheses
 Philosophical Speculations  w/ primitive scientific method
o comparison: hypotheses: more specific (parent)
 evolved the first modern theory of personality
theory: general (offspring)
Basis:
4. Taxonomy
1. Philosophical Speculations
o classification of things according to their natural relationships
2. Empirical Evidence
o relation: taxonomies can evolve into theories
o comparison: classification does not constitute a theory
A. PERSONALITY
taxonomies: 5 stable personalities
theory: Big 5 personality theory
Personality
 Persona  theatrical mask  public self
Why there are different theories?
 a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and
a. Theorist make speculation from a particular point of view
individuality to a person’s behavior
b. Theorist must be objective in gathering data but decision and interpretations are personal
o traits: contribute to individual differences, consistency and stability of behavior; may be
c. Reflected on personal backgrounds childhood experiences, philosophy of life, interpersonal
unique, common or shared but pattern is different for each individual (actions, attitudes,
relationships, and unique manner of looking at the world
behaviors you possess)
o characteristics: unique qualities of an individual (temperament, physique, intelligence)
Theorists’ Personalities and their Theories of Personality
 consistent behavior patterns and intrapersonal processes within the individual
 consistent patterns of Affect, Behavior and Cognition (ABC)
Psychology of Science
 studies both science and the behavior of scientists
B. THEORY
 investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s psychological processes and personal
characteristics on the development of his scientific theories or research
Theory
 psychology of science  look at personal traits of scientists  personality differences influencing
 set of interrelated ideas, constructs and principles proposed to explain certain observations
one’s theoretical orientation
about reality
o Quantitative: behaviourists, social learning theorists, trait theorists
 set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate
o Clinical and Qualitative: psychoanalysts, humanists, existentialitsts
hypothesis

C. USEFUL THEORY
Theory and Its Relatives
1. Philosophy
1. Generates Research
o love of wisdom
o ability to stimulate and guide further research
o pursue wisdom through thinking and reasoning
o 2 kinds of research:
o relation: theory is a tool used by scientist in their pursuit of knowledge
 Descriptive Research: measurement, labeling, categorization
o comparison: philosophy: ought to be; what should be
 Hypothesis Testing: indirect verification of the usefulness of the theory
theory: if-then statements
2. Is falsifiable
2. Speculation
o precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major
o ideas or guesses about something that is not known
tenets
o relation: theories rely on speculation
o comparison: speculation: not in advance of controlled observation
3. Organizes Data
 o organize data that are not compatible with each other 4. Humanistic Approach (Maslow, Rogers)
4. Guides Action o person is innately good
o ability to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day to day problems o aim to achieve fullest potentials
5. Is Internally Consistent 5. Behavioral Approach
o need not to be consistent with other theories, but it must be consistent with itself o Learned
o components are logically compatible o Acquired externally
o clearly and operationally defined (defines unit in terms of observable events or behaviors 6. Cognitive Approach
that can be measured)) o Schema
6. Is Parsimonious F. ISSUES IN PERSONALITY/DIMENSIONS FOR A CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
o simple and straightforward
1. Genetic (Biological) vs Environmental (Social) Influences
D. PERSONALITY THEORY 2. Conscious vs Unconscious
3. Free Will vs Determinism
Personality Theory 4. Uniqueness vs Universality (Similarities)
 set of interrelated ideas, constructs and principles proposed to explain consistent patterns of 5. Physiological vs Purposive Motivation
affect, behavior and cognition 6. Cultural Determinism vs Cultural Transparency
 components: 7. Pessimism vs Optimism
1. personality structure: building block of personality 8. Causality vs Teleology
2. motivation: why people behave the way they do
3. personality development: how personality develops G. THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT PERSONALITY THEORY RESEARCH
4. psychological health: describes healthy personality
5. psychopathology: describes unhealthy personality Reliability
6. personality change: offers an ex-planation on how unhealthy personality can be changed  Extent to which it yields consistent results
into a healthy one
 Research, Assumption and Issues: Validity
1. Case Studies and Clinical Research: Interviews, Case Histories  Degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
2. Laboratory Studies and Experimental Research: Experiments, Observation  Construct Validity: extent to which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct
3. Personality Questionnaires, Assessment Tools and Correlation Research: Research, o Convergent CV: sores on that instrument correlate highly (converge) with scores on a variety
Standard Tests, and Statistical Tools of valid measures of that same contract
o Divergent CV: has low or insignificant correlations with other inventories that do not
E. WHAT ARE THE APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY? measure the construct
o Discriminant Validity: if it discriminates between two groups of people known to be
1. Psychoanalytic Approach (Freud, Adler, Jung, Klein, Horney, Fromm, Sullivan, Erikson) different
o innate desires  Predictive Validity: a test predict some future behavior
o unconscious
2. Trait Approach
o personality lies in a continuum
o different levels of feelings
FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS
3. Biological Approach
o physiological aspect Twin cornerstones of psychoanalysis:
o genetic 1. sex
 2. aggression  where the id resides
 eg.: dreams, slips of the tongue, repression
Basis: personal experiences, dream analysis, vast readings  punishment and/or suppression  anxiety  repression
 phylogenetic endowment: inherited unconscious images
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF SIGMUND FREUD o Preconscious
 not conscious but can become conscious either quite readily or with difficulty
Full name: Sigismund (Sigmund) Freud  Contains the memories that are not part of current thoughts but can readily be
Birthday: March 6 or May 6, 1856 available to mind if the need arises (equivalent to our memory)
Birthplace: Freiberg, Moravia  Contains the superego
Father: Jacob Freud  sources: conscious perception and unconscious
Mother: Amalie Nathanson Freud 2. Conscious
Siblings: Emmanuel and Philip (Father side only; older than him)  mental elements in awareness at any given point in time
7 others (both parents)  contains whatever we are thinking about or experiencing at a given moment (all our senses
Death: September 23, 1939 detect)
Deathplace: Vienna?  contains the ego
 2 different directions:
Significant part of his life: o perceptual conscious: what we perceive through our sense organs, if not too
 existence of his brother Julius (hostility, unconscious wish for death, feelings of guilt) threatening, enters into consciousness
 favouritism of his mother to him o within the mental structure: nonthreatening ideas from preconscious, well-disguised
 not close relationship to his siblings images from the unconscious
 Jean Martin Charcot: Hypnotic Technique (for hysteria)
 Josef Breuer: Catharsis  Free Association Technique C. PROVINCES OF THE MIND/STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
 experiments with cocaine
 male hysteria (from charcot) 1. Id (deas Es, It)
 Studies on Hysteria (w/ breuer): psychical analysis  psychoanalysis  Pleasure principle
 seduction theory (seduction by a parent)  Biological instinctive drive
 association with:  not yet owned component of personality
o Alfred Adler, Wilhelm Stekel, Max Kahane, Rudolf Reitler  no contact w/ reality
(Wednesdayy Psychological Society)  2 processes:
o Carl Jung (International Psychoanalytic Association) o primary process: seeks to satisfy
 crown prince; the man of the future o secondary process: bring it into contact w/ the external world
2. Ego (das Ich, I)
B. LEVEL OF MENTAL LIFE/THE MENTAL ICEBERG  Reality principle
 Realistic and socially accepted
1. Unconscious Proper  Intervene between id impulses and superego inhibitions
 sole source of communication with the external world
 decision making/executive branch of personality
o Unconscious 3. Superego (das Uber-Ich, over-I)
 drives, urges, or instincts beyond our awareness but motivate our words, feelings and  Morality principle/idealistic principle
actions  Ideals and morals
 Contains fears, unacceptable sexual and immoral motives and urges, irrational wishes  Represent conscience
and selfish needs, shameful experiences  no contact w/ the outside world
  unrealistic demands for perfection  Felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the person
 2 subsystems: against impending danger
o conscience: results from experiences with punishments for improper behavior and tells  Only the ego can produce or feel anxiety
us what we should not do  3 types of anxiety:
o ego-ideal: develops from experiences with rewards for proper behavior and tells us o Neurotic Anxiety: apprehension about an unknown danger
what we should do o Moral Anxiety: conflict between the ego and superego
 well-developed superego controls sexual and aggressive impulses through repression o Realistic Anxiety: related to fear; unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a possible
 guilt: when ego acts contradicting to the moral standard of superego danger
 feelings of inferiority: ego is unable to meet the standard of superego
E. DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 pleasure seeking person
1. Repression: push unpleasant thoughts to unconscious
2. Reaction Formation: doing the opposite of what you really feels
 guilt-ridden/inferior-feeling person 3. Displacement: redirect emotion from a real person to a lower status person, object, or animal
4. Fixation: inability to proceed to the next stage of development due to frustration
5. Regression: going back to the childhood behaviors when face with anxiety
 psychologically healthy person 6. Projection: transferring unacceptable thoughts to others
7. Introjection: incorporating into oneself the standards and values of another person
D. DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY 8. Sublimation: redirecting unacceptable, instinctual drives into personally and socially acceptable
channels
1. Drives 9. Denial: refusing to accept reality
 Trieb  drive or stimulus within the person 10. Rationalization: justify a regretful behavior or event
 Term: Instinct < drives/impulses a. sour-graping: bitter
 Characterization of drives: b. sweet-lemoning: creating a bogus “brighter side”
o Impetus: amount of force it exerts 11. Compensation: overcompensate to hide insecurity
o Source: region of the body in a state of excitation or tension 12. Undoing: cancel out or make up for a bad act by doing good
o Aim: seek pleasure by removing that excitation or reducing the tension 13. Identification: if you can’t beat them, join them
o Object: person or thing that serves as means through which the aim is satisfied
 2 types of drives: too much use: leads to mental disorder
o Sex/Eros (Libido) too little use: problems in life
 Erogenous Zone: genitals, mouth, anus
 ultimate aim: reduce sexual tension F. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
 forms: narcissism (primary and secondary), love (eros-love), sadism, masochism
o Aggression (destructive drive)  Difference in personalities originate in childhood sexual experiences
 ultimate aim: to return the organism to an inorganic state  Childhood greatly influence personality in adulthood
 death: ultimate inorganic condition  If child goes through a stage properly, he will progress to next stage
 self-destruction: final aim  Failure to achieve this will lead to fixation  cause of personality disorders
 explains the need for barriers that people have erected to check aggression 
reaction formation Infantile Period
 forms: teasing, gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor and enjoyment of other  Age: birth – 5 years old
people’s suffering  the most crucial for personality formation
2. Anxiety
 infants possess a sexual life and go through a period of pregenital sexual development during the if praised  generous and magnanimous adult
first 4 or 5 years after birth if punished  withholding the feces until pressure becomes both painful and
 childhood sexuality differs from adult sexuality in that it’s not capable of reproduction and is erotically stimulating
exclusively autoerotic satisfied through organs other than genitals  Anal character: people who continue to receive erotic satisfaction by keeping and possessing
objects and by arranging them in an excessive neat and orderly fashion
1. Oral Stage  anal eroticism (eg. penis envy)  anal triad (orderliness, stinginess, obstinacy); penis, baby
 Age: birth – 1.5 years old and feces are same symbol in dreams
 Focus: mouth  orientation:
 Object choice: nipple o active: masculine qualities of dominance and sadism
 Sexual aim: incorporate/receive into one’s nipple o passive: feminine qualities of voyeurism and masochism
 Phases:  Anal-Expulsive Personality: excessive pressure = take pleasure in being able to withhold
o oral-receptive phase (obsessively clean and orderly)
 no ambivalence towards object, satisfaction is achieved with minimum frustration 3. Phallic Stage
and anxiety  Age: 4-5 years old
 but as they grow older, frustration and anxiety increases because of scheduled  Focus: Genital
feedings, increased time lapses between feedings and eventual weaning  difference among the gender was established
 feelings of ambivalence toward their love object (mother)  dichotomy between male and female development is due to anatomical differences
 increased ability of their budding ego to defend (through teeth) between the sexes
itself against the environment and against anxiety leading to:  masturbation was repressed (suppression of masturbation)
o oral-sadistic period  Gratifying Activities: Play with genitals, Sexuality Identification
 infants respond through biting, cooing, closing their mouth, smiling and crying o Feeling of attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex  envy and fear of the
 first autoerotic experience: thumbsucking (defense against anxiety that satisfies same-sex parent
their sexual but not nutritional needs)  Oedipus Complex (castration anxiety)
 Gratifying activities: nursing  responsive nurturing is key / sucking o from Oedipus (King of Thebes)
 Oral-Dependent Personality: too much stimulation = child may become very dependent, o identification with his father (he wants to be his father)
submissive o develops sexual desire for his mother (wants to have his mother)
 Oral-Aggressive Personality: too little gratification= child will be very aggressive and will get o gives up identification with father and retains stronger desire for mother
what he wants through force o sees father as rival for mother love
 Symptoms of Oral Fixation: Smoking, Nail biting, Sarcasm and Verbal hostility o (Bisexual) feminine nature  masculine tendency
2. Anal Stage o castration complex  castration anxiety (fear of losing penis)
 Age: 1.5 – 3 years old  Electra Complex (penis envy)
 Focus: Anus o girls assume that all other children have genitals similar to their own
 Gratifying Activities: toilet training and urge control o soon they discover that boys do not only possess different genital equipment but
 characterized by satisfaction through aggressive behavior and through excretory function apparently something extra
 Phases: o girls then become envious, feel cheated, and desire to have penis
o early anal period o penis envy: often expressed as a wish to be a boy or desire to have a penis  to have a
 receive satisfaction by destroying or losing objects baby (find expression in the act of giving birth to a baby)
 behave aggressively toward their parents for frustrating them with toilet training o identification with mother (fantasized being seduced by her mother)
o late anal period
o hostility on mother for bringing her into the world without penis
 take a friendly interest towards their feces, an interest that stem from the erotic
o libido for her father
pleasure of defecating
 child will present the feces to their parents
 o simple female oedipus complex (electra complex): desire for sexual intercourse with  repression  sublimations
the father and accompanying feelings of hostility for the mother x neurotic symptoms x = not
 Success: control envy and hostility  identify with same-sex parent
 Failure: Mama’s boy; flirty girl with commitment issues G. APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Latency Period Early Therapeutic Technique

 Age: 5 – puberty  Free Association
 Time of learning, adjusting to the social environment, form beliefs and values  Dream Interpretation
 ‘sublimation stage’  Hypnosis
 Developing same-sex friendships
 parents attempt to punish or discourage sexual activity in their young children Later Therapeutic Technique
if successful  children will repress their sexual drive and direct their psychic energy toward  Free Association: patients are required to verbalize every thought that comes to their mind, no
school, friendships, hobbies and other nonsexual activities matter how irrelevant or repugnant it may appear
 reinforced through constant suppression by parents and teacher and by internal feelings of  Dream Analysis
shame, guild and morality  Transference: refers to the strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or negative, that patients
develop toward their analyst during the course of treatment
Genital Period o Negative Transference: should be recognized to overcome resistance to treatment
 Age: Puberty +  Resistance: variety of unconscious responses used by patients to block their own progress in
 Focus: Genital therapy
 Gratifying Activities: masturbation and heterosexual relationships
 Renewed sexual interest desire Dream Analysis
 Pursuit of relationships  used to transform the manifest content of dreams ti the more important latent content
 No fixations  Manifest Content: surface meaning or the conscious description given by the dreamer
 adolescent give up autoeroticism and direct their sexual energy toward another person instead of  Latent Content: unconscious material
toward themselves  Condensation: manifest dream content is not as extensive as the latent level, indicating that the
 reproduction is now possible unconscious material has been abbreviated or condensed before appearing on the manifests
 although penis envy may continue, vagina finally obtains the same status for them that the penis level
had for them during infancy; boys see female organ as sought-after object  Displacement: dream image is replaced by some other idea only remotely related to it
 entire sexual drive takes on a more complete organization  2 method of interpreting dreams:
 mouth, anus and other pleasure producing areas take an auxiliary position to the genitals, which o Ask patients to relate their dream and all their associations to it no matter how unrelated or
now attain supremacy as an erogenous zone illogical these associations seemed
 Eros: life instinct; Thanatos: death instinct o Dream Symbols – to discover the unconscious elements underlying the manifest content
 3 Typical Anxiety Dreams:
Maturity o the embarrassment dream of nakedness: fulfils the wish to exhibit oneself
 Psychological Maturity: stage attained after a person has passed through the earlier o dreams of the death of a beloved person: wish for the destruction of a younger brother or
developmental periods in an ideal manner sister who was a hated rival during the infantile period
 Psychologically mature people would come through the experiences of childhood and o failing an examination in school: anticipating a difficult task
adolescence tin control of their psychic energy and with their ego functioning in the center of an
ever-expanding world of consciousness Freudian Slips (parapraxes)
 id impulses: expressed honestly and consciously with no traces of shame and guilt  slips of the tongue (or pen)
superego: would move beyond parental identification and control with no remnants of  misreading
antagonism or incest  incorrect hearing
  misplacing objects Pleasure and the Id: Inhibition and the Ego
 temporarily forgetting names or intentions  pleasure seeking drives: brain system, limbic system and neurotransmitter dopamine
 ego: the function was to inhibit drives
H. RELATED RESEARCH
Repression, Inhibition and Defense Mechanisms
Karl Popper  Solms: repression of unpalatable information when damage occurs to the right hemisphere, and
 Freud’s theory was not falsifiable and therefore not science if this is damaged regions becomes artificially stimulated, the repression goes away, that is,
awareness returns
Implicit Cognition  Hysterioud-Obssessioud Questionnaire: the more repressive style people have, the longer it
 nonconscious processing of information and memory takes them to consciously perceive a stimulus

John Bargh Research on Dreams

 (automaticity of being) conclusion 0 95% of our behavior are unconsciously determined  phenomenon of REM Sleep discounted Freud’s theory of dreams
 if these cortical structures were not involved in REM sleep and yet they were higher level thinking
Cognitive and Neuropsychologists took place, then dreams are simply random mental activity and could not have any inherent
 Freud’s theory is one of the most compelling integrative theories (one that could explain many of meaning
these findings)  activation-synthesis theory: meaning is what the waking mind gives to these more or less
 Psychoanalysis is still the most coherent and intellectually satisfying view of the mind random brain activities, but meaning is not coherent in dreams
 Solms: dreaming and REM are not and the same because (1) no one-to-one correct respondence
The following concepts have support from modern science: between REM and dreaming; and (2) lesions do not completely eliminate dreaming, whereas
1. unconscious motivation lesions have eliminated dreaming and yet preserved REM sleep
2. repression  results showed that students dreamed move about the supressed targets than nonsuppressed
3. the pleasure principle ones; they also dreamed more about the suppressed target than the suppressed nontargets
4. primitive drives  suppressed thoughts are likely to “rebound” and appear in dreams
5. dreams  dream censor: mechanisms that converts the latent content of dreams into the more palatable
and less frightening the manifest content
Kandel
 psychoanalysis and neuroscience together could make useful contributions in these eight
domains:
o the nature of unconscious mental processes
o the nature of psychological causality I. CRITIQUE OF FREUD
o psychological causality and psychopathology
o early experience and the predisposition to the mental illness Did Freud Understand Women?
o the preconscious, the unconscious, and the prefrontal cortex  frequent criticisms: he did not understand women and that his theory of personality was strongly
o sexual orientation oriented toward men; he lacked a complete understanding of the female psyche
o psychotherapy and structural changes in the brain  why?: he was a product of his times, and society was dominated by men during those times
o psychopharmacology as an adjunct to psychoanalysis  tender sex: (what freud regarded women) suitable for caring for the household and nurturing
children but not equal to men in scientific and scholarly affairs
Unconscious Mental Processing  dark continent for psychology: freud’s recognition that he did not understand women as wl as he
 core consciousness: unaware (brain stem and ascending activities) did men
 extended consciousness: aware (activity in the prefrontal cortex)  Freud: “if you want to know more about femininity, enquire from your own experiences of life or
turn to the poets
 o F: present behavior is caused by past experiences
Was Freud a scientist? A: present behavior is caused by people’s view of the future
 he do not claim himself as a natural scientist but a human scientist o F: puts emphasis on unconscious components of behavior
 his theories were not based on experimental investigation but rather on subjective perceptions A: psychologically healthy people are usually aware of what they are doing and why they are
that freud made of himself and his clinical patterns doing it
 how well does his theory meet the 6 criteria for useful theory?
o generate research: (average) researchers have conducted studies that relate either directly A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ALFRED ADLER
or indirectly to psychoanalytic theory
o falsifiable: (very low) much of the research evidence consistent with freud’s ideas can also Full name: Alfred Adler
be explained by other models Birthday: February 7, 1870
o organize knowledge: (moderate) so loose and flexible that seemingly inconsistent data can Birthlace: Rudolfsheim, Vienna?
coexist within its boundaries Father: Leopold Adler (Jewish Grain Merchant)
o guide for the solution of practical problems: (low) psychoanalysis no longer dominates the Mother: Pauline Adler (homemaker)
field of psychotherapy, and most present-day therapists use other theoretical orientations in Siblings: 7
their practice Wife: Raissa Epstain Adler (early feminist and more political)
o internal consistency: the theory generally possessed internal consistency, although some Children: Alexandra Adler, Kurt Adler (Psychiatrists)
specific terms were used with less that scientific rigor Valentine (Vali) Adler (Political Prisoner)
o parsimonious: not needlessly cumbersome Cornelia (Nelly) Adler (Aspiring Actress)
Death: May 28, 1937
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY Deathplace: Aberdeen Scotland

1. determinism Significant part of his life:

2. pessimism  being abandoned in iceskating and the death of his younger brother lead him into becoming a
3. causality physician
4. unconscious  competition with his brother – Sigmund Adler
5. biological  his sibling and peers played a pivotal role in his childhood  more interested in social
6. uniqueness and similarities relationships
 eye specialist  psychiatry and general medicine
 part of Wednesday Psychological Society  Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY  Adler was one of the original members of Freud’s inner circle, but they never shared a warm
relationship
 form the Society for Free Psychoanalytic Study  Society for Individual Psychology
 Adler was regarded as disciple of Freud
 cornerstones of human motivation:
 But, he battled through his professional life to dispel the notion that he had ever been a follower
o social interest
of Freud
o compassion
 He was accused by Freud as having paranoid delusions and of using terrorist tactics
 Individual Psychology: feeling of oneness with all humankind
B. INTRODUCTION TO ADLERIAN THEORY
 Individual psychology is more optimistic than Freud’s and different because:
o F: reduced all motivation to sex and aggression
Reasons why Adler isn’t as famous as other theorists:
A: he saw people as being motivated mostly by social influences and by striving for
 Adler did not establish a tightly run organization to perpetuate his theories
superiority or success
 He was not a particularly gifted writer, and most of his books were compiled by a series of editors
o F: people have little or no choice in shaping their personality
using Adler’s scattered lectures
A: people are largely responsible for who they are
  Many of his views were incorporated into the works of such later theorists as Maslow, Rogers and o striving for success: describe actions of people who are motivated by
Ellis and thus are no longer associated with Adler’s name highly developed social interest
 regardless of the motivation for striving, each individual is guided by a final goal
Individual Psychology
 Emphasized that our unconscious does not determine personality The Final Goal (4 or 5 y/o)
 Theory is about the governing internal forces of personality  People strive a final goal of either personal superiority or the goal of success for all humankind
 Overcome inferiorities  fictional and has no objective existence
 First to emphasized the role of family in the development of personality  Unifies personality and renders all behavior compensable
 Product of creative power (people’s ability to freely shape their behavior and create their own
Inferiority Feelings personality)
 Compensate for inferiorities  reduces the pain of inferiority feelings and points that person in the direction of either superiority
or success
Source of Inferiorities  If neglected or pampered: goal remains unconscious
 Physical appearance  If loved and secured: goal is largely conscious and clearly understood
 Parenting
 Socioeconomic status The Striving Force as Compensation
 Psychological mentality  People strive for superiority or success as a means of compensation for feelings of inferiority or
weakness
Complexes  people are continually pushed by the need to overcome inferiority feelings and pulled by the
 Negative coping to inferiorities desire for completion
 Inferiority Complex  Without the innate government toward perfection, child would never feel inferior; but without
o Incompetent self feelings of inferiority, they would never set a goal of superiority or success
o Justify failure  2 general avenues of striving:
 Superiority Complex o Socially non-productive attempt to gain personal superiority
o Believes when he is greater than others o Social interest and is aimed at success or perfection for everyone

Striving for Personal Superiority

Parenting  striving for superiority with little or no concern for others
 too protective: personal superiority  Their goals are personal ones and their striving are motivated largely by exaggerated feelings of
 uninvolved: inferiority/unwantedness personal inferiority or the presence of an inferiority complex
 for clever disguises: looks like motivated by social interest, but his actions are largely self-serving
C. STRIVING FOR SUCCESS OR SUPERIORITY and motivated by overcompensation for his exaggerated feelings of personal superiority
 Stages of developing superiority:
The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority o Be aggressive: actively seek opportunities to improve self
o Be powerful (positive): apply skills
Striving for success or superiority (single drive motivation) o Be superior: mastery of skills
 physical deficiency  feelings of inferiority  motivate a person  strive for superiority/success  Directions:
 Drives: o Negative: take advantage of others
o aggression: dynamic power behind all motivation o Positive: help others
o masculine protest: implied will to power or a domination of others
o striving for superiority: people who strive for personal superiority Striving for Success
over others
  Psychologically healthy people are those who are motivated by social interest and success of all  Conscious: understood and regard by the individual as helpful in striving for success
human kind  Unconscious: part of the goal that is neither clearly formulated nor completely understood by the
 Maintains a sense of self, but they see daily problems from the view of society’s development individual; not helpful
rather than from a strictly personal vantage point
 Social Progress is more important to them than personal credit F. SOCIAL INTEREST

D. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS The value of all human activity must be seen from the view point of social interest.

People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality. Gemeinchaftsgefuhl

 social feeling or community feeling
Strivings are shaped not by reality but by their subjective perception of reality – fictions (expectations of  feeling of oneness with all humanity it implies membership in the social community of all people
the future)  strives not for personal superiority but for perfection for all people in an ideal community

Fictionalism Social Interest

 subjective, fictional final goal that guides our style of life and gives unity to our personality  an attitude of relatedness with humanity in general as well as an empathy for each member of
 people are motivated not by what is true, but by their subjective perceptions of what is true the human community
 Ideas that have no real existence, yet they influence people as if they really existed  Natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that binds society together
 Views of motivation
o Teleology: future needs Origins of Social Interest
o Causality: past experiences  Originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of infancy
 Mother’s job: develop a bond that encourages the child’s mature social interest and fosters a
Physical Inferiorities sense of cooperation
 The whole human race is “blessed” with organ inferiorities  Father’s job: demonstrate a caring attitude toward his wile as well as to other people
 physical deficiencies alone do not cause a particular style of life; they simply provide present  possible dual errors:
motivation for reaching future goals o emotional detachment: may influence the child to develop a warped sense of social
 Some people compensate for these feelings of inferiority by moving toward psychological health interest, a feeling of neglect, and possibly a parasitic attachment to the mother
and a useful style of life o paternal authoritarian: may also lead to an unhealthy style of life, a child who sees the
father as a tyrant strive for power and personal superiority
E. UNITY AND SELF-CONSISTENCY OF PERSONALITY
Importance of Social Interest
Personality is unified and self-consistent.  Sole criterion of human values
 Only gauge to be used in judging the worth of a person
Each person is unique and indivisible  Standard to be seen determining the usefulness of a life
 Immature people: lack gemeinschaftgefuhl, are self-centered and strive for personal power and
Organ Dialect superiority over others
 whole person strives in a self-consistent fashion toward a single goal, and all separate actions and  Healthy Individual: are genuinely concerned about people and have a goal of success that
functions can be understood only as part of this goal encompasses the well-being of all people
 Speaks a language which is usually more expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion more  Psychologically unhealthy individuals  exaggerated feeling of inferiority  neurotic style of life
clearly than words were able to do so  Healthy people  motivated ny normal feelings of incompleteness and high levels of social
interest  healthy style of life
Conscious and Unconscious
 there is unified personality when there is harmony between conscious and unconscious G. STYLE OF LIFE
 for neurotics:
The self-consistent personality structure develops in a person’s style of life. o Set their goals too high
o Live in their own private world
Style of Life o Have a rigid dogmatic style of life
 Flavor of a person’s life  people became failures in life because they are overconcerned with themselves and care little
 A person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world about others
 Psychologically unhealthy individual: lead inflexible lives
 Psychologically healthy individual: behave in diverse and flexible ways External Factors in Maladjustment
 3 major problems of life:  Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies: deficiencies accompanied by accentuated feelings of
o Neighborly love inferiority
o Sexual love  Pampered Style of Life: believe that they are entitled to be first in everything
o Occupation  Neglected Style of Life: distrustful of other people and are unable to cooperate for the common
 Ruling Type: dominating welfare
 Getting Type: parasitic
 Avoiding Type: denial, avoidant Safeguarding Techniques
 Socially Useful Type: appropriate actions to problems accept weaknesses, willing to change  Protective devices enabling people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their current
style of life
H. CREATIVE POWER  Defense Mechanism: unconscious; Safeguarding Techniques: conscious
 Excuses: “yes, but” or “if only”
Style of life is molded by people’s creative power  Aggression: protect their fragile self-esteem
o Depreciation: tendency to undervalue other people’s achievement and to overvalue one’s
own
o Accusation: tendency to blame other’s failure and to seek revenge
Creative Power o Self-Accusation: self-torture and guilt
 Places people in control of their own lives, is responsible for their final goal, determines their  Withdrawal: tendency to run away from difficulties
method of striving for that goal and contributes to the development of social interest o Moving backward: reverting to a more secure period of life
 makes each person a free individual o Standing still: avoid all responsibilities by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure
 each person uses heredity and environment as the bricks and mortar to build personality, but the o Hesitating: “it’s too late now”
architectural design reflects that person’s own style o Constructing obstacles: build an obstacle then knock it off to protect their self-esteem and
 “the law of low doorway” prestige

Creative Self Masculine Protest

 freedom to create own style of life  emphasize importance of being manly
 individual is product of environment and heredity  origins of the masculine protest:
 individual influences environment o both men and women place an inferior value on being a woman
 we can control our environment o the epitome of success for boys is to win, to be powerful, to be on top. In contrast, girls
often learn to be passive and to accept an inferior position in society
I. ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT  Adler, Freud and the Masculine Protest
o F: dark continent for psychology
General Description o A: women – because they have the same physiological and psychological needs as men –
 Factors underlying all types of maladjustment want more or less the same things that men want
o Underdeveloped social interest

J. APPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Family Constellation
 Birth order, gender of siblings, age-spread between siblings
 Firstborn/Eldest: intensified feelings of power and superiority, high anxiety, and overprotective
tendencies; excessive attention seekers, feels inferior after birth of 2 nd child, greatest number of
problems, third parent, achiever
 Secondborn/Middle: if older sibling shows hostility and vengeance, they will highly become
competitive or overly discouraged; matures toward moderate competitiveness, having a healthy
desire to overtake the older rival; easiest, tries to dethrone the first born, high need of
superiority, competition, most insecure
 Youngest: run in a high risk of being problem children; have strong feelings of inferiority and to
lack a sense of independence; highly motivated to exceed older siblings; least amount of power in
family, most pampered and protected
 Only Child: unique position of competing, not against brother and sisters but against father and
mother; develop an exaggerated sense of superiority and an inflated self-concept; lack well-
developed feelings of cooperation and social interest, possess a parasitic attitude; spoiled,
pampered
Early Recollections
 recalled memories
 Always consistent with people’s present style of life and that their subjective account of these
experiences yields clues to understanding both their final goal and their present style of life
Dreams
 although dreams cannot foretell the future, they can provide clues for solving future problems
 Everything can be different: If one interpretation doesn’t feel right, try another
 most dreams are self-deceptions and not easily understood by the dreamer
Psychotherapy
 purpose is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of inferiority and encourage social interest
 Adler innovated a unique method of therapy with problem children by treating them in front of
an audience of parents, teachers, and health professionals. When children receive therapy in
public , they more readily understand that their problems are community problems
 Adler was careful not to blame the parents for a child’s misbehaviour. Instead, he worked to win
the parents’ confidence and to persuade them to change their attitudes toward the child
K. RELATED RESEARCH
Early Recollections and Career Choice
 adler believed that career choices reflect a person’s personality
 the kind of career one chooses as an adult is often reflected in one’s earliest recollections
 Jon Kasler and Ofra Nevo (2005) found that early recollection in childhood did match career type
as an adult, atleast for the 3 career types that were well represented in their sample
Early Childhood and Health-Related Issues
 Adler’s theory of inferiority and superiority and social feeling can be applied to explain health-
related behaviors such as eating disorders and binge drinking
 Susan Belangee (2006) mentioned that dieting, overeating and bulimia can be viewed as
common ways of expressing inferiority feelings; eating disorder and its striving towards
superiority are an unhealthy means of compensating for inferiority (mostly focused on striving for
superiority and not success because of self-centeredness)
 Terasa Laird and Andrea Shelton (2006) found out that youngest children in a family were more
likely to binge drink, whereas older children demonstrated more drinking restraint
Early Recollections and Counseling Outcomes
 If early recollections are fictional construction amenable to present shifts in a person’ style of life,
then early recollections should change as style of life changes.
 Gary Savill and Daniel Eckstein (1987) has a finding in their research that indicates that when
counselling is successful, patients change their early recollections.
 Jane Statton and Bobbie Wilborn (1991) has a research that suggests that earl recollections may
change as a result of psychotherapy or some other life-altering experience.
L. CRITIQUE OF ADLER
 verification or falsification: one of Adler’s most important concepts – the assumption that present
style of life determines early memories rather than vice versa – is difficult to either verify or
falsify
 generate research: (above average) much of his theory has been investigated especially early
recollection, social interest and style of life; (moderate) for scales
 organize knowledge: (high) make sense out of what we know about human behavior
 guides action: (high) theory serves significant people with guidelines for the solution to practical
problems in a variety of settings
 internally consistent: (low) lack of precise operational definitions
 parsimony: (average) awkward and unorganized writings
M. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
1. free choice
2. optimism
3. teleology
4. conscious and unconscious
 5. social influences Significant part in his life:
6. uniqueness  religion and medicine is common to his family
 mystical beliefs of his family (may be a contribution to his collective unconscious)
 his mother having two separate dispositions (may be a contribution to his compendium of
opposites)
 earliest dream stems
 his 2 personalities: (1) extraverted and in tune to the objective world; (2) introverted and directed
inward toward his subjective world
 Jung and Freud strong mutual respect and affection for one another
 belief of Freud in him as becoming his successor; a man of great intellect
 first president of International Psychoanalytic Association
 Separation with Freud
 Sexual Assualt by a fatherly friend
 creative illness (period of loneliness and isolation)

B. DYNAMICS/PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHE

1. Opposites
 the existence of opposites or polarities in physical energy in the universe
 partly good, partly bad
JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2. Equivalence
 some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality
Analytical Psychology  what on the other side is also on the other side; magnitude
 assumption that mystical phenomena can and do influence the lives of everyone 3. Entropy
 tendency toward a balance or equilibrium in the personality
Jung’s theory is a compendium of opposites. People are both introverted and extraverted; rational and  tension, conscious – unconscious
irrational; male and female; conscious and unconscious; and pushed by past events while being pulled by 4. Synchronity
future expectations.  no coincidences
5. Individuation
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF CARL JUNG  the goal of psyche is to have balance

Full name: Carl Gustav Jung C. LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE

Birthday: July 26. 1875
Birthplace: Kesswil, Switzerland 1. Conscious
Father: Johann Paul Jung (minister)  Sensed by ego, whereas unconscious elements have no relationship with the ego
Mother: Emilie Preiswerk Jung (daughter of theologian)  Ego: center of consciousness, but not the core of personality; not the whole personality but
Siblings: 3 must be completed by the more comprehensive self
Wife: Emma Rauschenbach  Self: center of personality that is largely unconscious
Mistress: Sabina Spielrein, Antonia (Toni) Wolff  Individuation: integration of conscious with the unconscious; self-realization
Death: June 6, 1961 2. Personal Unconscious
Deathplace: Zurich  A reservoir of material that was once unconscious but has been forgotten or suppressed
because it was trivial or disturbing
  repressed, forgotten or subliminally perceived experiences of one particular individual
 Complexes
o emotionally toned conglomeration of associated idea
o a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a
common theme
o embedded themes that influence consciousness and behavior
o may stem from both the personal and collective unconscious
3. Collective Unconscious
 Roots in the ancestral part of the entire species
 Not innate ideas but rather a human’s innate tendency to react (stimulated by biological
inherited response tendency)
 Archetypes
o Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collection unconscious
o expressed through different modes: dreams, fantasies, delusions, hallucinations
o Instinct: unconscious physical impulse toward action and archetype psychic counterpart
o different archetypes:
 Persona: Side of personality that people show to the world; public face
 Shadow: Archetype of darkness and repression
 Anima: feminine tendency of a man; irrational mood and feelings
 Animus: masculine tendency of women; thinking and reasoning
 Great Mother: positive and negative; fertility and nourishment, power and
destruction; rebirth: combination of fertility and power, reborn through self-
realization
 Wise Old Man: wisdom and meaning
 Hero: powerful person
 Self: inherited tendency toward to move toward growth, perfection and
completion; archetypes of all the archetypes; mandala: representation of unity,
balance and wholeness
D. DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY
1. Causality and Teleology
 motivation comes from both past experiences and future events
 human behavior is shaped by both causal and teleological forces and that causal
explanations must be balanced with teleological ones
 Causality: past experiences
 Teleology: future event
2. Progression and Regression
 to achieve self-realization, people must adapt not only to their outside environment but to
their inner world as well
 Progression: adaptation to the outside world involves the forward flow of psychic energy
 Regression: adaptation to the inner world relies on a backward flow of psychic energy
 progression inclines a person to react consistently to a given set of environmental
conditions, whereas regression is a necessary backward step in the successful attainment of
a goal
E. PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES/THE PSYCHE: CORE OF THE PERSONALITY
1. Attitudes
 A predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction
 Introversion: turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the subjective;
tuned in their inner world with all the biases, fantasies, dreams, and individualized
perceptions
 Extraversion: turning outward of psychic energy so that a person is oriented toward the
objective and away from the subjective; more influenced by their surrounding than by their
inner world
2. Functions
 Sensing: receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness; tells
people that something exists; individuals perception of sensory impulses
o Extraverted S: Perceive external stimuli objectively, in much same way that these
stimuli exist in reality (housepainter)
o Introverted S: influenced by their subjective sensations; guided by their interpretation
of sense stimuli rather than the stimuli exist in reality (portrait artists)
 Thinking: logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas; enables them to
recognize its meaning
o Extraverted T: rely heavily on concrete thoughts (mathematicians, accountants)
o Introverted T: more on the internal meaning they bring with them than by the
objective facts themselves (inventors, philosophers)
 Feeling: process of evaluating an idea or event; tells them its value or worth
o Extraverted F: use objective data to make evaluation; guided by external values and
widely accepted standards of judgment (businesspeople, politicians)
o Introverted F: based their value judgments primarily on subjective perceptions rather
than objective data (art critics)
 Intuition: involves perception beyond the working of consciousness; allows them to know
about it without knowing how they know
o Extraverted I: oriented towards the fact in the external world (inventors concentrating
on unconscious solutions to objective problems)
o Introverted I: guided by unconscious perception of facts that are basically subjective
and have little or no resemblance to external reality (mystics, prophets)
F. DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
Jung emphasized the second half of life, the period after age 35 or 40, when a person has the opportunity  Realization of the self, minimized their persona, recognized their anima/animus, acquired balance
to bring together the various aspects of personality and to attain self-realization. between introversion and extraversion, elevated all functions to a superior
 achieved only by people who are able to assimilate their unconscious into their total personality
1. Childhood (early morning sun)  Transcendence: conflict is resolved by bringing opposing forces into balance with each other with
 full of potential but still lacking in brilliance understanding
 age of innocence
 does not determine future personality G. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION/ASSESSMENT
 concerned with eating, emptying bowels, sleeping
 problem-free age Word Association Test
 Anarchic Phase: chaotic and sporadic consciousness  Presented patients with stimulus words and each verbal response, time taken to make a
 Monarchic Phase: development of the ego; beginning of logical and verbal thinking; third response, rate of breathing and galvanic skin response are recorded
person
 Dualistic Phase: ego as perceiver; objective and subjective ego; first person
2. Youth (morning sun)
 climbing toward the zenith, but unaware of the impending decline Dream Analysis
 birth of psyche (ego)  people used symbols to represent a variety of concepts – not merely sexual ones – to try to
 towards individuation comprehend the innumerable things beyond the range of human understanding
 extraversion period  uncover elements from the personal and collective unconscious and to integrate them into
 consciousness of “I” consciousness in order to facilitate the process of self-realization
 Puberty until middle life  big dreams: have special meaning for all people
 Period of increased activity, maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, problem-free era is  typical dreams: common to most people
over  earliest dreams remembered: can be traced back to about age 3 or 4 and contain mythological
 Conservative Principle: desire to live in the past and symbolic images and motifs that could not have reasonably been experienced by the
3. Middle Life (early afternoon sun) individual child
 brilliant like the late morning sun but obviously headed for the sunset
 Age of 35 to 40 Active Imagination
 interact with people  Requires a person to being with any impression – a dream, an image, vision, or fantasy – and to
 ego forms definite form and content concentrate until the impression begins to move
 start of introversion period  purpose is to reveal archetypal images emerging from the unconscious
 may fight desperately to maintain their youthful appearance and lifestyle  its image are produced during a conscious state of mind, thus making them more clear and
 period of tremendous potential reproducible
4. Old Age (evening sun)
 once bright consciousness now markedly dimmed Psychotherapy
 Diminution of consciousness  First stage: confession of a pathogenic secret (cathartic method)
 return to the unconscious  Second stage: interpretation, explanation, and elucidation
 Fear of death  Third stage: education of patients
 completion of the psyche  Fourth stage: transformation (into a healthy being)
 Admitted the importance of transference particularly during the first three stages
Self-Realization/Individuations  Countertransference: a term used to describe a therapist’s feelings toward the patient
 Process of becoming an individual or whole person
 integrating the opposite poles in a single homogeneous individual H. RELATED RESEARCH
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 4. both causal and teleological
 measures Jung’s personality types 5. biological
6. similarities
Personality Type and Investing Money
 business researchers were interested in studying how personality affects the way people invest
their money
 Filbeck and colleagues (2005) wanted to better understand the level of risk individuals willing to
tolerate when ti comes to investing money
 instrument: MBTI and questionnaire with several different hypothetical situations of either
increasing or decreasing their wealth
 result: those who are the thinking type have a high tolerance for risk, whereas those of the
feeling type have a relatively low tolerance for the same level of risk; extraversion-introversion
dimension was not a good predictor of risk tolerance KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
 conclusion: personality of investors is an important factor for financial advisors to consider when
creating an investment portfolio that best eets the needs and personal values of the investor The woman who developed a theory that emphasized the nurturing and loving relationship between parent
and child, had neither a nurturant nor a loving relationship to her own daughter Melitta.
Personality Type and Interest In and Attrition From Engineering
 Journal of Psychological Type examined whether personality type and fit predicted interest in Melanie Klein’s bitter rival:
and attrition from engineering  Edward Glover (analyst of Melitta)
 instrument: MBTI  Walter Schmideberg (analyst and husband of Melitta)
 result and conclusion: Thomas, Benne, Marr, Thomas & Hume (2000) found that students who  Anna Freud
were most likely to drop out were exactly the opposite types of those who were least likely to
enter engineering to being with The story of Melanie Klein and her daughter takes on a new perspective in light of the emphasis that objet
relations theory places on the importance of the mother-child relationship.
I. CRITIQUE OF JUNG
Object Relations Theory
 general testable hypotheses and verification and falsification: nearly impossible to verify  was built on careful observation of young children
 ability to generate research: (moderate) MBTI  importance of the first 4 to 6 months after birth
 organize observations: (moderate) Jung is the only modern personality theorist to make a serious  the child’s relation to the breast is fundamental and serves as a prototype for later relations to
attempt to include such a broad scope of human activity within a single theoretical framework whole objects, such as mother and father
 practicality: (low) the concept of a collective unconscious does not easily lend to understand  Klein’s ideas tend to shift the focus of psychoanalytic theory from organically based stages of
cultural myths and adjust to life’s trauma development to the role of early fantasy in the formation of interpersonal relationships
 internal consistency: (low) Jung generally used the same terms consistently, but he often  emphasis on interpersonal relationships
employed several terms to describe the same concept  highlights infant relationship with mother
 parsimony: (low) Jung’s psychology is not simple but neither is human personality, it is more  people are motivated for human contact not sexual pleasure
cumbersome than necessary  psychic life of infant – begin with inherited predisposition
 infants possess unconscious fantasy life
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
A. BIOGRAPHY OF KLEIN
1. neither pessimistic nor optimistic
2. neither deterministic nor purposive Full name: Melanie Reizes Klein
3. party conscious and unconscious Birthday: March 30, 1882
Birthplace: Vienna, Austria Phantasies
Father: Dr. Moriz Reizes (physician)  Psychic representations of unconscious id instincts
Mother: Libussa Deutsch Reizes (seller of plants and reptiles)  Unconscious images of good and bad (eg. Good Breast and Bad Breast)
Siblings: Emilie (Moriz’s favorite), Emmanuel (her close confidant), Sidonie (her fondness but died)  Ex: Good breast  thumb sucking; Bad breast  crying and kicking their legs
Husband: Arthur Klein (Engineer)
Children: Melitta, Hans, Erich Objects
Death: September 22, 1960  A drive that could be person, part of a person, or things which satisfies the aim (Freud’s aim)
Deathplace: England  any person or part of person an infant introjects and projects later on to others
 objects have life of its own in child’s fantasy world
 Example: hunger drive  good breast (object); sex drive  sexual organ
 Introjected objects: are fantasies of internalizing the object in concrete and physical terms’ not
Significant part of her life: accurate representations of the real objects but are colored by children’s fantasies
 felt neglected by her elderly father and even she loved and idolized her mother, she felt  External objects: the object itself?
suffocated by her  Internal objects: suggests that these objects have a power of their own, comparable to Freud’s
 closeness to his brother that may have contributed in her relationship with men concept of superego
 unhappy marriage and dreaded sex and abhorred pregnancy
 Sandor Ferenczi introduced her to the world of psychoanalysis D. POSITIONS
 train Erich according to Freudian Principles
 Melitta was analysed by Karen Horney Positions
 Klein analysed Horney’s two youngest daughters  Ways of dealing with both internal and external objects
 established a psychoanalytic practice in Berlin and made her first contribution to the  Not a stage of development to indicate positions alternate back and forth; they are not periods of
psychoanalytic literature with a paper dealing with her analysis of Erich time or phases development through which a person passes
 Had analysis with Karl Abraham
 Did self-analysis after the death of Abraham 1. Paranoid-Schizoid Position (3-4 months)
 Ernest Jones invited her to London to analyse his children and to deliver a series of lectures on o A way of organizing experiences that includes both paranoid feelings of being persecuted
child analysis and a splitting of internal and external objects into the good and the bad
o To tolerate the desire to control the breast by devouring and harbouring it and the
B. INTRODUCTION TO OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY destructive urges that create fantasies of the damaging the breast, the ego splits itself,
retaining parts of its life and death while deflecting parts of both instincts onto the breast.
Object relations theory is an offspring of Freud’s instinct theory, but it differs from its ancestor in at least o “to bite or not to bite” breast
three general ways: o tolerated by the ego
1. Object relations theory places less emphasis on biologically based drives and more importance on o tendency to see the world as having both destructive and omnipotent qualitites
consistent patterns of interpersonal relationship o the time the ego’s perception of the external world is subjective and fantastic rather than
2. Object relations theory tends to be more maternal, stressing the intimacy and nurturing of the objective and real.
mother unlike Freud’s that’s more of paternal – power and control o the child must keep the good breast and bad breast separate, because to confuse them
3. Object relations theorists generally see human contact and relatedness – not sexual pleasure – as would be to risk defeating good breast and losing it as a safe harbour
prime motive of human behavior o they have biological predisposition to attach a positive value to nourishment and the life
instinct and to assign a negative value to hunger and the death instinct.
C. PSYCHIC LIFE OF THE INFANT o Persecutory Breast: the one who gives frustration to the baby
o Ideal Breast: provides love, comfort, and gratification
Klein stressed the importance of the first 4 or 6 months.
2. Depressive Position (5-6 months)
 o feelings of anxiety over losing a loved object coupled with a sense of guilt for wanting to
destroy the object
o losing mother or destroying mother
o infant develops a more realistic picture of the mother and recognizes that she is an
independent person who can be both good and bad
o the ego is beginning to mature to the point at which it can tolerate some of its own
destructive feelings rather than projecting them outward
o fearing the possible loss of the mother, the infant desires to protect her and keep her from
the dangers of its own destructive forces, but infant’s ego is mature enough to realize that it
lacks the capacity to protect the mother
o felt: reparation and empathy
o resolved: when children fantasize that they have made reparation for their previous
transgressions and when they recognize that their mother will not go away permanently but
will return after each departure; also will experience love from mother and also display their
love for her
o when not resolved: lack of trust, morbid mourning at the loss of a loved one, and a variety of
other psychic disorders
E. PSYCHIC DEFENSE MECHANISMS
o not rigid and extreme splitting  positive and useful mechanism not only for infants but also
for adults  enables people to see both positive and negative aspects of themselves, to
evaluate their behavior as good or bad, and to differentiate between likable and unlikable
acquaintance
o excessive and inflexible splitting  pathological repression
o splitting  projection  introjection
o eg: if children’s ego are too rigid to be split into good me and bad me, then they cannot
introject bad experiences into the good ego. when children cannot accept their own bad
behavior. they must then deal with destructive and terrifying impulses in the only way they
can – by repressing them
4. Projective Identification
o infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves, project them into another object, and
finally introject them back into themselves in a changed or distorted form
o unlike simple projection, which can exist wholly in phantasy, projective identification exists
only in the world of real interpersonal relationships
o eg: a husband with strong but unwanted tendencies to dominate others will project those
feelings into his wife, whom he then sees as domineering. The man subtly tries to get his
wife to become domineering. He behaves with excessive submissiveness in an attempt to
force his wife to display the very tendencies that he has deposited in her.

Children adopt several psychic defense mechanisms to protect their ego against the anxiety aroused by F. INTERNALIZATIONS
their own destructive fantasies.
Internalizations
1. Introjection  The person takes in (introjects) aspects of the external world and then organizes those
o infants fantasize taking into their body those perceptions and experiences that they have introjections into a psychologically meaningful framework
had with the external object
o eg: fantasize that their mother is constantly present; that is, they feel that their mother is 1. Ego
always inside their body o One’s sense of self
2. Projection o Has ability to sense both destructive and loving forces and manage them through splitting,
o Getting rid of both good and bad objects projection and introjection
o fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses actually reside in another person and not o It is strong enough to feel anxiety, use defense mechanism, and form early object relations
within one’s body in both phantasy and reality
o placing the feelings to others 2. Superego
o allows people to believe that their own subjective opinions are true o Differs from Freud according to the following:
o eg: infants who feel good about their mother’s nurturing breast will attribute their own  emerges much earlier in life
feelings of goodness on the breast and imaging that the breast is good; adults sometimes  not an outgrowth of the Oedipus complex
project their own feelings of love on another person and become convinced that the other  much more harsh and cruel
person loves them. o early superego produces not guilt but terror
3. Splitting o The early ego (that forced to defend itself against its own action to manage anxiety because
o keeping part incompatible impulses life and death instincts cannot be completely separated) lays the foundation for the
o ego splits into good me and bad me that enable them to deal with both pleasurable and development of the superego, whose extreme violence is a reaction to the ego’s aggressive
destructive impulses toward external objects self-defense against its own destructive tendencies.
 o This harsh, cruel superego is responsible for many antisocial and criminal tendencies in
adults
3. Oedipus Complex
o Differs from Freud according to the following:
 Begins at much earlier age
 Significant part is the fear of revenge from their parent for their fantasy of emptying the
parent’s body
 Importance of children in retaining positive feeling toward both parents during the
Oedipal years
 Serves the same need for both genders, that is, to establish a positive attitude
o children are capable of both homosexual or heterosexual relations with both parents
o Female Oedipal Development
 girl sees her mother’s breast as both good and bad then more positive than negative
and full of good things
 sees father penis feeds her mother with riches including babies and then develops a
positive relationship to it and fantasizes her father will fill her body with babies
 will see her mother as a rival and will fantasize robbing her mother of her father’s penis
and staling her mother’s babies
 the little girl’s wish to rob her mother produces a paranoid fear that her mother will
retaliate against her by injuring her or taking away her babies
 the little girl’s principal anxiety comes from a fear that the inside of her body has been
injured by her mother, an anxiety that can be levitated only when she later gives birth
to a healthy baby
 penis envy stems from the little girl’s wish to internalize her father’s penis and to
receive a baby from him
o Male Oedipal Development
 Little boy sees his mother’s breast as both good and bad
 Shifts some of oral desires from his mother’s breast to his father’s penis (feminine
position: adopts a passive homosexual attitude toward his father)
 Moves to heterosexual relationship with his mother but with no fear that his father will
castrate him because of the previous homosexual feeling to his father
 Boy must have a good feeling about his father’s penis before he can value his own
 oral-sadistic impulses aroused as the boy wants to bite off his father’s penis and murder
him – this feelings arouse castration anxiety – leading to fear that convinces him that
sexual intercourse with his mother will be extremely dangerous to him
 important factor when resolved: establish positive relationship with both parents at the
same time; boy sees his parents as whole objects, a condition that enables him to work
through his depressive position
People are born with two strong drives – the life instinct and death instinct.
A person’s ability to love or to hate originates with theses early object relations.
G. LATER VIEWS ON OBJECT RELATION
Margaret Schoenbereger Mahler’s View
 concerned with the infant’s struggle to gain autonomy and a sense of self
 concerned with the first 3 years of life, a time when a child gradually surrenders security for
autonomy
 Psychological Birth: begins during the first weeks of postnatal life and continues for the next 3
years or so
 Sense of Identity: achieved when child becomes an individual separate from his or her primary
caregiver
 believed that children’s sense of identity rests on a 3 step relationship with their mother:
1. infants have basic needs cared for by their mother
2. they develop a safe symbiotic relationship with an all-powerful mother
3. they emerge from their mother’s protective circle and establish their separate individuality
 Stages (to achieve psychological birth and individuation):
o Normal Autimism:
 birth to 3-4 weeks
 a newborn infant satisfies various needs within the all-powerful protective orbit of a
mother’s care
 sense of omnipotence
 needs are cared for automatically and without their having to expend any effort
 period of absolute primary narcissism in which an infant is unaware of any other person
 objectless stage
o Normal Symbiosis
 4-5 week to 4-5 months
 infant behaves and functions as though he and his mother were an omnipotent system
– a dual unity within one common boundary
 not true symbiosis because infant needs mother but mother doesn’t need the infant
 mother and other are still preobjects to infants
o Separation-Individuation
 4-5 months to 30-36 months
 children become psychologically separated from their mothers, achieve a sense of
individuation, and begin to develop feelings of personal identity
 surrender delusion of omnipotence and face their vulnerability to external threats
 Differentiation: 5 months to 7-10 months; bodily breaking away from the mother infant
symbiotic orbit
 Practicing: 7-10 months to 15-16 months; children easily distinguish their body from
their mother’s establish a specific bond with their mother, and begin to develop an
autonomous ego
 Rapprochement: 16-25 months of age; the desire to bring their mother and themselves
back together both physically and psychologically; Rapprochement Crisis: condition
 where children fight dramatically with their mother because of the inability to regain  Attachment Style: a relationship between two people and not a trait given to the infant by the
the dual unity they once had with their mother caregiver
 Libidinal Object Constancy: 3rd year of life; develop a constant inner representation of
their mother so that they can tolerate being physically separated from her Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation
 Style attachment
 develops a technique for measuring the type of attachment style an infant develops towards its
Heinz Kohut’s View caregiver
 formation of self
 theorized that children develop a sense of self during early infancy when parents and others treat Strange Situation
them as if they had an individualized sense of identity.  A technique for measuring the type of attachment style that exists between caregiver and infant
 emphasized the process by which the self evolves from a vague and undifferentiated image to a  Consists of 20-minute laboratory session in which a mother, infant and stranger is involved
clear and precise sense of individual identity  3 attachment style ratings: (when mother returns after leaving for two 2 minute periods)
 focused on early mother-child relationship as the key to understanding later development. o Secure attachment: infants are happy and enthusiastic and initiate contact
 human relatedness, not innate instinctual drives, are at the core of human personality o Anxious-resistant attachment: infants are ambivalent; upset  seeks contact but reject
 Infants require adult caregivers not only to gratify physical needs but also to satisfy basic attempts at being soothed
psychological needs o Anxious-Avoidant: infants stay calm when their mother leaves and then ignore and avoid
 Self: center of the individual’s psychological universe mother when returns
 Believed that infants are naturally narcissistic, they are self-centered, looking out exclusive for
their own welfare and wishing to be admired for who they are and what they do H. PSYCHOTHERAPY
 2 basic narcissistic needs:
o Need to exhibit the grandiose self Play Therapy
o Need to acquire an idealized image of one or both parents  substitute to Freud’s dream analysis and free association
 Grandiose exhibitionistic self: infant relates to a “mirroring” self-object who reflects approval of  young children express their conscious and unconscious wishes through play therapy
its behavior
 Idealized Parent image: implies that someone else is perfect Kleinian Therapy
 Grandiosity must change into a realistic view of self, and the idealized parent iamge must grow  encouraged her patients to re-experience early emotions and fantasies but this time with the
into a realistic picture of the parents. therapist pointing out the differences between reality and fantasy, between conscious and
unconscious
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory  goal: to reduce depressive anxieties and persecutory fear and to mitigate the harshness of
 Object relations could be integrated with an evolutionary perspective internalized objects
 Attachments theory formed during childhood have an important impact on adulthood
 3 stages of Separation Anxiety: I. RELATED RESEARCH
o Protest Stage: When their caregiver is out of sight, infants will cry resist soothing by other
people, and search for their caregiver Object Relations and Eating Disorders
o Despair: infants become quiet, sad, passive, listless and apathetic  Steven Huprich and colleagues (2004) examined the connection between disturbed object
o Detachment: infants become emotionally detached from other people, including their relations and eating disorders in a nearly equal number of female and male college students
caregiver  3 measure of object relations:
 2 fundamental assumptions: o interpersonal independency
o A responsive and accessible caregiver must create a secure base for the child o separation-individuation
o A bonding relationship becomes internalized and serves as a mental working model on o general measure of object relation which assess alienation, insecure attachment,
which future friendships and love relationships are built egocentricity and social incompetence
 3 measures of eating disorders:
 o anorexic tendencies  guide to the practitioner: useful not only in understanding the early development of their clients
o bulimic tendencies but also in understanding and working with the transference relationship tat clients form with the
o a person’s sense of control and self-efficacy over compulsive eating therapist, whom they view as a substitute parent
 result: gender differences on one object relations measure; men scored lower than women on all  internal consistency: (high) differences far exceed the similarities
three measure of disordered eating  men have less trouble with binge and compulsive eating  parsimony: (low) used needlessly complex phrases and concepts to express her theory
than women and are less interpersonally dependent than women
 Huprich and colleagues: gender difference, though usually significant, do not neatly divide men K. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
from on such measures as interpersonal dependency and its relationship to eating disorders
 result: both men and women who were insecurely attached and self-focused (egocentric) had 1. determinism
greater difficulty in controlling their compulsive eating than those who were more securely 2. pessimistic and optimistic
attached and less self-focused  when insecurely attaché people of either gender are 3. causality
threatened, : they turn to an external object (food) as a means by which to comfort themselves” 4. unconscious
5. social influence
Attachment Theory and Adult Relationships 6. similarities
 Cindy Hazan and Phil Shaver (1987) predicted that different types of early attachment styles
would distinguish the kind, duration and stability of adult love relationships
 result: Securely attached adults experience more trust and closeness in their love relationships
than did avoidant or anxious-ambivalent adults. Moreover, they found that securely attached
adults were more likely than insecure adults to believe that romantic can be long lasting. In
addition, securely attached adults were less cynical about love in general, had longer lasting
relationships, and were less like to divorce than either avoidant or anxious-ambivalent adults.
 Steven Rholes and Colleagues (2007) tested the idea that attachment style is related to the type
of information people seek or avoid regarding their relationship and romantic partner
 result: avoidant individuals showed less interest in reading information about their partner and
contained in the relationship profile, whereas anxious individuals sought more information about
their partner’s intimacy-related issued and goals for the future
 Rivka Davidovitz and Colleagues (2007) believed that attachment style is relevant in leader-
follower relationships because leaders of authority figures can occupy the role of caregiver and
be a source of security in a manner similar to the support offered by parents and romantic
partners
 result: units of officers who had an avoidant attachment styles were less cohesive and the
soldiers expressed lower psychological well-being compared to members of other units; the
anxiously attached officers were likely more interested in seeking out information about how
their soldiers were feeling and how there were getting along with others

J. CRITIQUE OF KLEIN

 ability to generate research: (low) only few studies have used the BORI to empirically investigate
object relations
 falsifications: (high) generates very few testable hypotheses
 ability to organize information: lacks usefulness as an organizer of knowledge
  analysis with Karl Abraham
 association with Margaret Mean, John Dollard and others
HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY  acquaintances with Erich Fromm and his wife
 leadership in Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis  Karen Horney Psychoanalytic
Psychoanalytic Social Theory Institute
 social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for  establishment of Karen Horney Clinic
shaping personality.
 people who do not have their needs for love and affection satisfied during childhood develops B. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
basic hostility toward their parents and as a consequence suffer from basic anxiety
Culture, especially early childhood experiences, plays a leading role in shaping human personality.
3 fundamental styles of relating to others:
 moving toward people Social rather than biological forces are paramount in personality development.
 moving against people
 moving away from people Horney and Freud Compared
Horney criticism to Freud’s Theory:
Intrapsychic Conflict 1. She cautioned that strict devotion to traditional psychoanalysis would lead to stagnation in both
 take the for of either an idealized self-image or self hatred theoretical thought and therapeutic practice
2. She objected Freud’s ideas on Feminine Psychology
Idealized Self-Image Expression: 3. She stressed the view that psychoanalysis should move beyond instinct theory and emphasize the
importance of cultural influences in shaping personality
 neurotic search for glory
 neurotic claims
The Impact of Culture
 neurotic pride
 Cultural influence is the primary bases for both neurotic and normal personality development.
Self-Hatred Expression:
The Importance of Childhood Experiences
 self-contempt
 Horney believed that neurotic conflict can stem from almost any developmental stage, but
 alienation from self
childhood is the age from which the vast majority of problems arise.
 She hypothesized that a difficult childhood is primarily responsible for neurotic needs
A. BIOGRAPHY OF KAREN HORNEY
 The sum total of childhood experiences bring about a certain character structure, or rather, start
its development but not responsible for later personality.
Full name: Karen Danielsen Horney
Birthday: September 15, 1885
C. BASIC HOSTILITY AND BASIC ANXIETY
Birthplace: Eilbek, Germany
Father: Berndt (Wackels) Danielsen (Sea Captain)
Children need to experience both genuine love and healthy discipline. Such conditions provide them with
Mother: Cothilda van Ronzelen Danielsen
feelings of safety and satisfaction and permit them to grow in accordance with their real self.
Siblings: 6?
Husband: Oskar Horney
Basic Hostility
Death: December 4, 1952 (Cancer)
 Developed feelings of children when parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety and
Deathplace: New York, USA
satisfaction
Significant part of her life
 great hostility toward his father; idolized her mother
Basic Anxiety
 her independence
  Repressed hostility that leads to profound feelings of insecurity and a vague sense of
apprehension Neurotic Trends:

Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety is inextricably interwoven. People can use each neurotic trends to solve basic conflict, but unfortunately these solutions are essentially
non-productive or neurotic.
Ways of protecting oneself from feeling of being alone in a potentially hostile world:
1. Affection: a strategy that does not always lead to authentic love; try to purchase love with self- Normal Defenses Neurotic Defenses
effacing compliance, material-goods, or some sexual flavors. Spontaneous Movement Compulsive Movement
2. Submissiveness: submit themselves either to people or to institutions Toward People Toward People
3. Power: defense against the real or imagined hostility of others and takes the form of a tendency (friendly, loving personality) (compliant personality)
to dominate others
4. Prestige: a protection against humiliation and is expressed as a tendency to humiliate others Against People Against People
5. Possession: acts a s buffer against destitution and poverty and manifests itself as a tendency to (a survivor in a competitive society) (aggressive personality)
deprive others
6. Withdrawal: developing an independence from others or by becoming emotionally detached Away from People Away from People
from them, feeling that they cannot be hurt by others (autonomous, serene personality) (detached personality)

D. COMPULSIVE DRIVES
Moving Toward People (Compliant Personality)
Neurotic individuals have the same problems that affect normal people, except neurotics experience them  A neurotic need to protect oneself against feelings of helplesssness
to a greater degree.  Neurotic Needs: Affection and Approval, Powerful Partner, Restrict one’s life within narrow
borders
Neurotic Needs
 for affection and approval: attempt to please others; live up with the expectations of others Moving Against People
 for a powerful partner: lacking self-confidence, neurotics try to attach themselves to a powerful  Take for granted that everyone is hostile
partner  Aggressive Peronality
 to restrict one’s life within narrow boundaries: strive to remain inconspicuous, to take second  Neurotic Needs: Power, Exploit Others, Social Recognition or Prestige, Personal Admiration,
place, and to be content with very little; downgrade their own abilities and dread making Ambition and Personal Achievement
demands on others
 for power: need to control others and to avoid feelings of weakness or stupidity Moving Away from People
 to exploit others: evaluate others on the basis of how they can used or exploited; fear being  alleviating feelings of isolation
exploited by others  Expression of needs for privacy, independence, and self-sufficiency
 for social recognition or prestige: trying to be fist, to be important, or to attract attention to  Detached Personality
themselves  Neurotic Needs: Self-sufficiency and independence, Perfection and unassailability
 for personal admiration: need to be admired for what they have are rather than for what they
possess
 for ambition and personal achievement: strong drive to be the best; they must defeat other
people in order to confirm their superiority
 for self-sufficiency and independence: strong need to move away from other people; they can
get along without others E. INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS
 for perfection and unassailability: dread making mistakes and having personal dlaws, and they
desperately attempt to hid their weaknesses from others
Intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal experiences; they become part of a person’s belief o self-contempt: belittling, disparaging, doubting, discrediting and ridiculing oneself
system, they develop a life of their own – an existence separate from the interpersonal conflicts that gave o self-frustration: frequently shackled by taboos against enjoyment
them life. o self-torment or self-torture: inflict harm or suffering on themselves
o self-destructive actions and impulses: overeating, abusing alcohol and other drugs, working
Idealized Self-Image too had, driving recklessly and suicide
 an attempt to solve conflicts by painting a godlike picture of oneself
 an extravagantly positive view of themselves that exists only in their personal belief system F. FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY
 gives the personality a sense of unity:
o externalization  Psychic differences between men and women are not the result of anatomy but rather of cultural
o blind spot (compartmentalization) and social expectations
o rationalization  Men who subdue and rule women and women who degrade or evn men do so because of the
 excessive control neurotic competitiveness
 arbitrary rightness  Basic Anxiety is at the core of men’s need to conquer women and women’s wish to humiliate
o elusiveness men
 3 aspects:  Oedipus Complex: found only in some people and is an expression of the neurotic need for love;
o Neurotic Search for Glory: begin to incorporate it into all aspects of their lives – their goals, child’s main goal is not security, not sexual intercourse
their self-concept, and their relations with others  Womb Envy: boys sometimes do express a desire to have a baby
 Need for perfection: drive to mold the whole personality into idealized self  Masculine Protest: they have a pathological belief that men are superior to women.
 Neurotic ambition: compulsive drive toward superiority  The desire for penis is not an expression of penis envy but rather a wish for all those qualities or
 Drive toward a vindictive triumph: drive for achievement or success, but its chief aim is privileges which in our culture are regarded as masculine.
to put others to shame or defeat them through one’s very success; or to attain the
power, to inflict suffering on humiliating kind G. PSYCHOTHERAPY
o Neurotic Claims
 neurotic build a fantasy world – a world that is out of sync with the real world Horneyian Therapy
 they proclaim that they are special and therefor entitled to be treated in accordance  Help patients gradually grow in the direction of self-realization
with their idealized view of themselves  To have patients give up their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for glory, and
o Neurotic Pride change self-hatred to an acceptance of the real self
 a false pride based not on a realistic view of the true self but I a spurious, image of the  Three neurotic trends can be cast in favourable terms such as love, mastery or freedom
idealized self  Convince patients that their present solutions are perpetuating rather than alleviating the core
 usually loudly proclaimed in order to protect and support a glorified view of one’s self neurosis
 imagine themselves to be glorious, wonderful and perfect, so when others fail to treat
them with special consideration, their neurotic pride is hurt Dream Interpretation
 Real Self  attempts to solve conflicts, but the solutions can be either neurotic or healthy
o the potential for growth beyond the artificial idealized self
Free Association
Self-hatred  patients are asked to say everything that comes to mind regardless of how trivial or embarrassing
 when people realize that their real self does not match the insatiable demands of their idealized it may seem
self, they will being to hate and despise themselves  eventually reveals patients’ idealized self-image and persistent but unsuccessful attempts at
 6 major ways in expressing self-hatred: accomplishing it
o relentless demands of the self: people continue to push themselves toward perfection
because they believe that they should be perfect H. RELATED RESEARCH
o merciless self-accusation: constantly berate themselves
The Neurotic Compulsion to Avoid the Negative  less concerned with the individual and more concerned with those characteristics common to a
 High levels of neuroticism are associated with experiencing more negative emotion and being culture
more likely to develop generalized anxiety disorder  Basic Anxiety: assumes that humanity’s separation from the natural world has produced feelings
 Neuroticism is also associated with setting avoidance goals, in which a person avoids negative of loneliness and isolation
outcomes, rather than setting aprach goals in which a person approaches positive outcomes
Isolation Alternatives
Can Neuroticism Ever Be a Good Thing?  escape from freedom into interpersonal dependencies
 Michael Robinson and Colleagues (2007) relationship between neuroticism, recognition of  move to self-realization through productive love and work
threats and mood
 Theory: The neurotic sensitivity to threat would serve a purpose in that such people could A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ERICH FROMM
recognize problems, and presumably avoid them, and that successful avoidance would make
them feel better Full name: Erich Krause Fromm
 Result: (Successful Neurotic) Those who are predisposed toward being neurotic, the ability to Birthday: March 23, 1900
react adaptively to errors while assessing threat was related to experiencing less negative mood Birthplace: Frankfurt, Germany
in daily life Father: Naphtali Fromm
Mother: Rosa Krause Fromm
I. CRITIQUE OF HORNEY Wife: Frieda Reichmann Fromm (his analyst), Henny Gurland, Annis Freeman
Death: March 18, 1980 (heart attack)
 generate research and falsifiability: speculations from the theory do not easily yield testable Deathplace: Muralto, Switzerland
hypotheses and therefore lack both verifiability and falsifiability
 organize knowledge (high): deals mostly with neurotics Significant part of his life
 guide to action: (low) theory is not specific enough to give the practitioner a clear and detailed  moody father and prone to depression mother
course of action  grew up in two very distinct worlds: traditional orthodox Jewish world and modern capitalist
 internally consistent: concept and formulations are precise, consistent and unambiguous world
 parsimony: (high) simple, straightforward and clearly written  world war I
 suicide of a beautiful young artist who killed her self immediately after the death of her father
 has a Freudian analyst and teacher
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY  training by Talmudic teacher
 acquaintance with Karen Horney
1. free choice  association with Harry Stack Sullivan, Clara Thompson and others
2. optimistic
3. causality and teleology
4. conscious and unconscious B. FROMM’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
5. social influences
6. similarities  Individual Personality can be understood only in the light of human history
 Human Dilemma: ability to reason for not having the powerful instincts to adapt to a changing
FROMM: HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS world; experienced because of separation from nature and yet have the capacity to be aware of
themselves as isolated beings
Humanistic Psychoanalysis  Human Dilemma is a blessing (permits people to survive) and a curse (forces them to attempt to
 emphasizes the influence of sociobiological factors, history, economics and class structure. solve basic insoluble dichotomies)
 looks at people from a historical and cultural perspective rather a strictly psychological one  Basic Soluble Dichotomies:
o Life and Death
 o Goal of Complete Self-Realization
o Isolation Reason
 Is responsible for feelings of isolation and loneliness, but it is also the process that enables
C. HUMAN NEEDS humans to become reunited with the world

Not all human needs can satisfy the instinct of human. Only the distinctive human needs like the following Burden of Freedom
can move people toward a reunion with the natural world.  They are free from the security of being one with the mother

Healthy Individuals are better able to find ways of reuniting to the world by productively solving the human Basic Anxiety
needs of:  The feeling of being alone in the world

Existential Nees Mechanisms of Escape:

 needs that must be met for a meaningful existence 1. Authoritarianism: giving up one’s identity and fusing with somebody/something outside oneself
 inner being is developed to acquire the lacking strength
o Masochism
1. Relatedness: the drive for union with another person or other persons  from the basic feelings of powerlessness, weakness and inferiority
o Submission (becoming part of something bigger than himself)  aimed at joining the self to a more powerful person or institution
o Power (welcoming submissive people; symbiotic relationship: satisfying to both partners) o Sadism (3 kinds)
o Love (union with somebody)  make others dependent on oneself
 4 basic elements: Care, Responsibility, Respect, Knowledge  exploit others
2. Transcendence: urge to rise above a passive and accidental existence and into the realm of  see others suffer
purposefulness and freedom 2. Destructiveness
o Creating Life: reproduction or creativeness in life o destroying/do away with other people
o Destroying Life: rising above our slain victims o attempts to restores lost feeling of power
 Malignant Aggression: to kill for reasons other than survival 3. Conformity
3. Rootedness: need to establish roots or to feel at home again in the world o giving up their identity and becoming what other people want them to be
o Weaning from the orbit of their mother and become fully born: they actively and creatively o the more they conform, the more powerless they feel; the more powerless they feel, the
related to the world and become whole or integrated. more they conform
o Fixation: tenacious reluctance to move beyond the protective security provided by one’s
mother Positive Freedom
4. Sense of Identity: capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate enitity; “I am I” or “I am the  Freedom and not alone, critical and yet not filled doubts, independent and yet an integral part of
subject of my actions” man kind
o Adjustment to the Group: people identified more closely with their clan and did not see
themselves as individuals existing apart from their group E. CHARACTER ORIENTATIONS
o Individuality: they possess an authentic sense of identity so they do not have to surrender
their freedom and individuality Character Orientations
5. Frame of Orientation: need for a map to make their way in the world  Person’s relatively permanent way of relating to people and things
o Rational: make sense of these event and phenomena
o Irrational: strive to put these events into some sort of framework in orer to make sense of Character
them  relatively permanent system of all noninstinctual striving through which relates himself to the
human and natural world
D. THE BURDEN OF FREEDOM
Social Character
 the core of a character structure common to most people of a given culture The following personality disorders are experiences if a person were not able to work, love, and think
productively:
 People relate into two ways: 1. Necrophilia
o Assimilation: acquiring and using things o love or attraction to death
o Socialization: relating to self and others o sexual contact with a corpse
2. Malignant Narcissim
Nonproductive Orientations o interest in their own body
 strategies that fail to move people closer to positive freedom and self-realization o everything belonging to a narcissistic person is highly valued and everything belonging to
o Receptive another is devalued
 feel that the source of all good lies outside themselves and that the only way they can o Hypochondriasis: obsessive attention to one’s health
relate to the world is to receive things o Moral Hypochondriasis: preoccupation with guilt about previous misbehaviours
 positive qualities: loyalty, acceptance and trust o Depression: result if the criticism is overwhelming and that they may be unable to destroy it,
 negative qualities: passivity submissiveness, lack of self-confidence and so they turn their rage inward; feeling of worthlessness
o Exploitative 3. Incestuous Symbiosis
 aggressively take the things they desire rather than passively receive it o extreme dependence on the mother or mother surrogate
 positive qualities: impulsive, proud, charming and self-confident o exaggerated form of benign mother fixation
 negative qualities: egocentric, conceited, arrogant and seducing o inseperable from the host person
o Hoarding
 saving and keeping things for themselves Syndrome of Decay: necrophilia, malignant narcissism, incestuous symbiosis
 positive qualities: orderliness, cleanliness and punctuality Syndrome of Growth: biophilia, love, positive freedom
 negative qualities: rigidity, sterility, obstinacy compulsivity and lack of creativity
o Marketing G. PSYCHOTHERAPY
 sees oneself as commodity; I am as you desire me
 positive qualities: changeability, openmindedness, adaptability and generosity Humanistic Psychoanalysis
 negative qualities: aimless, opportunistic, inconsistent and wasteful  The aim of this therapy is for the patients to come to know themselves
 without knowledge of ourselves, we cannot know any other person or thing
The Productive Orientations  The Therapist should not view the patient as an illness or a thing but as a person with the same
 productive people work toward positive freedom and a continuing realization of their potential human needs that all people possess.
 unit with the world and with others while retaining uniqueness and individuality
o Work
 means of creative self-expression ad producing life’s necessities Dream Analysis
o Love  dreams as well as fairy tales and myths, are expressed in symbolic language – the only universal
 care, responsibility, respect and knowledge language humans have developed
 Biophilia: a passionate love of life and all that is a love
o Thinking/Thought/Reasoning H. FROMM’S METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
 motivated by a concerned interest in another person or object
 see others as they are and not as they would wish them to be Social Character in a Mexican Village
 research tools: dream reports, detailed questionnaires, Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic
F. PERSONALITY DISORDERS Apperception Test
 Market orientation did not exist among these peasant villagers
Psychologically disturbed people are incapable of love and have failed to establish union with others.
  First, non-productive-receptive: look up to others and devoted much energy in trying to please
those whom they regarded as superiors
 Second, productive-hoarding: hardworking, productive ad independent
 Third, non-productive-exploitative: Men get into knife or pistol fights, whereas the women
tended to be malicious gossipmongers The Burden of Freedom and Political Persuasions
 Fourth, productive-exploitative: accumulated capital by taking advantage of new agricultural
technology as well as recent increase in tourism
 Fromm and Maccoby (1970) reported a remarkable similarity between character orientation in
this Mexican Village and the theoretical orientation Fromm had suggested some yaers earlier
A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler
 Psychohistory or Psychobiography: examining historical documents in order to sketch a
psychological portrait of a prominent person
 Fromm regarded Hitler as the world’s most conspicuous example of a person with the syndrome
of decay
 Hitler displayed 3 pathological disorders: attracted to death and destruction, narrowly focused on
self-interest, and driven by incestuous devotion the Germanic races
 Fromm believed that each stage od development is important and that nothing in Hitler’s early
life bent him inevitably toward the syndrome of decay
 Each failure of Hitler caused a graver wound to his narcissism and deeper humiliation than the
previous one
 His necrophilia as expressed n his mania for destroying building and cities, his orders to kill
defective people, his boredom and his slaughter of millions of Jews
 For malignant narcissism, he was only interested only in himself, his plans, and his ideology
 His incestuous symbiosis is manifested by his passionate devotion not to his real mother but to
the Germanic race.
 Conclusion: Any analysis that would distort Hitler’s picture by depriving him of his humanity
would only intensify the tendency to be blind to the potential Hitler’s unless they wear horns.
I. RELATED RESEARCH
SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL THEORY
Estrangement From Culture and Well-Being
 Mark Bernard and Colleagues (2006) sought to test if anxiety and isolation result from too much Why is it important to know about Sullivan’s sexual orientation (because of his relationship with Clarence
freedom; specifically, the researchers wanted to test a person whether or not discrepancies Bellinger)?
between a person’s own beliefs and the way the person perceived the beliefs of his or her
society led to feelings of estrangement
 result: the more a person reported that his or her vales were discrepant from society in general,
the more likely he or she was to have a strong feeling of estrangement,
 Second study: Is feeling of estrangement from one’s culture was related to increased feeling of
anxiety and depression.
 result: the more estranged from society people felt in general, the more anxious and depressed
they were.
 Feeling estranged from society in general may make people more susceptible to feeling of
depression but these feelings can be lessened if a person can find a group of people who share
their beliefs, even if those are not the beliefs of the society in general.
 Jack and Jeanne Block (2006) examine how people develop the political persuasions they do and
whether personality can predict which type of political party any given individual.
 result: children who were described by their teachers 20 years previously as being easily
offended, indecisive, fearful and rigid were more likely to be politically conservative in their
twenties. Children who had been described as being self-reliant, energetic, somewhat dominating
and relatively under controlled in preschool grew up to be more liberal.
J. CRITIQUE OF FROMM
 generator of empirical research: (sterile) imprecise and vague terms
 falsifiable: too philosophical; could be explained by other theories
 organize and explainable: lack of precision makes prediction difficult and falsification impossible
 guide to action: neither the researcher nor the therapist receives much practicall ifnoramtion
 internal consistency: internally consistent in the sense that a single theme run throughout his
writings
 parsimony: lacks simplicity and unity
K. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
1. determinism and free choice
2. pessimistic and optimistic
3. teleology
4. conscious
5. social influences
6. similarities and individuality
 A personality theorist’s early life history all relate to that person’s adult beliefs, conception of
humanity and the type of personality theory that the person will develop
 His sexual orientation may have prevented him from gaining the acceptance and recognition he
might have had if others had not suspected that he was homosexual
 Thus, Sulllivan, who otherwise might have achieved greater fame, was shackled by sexual
prejudices that kept him from being regarded as American’s foremost psychiatrist of the first half
of the 20th century.
Interpersonal Theory
 emphasizes the importance of various developmental stages – infancy, childhood, the juvenile
era, preadolescence, early adolescence, late adolescence and adulthood
 healthy human development rests on a person’s ability to establish intimacy with another person,
but unfortunately, anxiety can interfere with satisfying interpersonal relations at any age
 people achieve healthy development when they are able to experience both intimacy and lust
toward the same other person
 Focus on social aspects of personality and cognitive representations
 Personality: shaped by social interaction with others
 Self-system: born out of well-being influenced by significant others
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF HARRY SULLIVAN
o tensions brought on biological imbalance between a person and the physiochemical
environment, both inside and outside the organism; general needs; zonal needs
o Tenderness: interpersonal need
o Dynamisms: excess energy from satisfying the needs that is transformed into consistent
characteristic mode of behavior
 Anxiety
o it is disjunctive, more diffuse and vague and calls forth no consistent actions for its relief
o Empathy: transfer of anxiety from the parent to the infant
o produces behavior that prevents people from learning their mistakes, keep people pursuing
a childish wish for security and generally ensure that people will not learn from their
experiences
o Euphoria: complete lack of tension; felt when people avoid anxiety

Full name: Harry Stack Sullivan Energy Transformations

Birthday: February 21, 1892  Transform tensions into either covert or overt behaviors and are aimed at satisfying needs and
Birthplace: Norwich, New York reducing anxiety
Father: Timothy Sullivan  Tensions that are transformed into actions
Mother: Ella Stack Sullivan
Siblings: 3 tensions  energy transformations  dynamisms
Death: January 14, 1949 (cerebral haemorrhage)
Deathplace: Paris, France C. DYNAMISMS

Significant part of his life Dynamisms

 never developed a close relationship with his father until her mother died and he became a  Typical behavior that characterize a person throughout a lifetime
prominent physician  A term that means about the same as traits or habit patterns
 had two women (other than her mother) to mother him  2 major classes:
 close friendship Clarence Bellinger o Related to zones
 suspension because of mail fraud o Related to tension
 studies of schizophrenia  importance of interpersonal relationships  Disjunctive Dynamisms
 association with: Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Frieda Fromm-Reichmannn, Clara Thompson and  destructive patterns of behavior
others  Malevolence: evil and hatred, characterized by the feeling of living among one’s
 uncomfortability with his sexuality and ambivalent feelings toward marriage enemies
 regarded James Inscoe as a son and changed his name into James I. Sullivan  Isolating Dynamisms
 behavior patterns that are unrelated to interpersonal relations
B. TENSIONS  Lust: isolating tendency, requiring no other person for its satisfaction; autoerotic
behavior when another person is the object of one’s lust
Tensions  Conjunctive Dynamisms
 A potentiality for action that may or may not be experienced in awareness  beneficial behavior pattern
 Intimacy: involves a close relationship between two people who are more or less
of equal status
2 types of Tensions:  Self-Systems: inclusive of all dynamisms consistent pattern of behaviors that
 Needs maintains people’s interpersonal security by protecting them from anxiety
 o Security Operations: reduce feelings of insecurity or anxiety that result from o Prelogical and usually result when a person assumes a cause-and-effect relationship
endangered self-esteem between two events that occur coincidentally
 Dissociation: impulses, desires and needs that a person refuses to allow o can be communicated to others only in a distorted fashion
into awareness; do not become part of the self-system o Parataxic distortion: an illogical belief that a cause-and-effect relationship exists between
 Selective Inattention: refusal to see those things that we do not wish to two events in close temporal proximity
see 3. Syntaxic Level
o Experiences that are consensually validated that can be symbolically communicated take
D. PERSONIFICATIONS place

Personifications F. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (EPOCHS)

 Images of themselves and others
1. Infancy
3 Basic Personifications: o Feelings about “Good” and “Bad” caregivers
1. Bad-Mother, Good-Mother o Age: 0-2 years
o Bad-Mother: bad nipple; not an accurate image of the real mother but merely the infant’s o Significant Others: Mother/
vague representation of not being properly fed Caregiver
o Good-Mother: tender and cooperative behaviors of the mothering one o Interpersonal Process: Tenderness
2. Me Personifications o Important Learnings: Dual Personifications of Mother
o Building blocks of the self-personification o emphatic linkage between mother and infant leads inevitably to the development of anxiety
o Bad-Me: fashioned from experiences of punishment and disapproval that infants receive for the baby
from their mothering one o Apathy and somnolent detachment allow the infant to fall asleep despite the hunger
o Good-Me: infant’s experiences with reward and approval instead of dying
o Not-Me: dissociate or selectively inattend experiences related to that anxiety; denies the o autistic language: private language that makes little or no sense to other people
experiences to the me image so that they become part of the not-me personification 2. Childhood
 Uncanny Emotions: overcomes sudden severe anxiety; serves as valuable signal for o Learning applicable to social habits
approaching schizophrenic reactions; (experienced in dream, or take the form of awe, o period of rapid acculturation
horror, loathing or a chilly crawling) o Age: 2-6 years
3. Eidetic Personifications o Significant Others: Parents
o Unrealistic traits or imaginary friends that many children invent in order to protect their self- o Interpersonal Process: Protect security through imaginary playmates
esteem o Important Learnings: Learn what is ‘proper’ and use language as a tool in social world
o can create conflict in interpersonal relations when people project onto other imaginary traits
o dual personifications of mother is fused into one and is more congruent to the real mother
that are remnants from previous relationships. They also hinder communication and prevent
o emotions become reciprocal: tenderness (mother  child; child  mother)
people from functioning on the same level of cognition
o 2 important processes learned by children:
 Dramatizations: attempts to act like or sound like significant authority figures
E. LEVEL OF COGNITION
 Preoccupations: strategies for avoiding anxiety and fear-provoking situations by
remaining occupied with an activity that has earlier proved useful or rewarding
1. Prototaxic Level
3. Juvenile Era
o Earliest and most primitive and experiences of an infant
o Finding playmates and questioning parents
o These experiences cannot be communicated to others, they are difficult to describe or
o Age: 5-8.5 years old
define
o Significant Others: Playmates of equal status
o In adult, momentary sensations, images, feelings, moods and impressions
o Interpersonal Process: Orientation toward living in the world of peers
2. Parataxic Level
 o Important Learnings: Learn to compete, compromise, and cooperate with other children o Important Learnings: Perceptive of other’s anxiety, needs, and security
o The child recognizes new authority figures o people who have achieved the capacity to love are not in need f psychiatric counsel
o The real world is coming more into focus o mature adults are perceptive of other people’s anxiety, needs and security.
o Orientation Toward Living (makes it easier to consistently handle anxiety satisfy zonal and o operate predominantly on the syntaxic level
tenderness needs and set goals based on memory and foresight) readies a person for the
deeper interpersonal relationships to follow G. PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
4. Preadolescence
o Collaborating with a friend  All psychological disorders have an interpersonal origin and can be understood only with
o Age: 8.5-13 years reference to the patient’s social environment
o Significant Others: Single/best friend  Everyone is much more simply human than unique, and that no matter what ails the patient, he is
o Interpersonal Process: Intimacy with a person of the same age and gender mostly a person like the psychiatrist
o Important Learnings: Learn importance of affection and respect from peers  2 classes of schizophrenia:
o This is the start of the capacity to love o Originate from organic causes
o intimacy and love become the essence of friendships o Grounded in situational factors
o usually boy-boy or girl-girl chumships
o most untroubled and carefree time of life H. PSYCHOTHERAPY
o mistakes made during earlier stages of development can be overcome during
preadolescence, but mistakes made during preadolescence are difficult to surmount during Sullivanian Therapy
later stages  the therapist serves as a participant observer, becoming part of an interpersonal, face-to-face
5. Early Adolescence relationship with the patient and providing the patient an opportunity to establish syntaxic
o Experiencing lust toward a sexual partner communication with another human being
o Age: 13-15 years  psychosis is not merely a physical disorder and that the personal relationship of one human being
o Significant Others: Several partners to another is the essence of psychological growth
o Interpersonal Process: Intimacy and lust toward different persons  aimed at uncovering patients’ difficulties in relating to others
o Important Learnings: learn to balance trust, intimacy and security operations
I. RELATED RESEARCH
o This stage is the basis for adult relationship
o getting along with other people
The Pros and Cons of “Chums” for Girls and Boys
o genital interest and lustful relationships
 Ruminating: act of dwelling on a negative event or negative aspects of an otherwise neutral or
6. Late Adolescence
even positive event and is generally considered to be harmful as it is associated with an increase
o Establishing adult love relationship
in depression
o Age: 15-18
 Co-rumination: excessively discussing personal problems within a relationship
o Significant Others: Lover
 Amanda Rose and Colleagues (2007) interested in the negative impact of co-rumination in
o Interpersonal Process: Fusion of intimacy and lust
childhood friendships
o Important Learnings: Establishes a mature repertory of interpersonal relationships
 result: co-rumination in same-sex friendships was related to increased feelings of depression and
o Opposite sex are no longer desired as sex objects but as people who are capable of being
anxiety but was also related to greater friendship quality
loved nonselfishly
 Are girls more likely to engage in co-rumination than boys? Is co-rumination better for girls than
o completely determined by interpersonal relations
boys or vice versa?
7. Adulthood
 findings: boys and girls engage in very different activities within their friendships on a daily basis
o Completion of the personality
 Sex differences in the effects of co-rumination on depression, anxiety and overall friendship
o Significant Others: Lover/Life Partner
quality
o Interpersonal Process: Maturity/High Intimacy
  result: Co-rumination was particularly bad for girls but not so bad for boys (For girls: co-
rumination was associated with increased depression and anxiety but also with better
friendships; For boys: co-rumination was associated with better friendship but was not related to
increased depression or anxiety)
 For boys, having a supportive friend may well e sufficient to ward off depression and anxiety
 For girls, no matter how supportive those friends are and no matter how good the friendship is,
girls are at increased risk for developing depression

Imaginary Friends
 Tracy Gleason and Lisa Hohmann (2006) explore how children view imaginary friends in relation
to their real friends
 result: imaginary friends are important and help to model how real friendships should work
 supports sullivan’s assumption that having an imaginary playmate is a normal, healthy
experience. It is neither a sign of pathology nor a result of feelings of loneliness and alienation
from other children.

J. CRITIQUE OF SULLIVAN

 generate research: deficiency is lack of popularity among researcher most apt to conduct
research – the academicians
 falsifiable: (low) alternative explanations are possible for most of these findings ERIKSON: POST-FREUDIAN THEORY
 organize knowledge: (moderate) extreme emphasis on interpersonal relations subtracts from its
ability to organize knowledge, because much of what is presently known about human behavior 3 Separate beliefs of Erikson regarding his origin (father):
has a biological asis and does not easily fit into a theory restricted to interpersonal relations  Theodor Homburger, a physician, was his biological father but their features are not the same
 practical guide: relative lack of testing  Valdemar Salomonsen, his mother’s first husband, but he left them 4 years before he was born
 internally consistent: logically conceptualized and holds together as a unified entity  He was the outcome a sexual connection between his mother and artistically gifted aristocratic
 parsimonious: (low) writing add needless bulk to a theory that, if streamlined, would be far more Dane
useful
Throughout his life, he had difficulty accepting himself as either a Jew or a Gentile
K. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Erikson coined the term Identity Crisis.
1. determinism?
2. neither pessimism nor optimism Post-Freudian Theory
3. neither causality not teleology?  extended Freud’s infantile developmental stages into adolescence, adulthood and old age
4. neither conscious nor unconscious?  at each stage a specific psychosocial struggle contributes to the formation of personality
5. social influences  Identity Crisis: a turning point in one’s life that mey either strengthen or weaken personality
6. similarities  extension of psychoanalysis
 instead of elaborating psychosexual stages beyond childhood stages, he places more emphasis on
both social and historical influences

A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ERIK ERIKSON

Full name: Erik H. Erikson 3. Ego Identity
Birthday: June 15, 1902 o the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social roles we play
Birthplace: Southern Germany
Father: unknown Society’s Influence to Ego:
Mother: unnamed  The ego emerges from and is largely shaped by society.
Wife: Joan Serson  The ego exists as potential at birth, but it must emerge from within a cultural environment.
Children: Kai, Jon, Neil (has down syndrome) and Sue  Pseudospecies: an illusion performed and continued by a particular society that is somehow
Death: May 12, 1994 chosen to be the human species
Death place: Cape Cod?
Epigenetic Principle
Significant part of his life:  Epigenetic Development
 invitation of Peter Blos for him to become a teacher with Anna Freud as his employer, who later o A step by step growth of fetal organs
on become his psychoanalyst as well o it develops, or should develop, according to a predetermined rate and in a fixed sequence
 searching for his father’s identity o Development or supposed development according to a predetermined rate and in a
 placed Neil in an institution but told his three children that their brother is dead fixed sequence
 no degree o the ego follows the path of epigenetic development, with each stage developing at its
 sought his identity through myriad changes of jobs and places of residence proper time
 Erik Salomonsen  Erik Homburger  Erik Homburger Erikson  Erik H. Erikson  anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part
 he recognized that the influence of psychological, cultural and historical factors on identity was having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole
the underlying element hat held the various chapters together  we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our ppersonalities in 8 th stages
 if we interfere, we ruin the entire development
B. THE EGO IN POST-FREUDIAN THEORY  Epigenesis: one characteristic develops on top of another in space and time

Ego C. STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

 positive force that creates a self-identity, a sense of “I”
 center of our personality Basic points in Psychosocial Development:
 helps us adapt to the various conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from losing our individuality 1. Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle.
to the levelling forces of society 2. In every stage of life, there is an interaction of opposites. (should be learned both)
 partially unconscious organizing agency that synthesizes our present experiences with past self- o Syntonic (Harmonious)
identities and also with anticipated images of self o Dystonic (Disruptive)
 person’s ability to unify experiences andactions in an adaptive manner 3. At each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements produces an ego quality
or ego strength known as Basic Strength. (allows the person to move on the next stage)
3 Aspects of Ego: 4. Too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology (opposite of basic strength)
1. Body Ego for that stage.
o Experiences with our body 5. Never lost sight of the biological aspect of human development
o a way of seeing our physical self as different for other people 6. Events on earlier stages do not cause later personality development. Ego identity is shaped by a
o we may be satisfied or dissatisfied with the way our body looks and functions, but we municipality of conflicts and events (past, present and anticipated)
recognize that it is the only body we will ever have 7. Personality development is characterized by identity crisis (a turning point, a crucial period of
2. Ego Ideal increased vulnerability and heightened potential)
o Presents the image we have of ourselves in comparison with an established ideal
o responsible for our being satisfied or dissatisfied not only with our physical self but with our Psychosocial Stages of Development:
entire personal identity
 1. Infancy (0-1y/o): Trust vs Mistrust 3. Play Age (3-5y/o): Initiative vs Guilt

STAGE PSYCHO-SEXUAL PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG. STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.
MODE SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS SEXUAL SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
Infancy Oral-respiratory: Basic Trust vs. Hope Withdrawal The MODE
Sensory- Basic Mistrust mothering Play Age Infantile- Initiative vs Purpose Inhibition Family
kinesthetic one Genital- Guilt
Time of modes of If their pattern Pagasa With little to Primary Locomotor
incorporation; incorporation: of accepting hope for, they caregiver, Developing Include the Initiative: Play with a Compulsively Parents,
taking in not 1. Receiving and things will retreat ordinarily locomotion, budding selection and purpose, moralistic or Siblings, and
only through accepting what corresponds from outside their language skills, understandin pursuit of competing at overly inhibited Extended
their mouth is given with culture’s world and begin mother. curiosity, g of such goals games on person family
but through 2. Not only must way of giving the journey imagination and basic Guilt: bad order to win members
various senses get, but must things, then toward serious the ability to concepts as feeling as a or to be top;
as well also get infant learns psychological set goals. reproduction, consequence Do things on
someone else to trust. If not, disturbance. growth, of inhibited purpose
give then mistrust. future and goals
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome death
Needs are met by responsive parents  develops Develop mistrust towards people Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
secure attachment and trust Encouraging involved parents  children learns to Develop a sense of guilt when trying to be
 infants are dependent on others for food, care and affection follow rules independent
 must be able to trust their parents Disciplined without guilt
 become more engaged in external world
 learn to balance being adventurous and responsibility
2. Early Childhood (2-3y/o): Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
4. School Age (6-12/13y/o): Industry vs Inferiority
STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.
SEXUAL MODE SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO-SOCIAL BASIC CORE SIG.
Early Childhood Anal-Urethral- Autonomy vs Will Compulsion Parents SEXUAL MODE CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
Muscular Shame and
Doubt School Age Latency Industry vs Competence Inertia Neighbor-
Inferiority hood, School
Receive Learn to control Autonomy: Willingness, Lack of Mother and
pleasure not their body esp. independence kusa purpose and father Striving for Allows children Industry: Confidence to Children are Friends,
only for in relation to Shame: self- lack of self- competenc to divert their industriousness, use one’s likely to give Classmates,
sphincter cleanliness and consciousness confidence e energies to a willingness to physical and up and Teacher and
muscle but also mobility; time of being looked learning the remain busy with cognitive regress to an Adult models
for other body for impulsive at and exposed technology of something and abilities to early stage of
functions such self-expression Doubt: feeling their culture to finish a job. solve the development
as walking, and compulsive of being not and the problems that .
urinating, etc. deviance certain strategies of accompany
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome their social school age.
interactions;
Encouraging initiative  develop confidence to cope Disapproving parents  child feel ashamed Competent or
and doubt abilities incompetent
 learn to do things for themselves Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
 self-control and self-confidence develop
Have pleasure in intellectual activities productive  Develop a sense of inferiority
develop sense of competence while satisfactions take chances in sexual passion, ideas in order
 learning and acquiring skills maintaining with a loved fusing through cooperation, to develop
sense of person. intimacy competition and strong sense
individuality friendship of identity.
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
Able to form close relationships Fear commitment, feel isolated
Achieve sense of identity “quarter life crisis”
 love relationships and intimacy
7. Middle Adulthood/Adulthood (30-60y/o): Generativity vs Stagnation
5. Adolescence (12-18y/o): Identity vs Identity Confusion

STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.

STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO-SOCIAL BASIC CORE SIG.
SEXUAL SOCIAL STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
SEXUAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
MODE CRISIS
MODE
Adulthood Procreativity Generativity Care Rejectivity Divided labor
Adolescence Puberty Identity vs Fidelity Role Repudation Peer Groups
vs Stagnation and shared
Identity
household
Confusion
Gain firm Genital Strive to find out Faithfulnes Diffidence: Peers People begin Instinctual Generativity: A widening Unwillingness to Work and
sense of ego maturation, who they are and s extreme lack of to take place drive to generations commitment take certain Home
identity; Triggers who they are not self-trust and in society and perpetuate of new to take care persons or
Period of expectations self-confidence assume species; beings, of the groups; self-
Social Latency of adult Identity  responsibility Includes products and persons, the centeredness,
and Period of roles yet Confusion: shyness/hesitanc for whatever assuming ideas products, provincialism,
Trial and Error ahead. syndrome of y society responsibility Stagnation: and the ideas Pseudospeciatio
problem about Defiance: act of produces for the care too self- one has n: other group of
idneity rebelling against of offspring absorbed in learned to people are
authority themselves, care for inferior to one’s
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome too self- own
indulgent
Develop strong identity, have plans and goals for Fall into confusion indecisive Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
the future “identity crisis”
 be able to resolve “who am I?” conflict Have and nurtured children  contribute to Remain self-centered and experience stagnation
next generation (mid-life crisis)
 ability to look outside self and care for others
6. Young Adulthood (19-30y/o): Intimacy vs Isolation  parenting = create legacy

STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG. 8. Late Adulthood/Old Age (60-Onwards): Integrity vs Despair
SEXUAL SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
MODE STAGE PSYCHO-SEXUAL PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.
Young Genitality Intimacy vs Love Exclusivity Sexual MODE SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
Adulthood Isolation Partners, Old Age Generalized Integrity vs Wisdom Disdain All
Friends Sensuality Despair humanity
People must Distinguishe Intimacy: Mature devotion Pushing Partners Old people Take pleasure in a Integrity: Informed and A reaction to Everyone
acquire the d by mutual fusing one’s that overcomes people away; (eg can remain variety o diff. feeling of detached feeling in an
ability to fuse trust and a identity w/o basic difference exclude husband), productive physical sensations; wholeness concern with increasing state
that identity with stable fear of losing it between men certain Boyfriends/ and creative Greater and life itself in of being
the identity of sharing of Isolation: and women; people, Girlfriends in other appreciation for coherence’ the face of finished,
another person sexual incapacity to commitment, activities and ways the traditional sense of death itself; confused,
 lifestyle of opposite ‘I’ness helpless  falsifiability: (average) many findings from this body of research can be explained by theories
sex Despair: to be other than erikson’s developmental stages theory
without hope  organize knowledge: does not adequately address such issues as personal traits or motivation
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
 guide to action: provides many general guidelines but offers little specific advice
Sense of fulfilment 00> accept death with a sense Individual despairs and fear death  internal consistency: (high) terms used to label the different psychosocial crises, basic strengths
of integrity and core pathologies are very carefully chosen
 reflect upon one’s life
 parsimony: (moderate) precision of its terms is a strength but the descriptions of psychosexual
 filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointment and failures
and psychosocial crises are not always clearly differentiated
D. ERIKSON’S METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
G. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Anthropological Studies
1. determinism
 studied Sioux Children and Yurok Nation
2. optimistic
 showed that early childhood training was consistent with this strong cultural value and that
3. causality
history and society helped personality
4. both conscious and unconscious
5. social influences
Psychohistory
6. uniqueness
 controversial field that combines psychoanalytic concepts with historical methods
 study of individual and collective life with the combined methods of psychoanalysis and history
 studied Martin Luther and Mahatma Gandhi

E. RELATED RESEARCH

Generativity and Parenting

 Dan McAdams and Collegaues (1999) developed the Loyola Generativity Scale that measure the
generativity
 Peterson (2006) investigated the impact of parental generativity on the development of children
 result: children of highly generative parents had more confidence, sense of freedom and we just
generally happy. Also, they had a stronger future time orientation meaning they spent time
thinking about future. If parents are overly self-absorbed and self-indulgent, then they are
spending less time being concerned about the well-being of their children

Generativity versus Stagnation

 measure both separately and then measure several outcomes
 Van Hiel and Colleagues (2006) try to see how these two constructs match up to important
outcomes
 result: supported the new proposition that stagnation and generativity should be considered
independently; there are individuals who are high on both generativity and stagnation and the
such a personality profile is not healthy in terms of mental and emotional well-being

F. CRITIQUE OF ERIKSON

 generate research: (high) most of his topic stimulated active empirical investigation
  had Edward B. Titchener as his professor in introductory psychology
 interested in John B. Watson’s behaviourism that leads him to take psychology course to meet
prerequisite for a PhD in psychology
 quit medical school because he thinks that it reflected an unemotional and negative view of
people and he was both disturbed and bored by his experiences in medical school
MASLOW: HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY  scored 195 in Intelligence Test
 association with Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Max Wertheimer, Alfred Adler and Kurt Goldstein
Holistic-Dynamic Theory
 also known as humanistic theory, transpersonal theory, the third force in psychology, the fourth B. MASLOW’S VIEW OF MOTIVATION
force in personality, needs theory and self-actualization theory
 assumes that the whole person is constantly being motivated by one need or another and that Basic Assumptions Regarding Motivation:
people have the potential to grow toward psychological health, that is, self-actualization  holistic approach to motivation: the whole person, not any single part or function, is motivated
 to attain self-actualization, people must satisfy lower level needs such as hunger, safety, love and  motivation is usually complex: a person’s behavior may spring from several separate motives
esteem (eg: sexual union is motivated not only by genital need but also needs for dominance,
 only after they are relatively satisfied in each of these needs can they reach self-actualization companionship, love and self-esteem
 people are continually motivated by one need or another: when one need is satisfied, it
Forces in Psychology ordinarily loses its motivational power and is then replaced by another (eg: hunger  food 
1. Psychoanalysis safety  so on)
2. Behaviorism  all people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs: fundamental needs for food,
3. Humanism safety and friendship are common to the entire species
 needs can be arranged on a hierarchy: in order
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF MASLOW
Hierarchy of Needs
Full name: Abraham Harold (Abe) Maslow  assumes that lower level needs must be satisfied or at least relatively satisfied before higher level
Birthday: April 1, 1908 needs become motivators
Birthplace: Manhattan, New York  these basic needs are also known as conative needs
Father: Samuel Maslow  basic needs can be arranged on a hierarchy or staircase, with each ascending step representing a
Mother: Rose Schilosky Maslow higher need one less basic to survival
Wife: Bertha Goodman  they must be satisfied or mostly satisfied before higher level needs become ativated
Death: June 8, 1970 (massive heartattack)
Deathplace: California?

Significant part of his life

 most lonely and miserable childhood
 not especially close to either parent but felt hatred and deep-seated animosity toward his mother
 learned to hate and mistrust religion and to become a committed atheist because of the
punishment of God as a threat of his mother
 close friendship with his cousin Will Maslow that helped him developed some social skills and
was involved in several school activities
 quit law school because he think that it dealt too much with evil people and was not sufficiently
concerned with the good
 fell in love Bertha Goodman (his cousin)
 1. Physiological Needs (approximately 85%)
o food, water, oxygen, maintenance of body temperature, and so on
o needs are the physical requirements for human survival; most basic needs of any person
o only needs that can be completely satisfied or even overly satisfied
o recurring nature
2. Safety Needs (approximately 75%)
o physical security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from threating forces, law,
order and structure
o cannot be overly satisfied
o people spend more far more energy than do healthy people trying to satisfy safety needs,
and when they are nt successful in their attempts, they suffer from Basic Anxiety
3. Love and Belongingness Needs (approximately 50%)
o desire for friendship, wish for a mate and children, need to belong to a family, club,
neighbourhood or a nation, sex and human contact
o people who had their love and belongingness do not feel devastated when other people
reject them
o people who never experienced love and belongingness are incapable of giving love; seldom
or never been hugged, or cuddled nor experienced any form of verbal love will eventually
learn to devalue love and to take absence for granted
o people who have received only a little amount of lave have stronger needs for affection and
acceptance than do people who have received either a healthy amount of love or no love at
all
4. Esteem Needs (approximately 40%)
o self-respect, confidence, competence and the knowledge that others hold them in high
esteem
o divided into two levels known as reputation and self-esteem
 Reputation: perception of the prestige, recognition or fame a person has achieved in
the eyes of others
 Self-Esteem: desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and
competence, for confidence, in the face of the world, and for independence and
freedom
5. Self-Actualization (approximately 10%)
o self-fulfilment; the realization of all one’s potential, and a desire to become creative in the
full sense of the world
o people who have reached the level of self-actualization become fully human, satisfying
needs that others merely glimpse or never view at all
o self-actualizing people maintain their feeling of self-esteem even when scorned, rejected
and dismissed by other people
3 other needs:
6. Aesthetic Needs
o need for beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences
o desire beautiful and orderly surroundings, and when these needs are not met, they become
sick in the same way that they become sick when their conative needs are frustrated
7. Cognitive needs
o a desire to know, to solve mysteries, to understand and to be curious
o when cognitive needs are blocked, all needs on Maslow’s hierarchy are threatened; that is,
knowledge is necessary to satisfy each of the five conative needs
o people who have not satisfied their cognitive needs become pathological, a pathology that
takes the form of scepticism, disillusionment and cynicism
8. Neurotic needs
o lead only to stagnation and pathology
o perpetuate an unhealthy style of life and have no value in the striving for self-actualization
General Discussion of Needs
 Reversed Order of Needs
o even though needs are generally satisfied in the hierarchical order, they are occasionally
reversed
o Reversals are usually more apparent than real, and some seemingly obvious deviation n the
order of needs are not variations at all. If we understood the unconscious motivation
underlying the behavior, we would recognize that the needs are not reversed
 Unmotivated Behavior
o not all determinants are motives
o some behavior is not caused by needs but by other factors such as conditioned reflexes,
maturation or motivated
o motivation is limited to the striving for the satisfaction of some needs (eg: expressive
behavior is umotivated)
 Expressive and Coping Behavior
o Expressive behavior is often unmotivated, frequently unconscious and usually takes place
naturally and with little effort, has no goals or aim but is merely the person’s mode of
expression (eg: slouching, showing anger, frown, blush and so on)
o Coping behavior is always motivated and aimed at satisfying a need, ordinarily conscious,
effortful, earned and determined by the external motivation (eg: cope with the environment,
secure food and shelter, make friends and so on)
 Deprivation of Needs
o lack of satisfaction of any of the basic needs leads to some kind of pathology or
metapathology (absence of values, lack of fulfilment and the loss of meaning in life)
o eg: deprivation of physiological needs  malnutrition, fatigue, loss of energy
o Instinctoid Nature of Needs
  some human needs are innately determined even though they can be modified by 2. Self-actualizing people had progressed through hierarchy of needs
learning 3. Embracing the B-Values
 critera for separating instinctoid needs from noninstinctoid needs: 4. Fulfilled their needs to grow, to develop, and to increasingly become what they were capable of
 thwarting of instinctoid needs produces pathology, whereas the frustration of becoming
noninstinctoid needs does not
 instinctoid needs are persistent and their satisfaction leads to psychological health Values for Self-Actualizers
while noninstinctoid needs are usually temporary and their satisfaction is not a  B-Values
prerequisite for health o “Being” Values
 instinctoid needs are species-specific o eternal verities
 instinctoid needs can be molded, inhibited, or altered by environmental influences o indicators of psychological health and are opposed to deficiency needs, which motivate non-
 Comparison of Higher and Lower Needs self-actualizers
o Higher Level Needs (love, esteem, and self-actualization) o termed as “metaneeds” to indicate that they are the ultimate level of needs
 later on the phylogenetic or evolutionary scale o 14 B-Values: truth, goodness, beauty, wholeness or transcendence of dichotomies, aliveness
 produce more happiness and more peak experience or spontaneity, uniqueness, perfection, completion, justice and order, simplicity, richness or
o Lower Level Needs (physiological and safety) totality, effortlessness, playfulness or humor, and self-sufficiency or autonomy
 must be cared for an infants and children before higher level needs become operative o when metaneeds are not met, people experience illness, an existential illness
 produce a degree of pleasure (However, Hedonistic Pleasure is usually temporary and o absence of the B-values leads to pathology just as surely as lack of food results in
not comparable to the quality of happiness produced by the satisfaction of higher malnutrition
needs  Metamotivation
o motives of self-actualizing people
C. SELF-ACTUALIZATION o characterized by expressive rather than coping behavior and is associated with B-values

Max Wertheimer and Ruth Benedict represented the highest level of human development – self- Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People
actualization 1. More Efficient Perception of Reality
o can discriminate between the genuine and the fake
Maslow’s Quest for the Self-Actualizing Person o not fooled by facades and can see both positive and negative underlying traits in others that
 Maslow was searching for a Good Human Being are not readily apparent to most people
 found a number of older people who seemed to have some of the characteristics but he ended o perceive ultimate values more clearly than other people do and are less prejudiced and less
up disappointed after interviewing, then he concluded that emotional security and good likely to see the world as they wish it to be
adjustment were not dependable predictors of a Good Human Being 2. Acceptance of Self, Others and Nature
 Good Human Being  Self-Actualizing Person o can accept themselves the way they are
 he tried to find a personality syndrome that had never been clearly identified and many of the o lack defensiveness, phoniness and self-defeating guilt
people he believed to be self-actualizing refused to participate in his search o not overly critical of their own shortcomings and are not burdened by undue anxiety or
 “What makes Max Wertheimer and Ruth Benedict self-actualizing?”  “Why we are not all self- shame
actualizing?” o they accept others and have the compulsive need to instruct, inform or convert
 he identify a syndrome for psychological health  select a sample  studied those people to 3. Spontaneity, Simplicity and Naturalness
build a personality syndrome  refined his original definition  reselected potential self- o unconventional but not compulsively so; highly ethical but may appear unethical or
actualizers (retaining some, eliminating others and adding new ones) nonconforming
o ordinarily live some lives in the sense that they have no need to erect a complex veneer
designed to deceive the world
Criteria for Self-Actualization o unpretentious and not afraid or ashamed to express deeply felt emotions
1. They were free from psychopathology 4. Problem Centering
 o their interest in problems outside themselves o poke fun at themselves, but not masochistically so
o this interest allow them to develop a mission in life, a purpose for living that spreads beyond o make fewer tries at humor than others, but their attempts serve a purpose beyond making
aggrandizement people laugh
o extend their frame of reference far beyond self 14. Creativeness
5. The Need for privacy o creative in the sense of the word
o have a quality of detachment that allows them to be alone without being lonely o keen perception of truth, beauty and reality – ingredients that form the foundation of true
o feel relaxed and comfortable when they are either with people or alone creativity
o spend little energy attempting to impress others or trying to gain love and acceptance and 15. Resistance to Enculturation
have more ability to make responsible choices o have a sense of detachment from their surrounding and are able to transcend a particular
6. Autonomy culture
o autonomous and depend on themselves for growth o neither antisocial nor consciously non-conforming
o can be ahcived only through satisfactory relations with others o autonomous, following their own standards of conduct and not blindly obeying the rules of
7. Continued Freshness of Appreciation others
o have the wonderful capacity to appreciate again and again, freshly and naively, the basic o more individualized and less homogenized than others
goods of life, with awe, pleasure, wonder and even ecstasy
8. The Peak Experience Love, Sex and Self-Actualization
o experiences that were mystical in nature and that somehow gave a feeling of transcendence  Self-Actualizing people are capable of both giving and receiving love and are no longer motivated
o quite natural and are part of human makeup by the kind of deficiency love (D-love) common to other people
o people having a peak experience see the whole universe as unified or all in one piece and  Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love, that is, love for the essence or “Being” of the other
they see clearly their place in that universe  B-love is mutually felt and shared and not motivated by a deficiency or incompleteness within the
9. Gemeinshaftsgefuhl lover
o social interest, community feeling, or a sense of oneness with all humanity  Not dominated by sex
o kind of caring attitude toward other people
o have genuine interest in helping others D. PHILOSPHY OF SCIENCE
10. Profound Interpersonal Relation
o special quality of interpersonal relations that involves deep and profound feeligns for  Maslow argued for a different philosophy of science, a humanistic, holistic approach that is not
individuals value free and that has scientists who care about the people and topics they investigate
o no frantic needs to be friends with everyone, but the few important interpersonal  Psychological should place more emphasis on the study of the individual and less on the study of
relationship they have are quite deep and intense large groups
11. The Democratic Character Structure  desacralization: type of science that lacks emotion, joy, wonder, ae and rapture
o democratic values  resacralize: instilled with human values, emotion and ritual
o could be friendly and considerate with other people regardless of class, color, age or gender;  taoistic attitude: noninterfering, passive and receptive
have a desire to learn from anyone
o desire and ability to learn from anyone
12. Discrimination Between Means and Ends
o have a clear sense of right and wrong conduct and have little conflict about basic values
o set their sights on ends rather than means and have an unusual ability to distinguish E. MEASURING SELF-ACTUALIZATION
between the two
13. Philosophical Sense of Humor Personal Orientation Inventory
o philosophical, nonhostile sense of humor  measures the values and behaviors of self-actualizing people
o see little humor in put-down jokes  2 major scales: 1. Time Competence/Time Incompetence Scale; 2. Support Scale
  10 subscales: 1. self-actualization values; 2. flexibility in applying values; 3. sensitivity to one’s  Client must be free from independency on others so that their natural impulse toward growth
own needs and feelings; 4. spontaneity in expressing feelings behaviourally; 5. self-regard; 6. and self-actualization could become active.
self-acceptance; 7. positive view of humanity; 8. ability to see opposites of life as meaningfully  Largely an internal process
related; 9. acceptance of aggression; and 10. capacity for intimate contact  Through a warm, loving, interpersonal relationship with the therapist, the client gains satisfaction
 limitations: 1. long, taking most participants 30 to 45 minutes to comple; 2. 2-item forced-choice of love and belongingness needs and thereby acquires feelings of confidence and self-worth
format can engender hostility in the participants, who feel frustrated by the limitation of a
forced-choice option H. RELATED RESEARCH

Short Index of Self-Actualization Lower and Higher Needs

 made to resolve the limitation of Personal Orientation Inventory  Reiss and Havercamp (2006) studied if the lower order needs must be met early in life, whereas
 borrows 15 items from the POI that are most strongly correlated with the total self-actualization the higher order needs such as self-actualization tend to be fulfilled later in life
score  result: if people can secure the most basic needs early in life, they have more time and energy to
 6-point likert scale focus on achieving the highest reaches of human existence later in life

Brief Index of Self-Actualization Positive Psychology

 40 items placed on a 6-point likert scale and thus yields scores from 40 to 240  relatively new field of psychology that combines an emphasis on hope, optimism, and well-being
 four factors: 1. core self-actualization (full use of one’s potentials); 2. autonomy; 3. openness to with scientific research and assessment
experience; 4. comfort with solitude  Maslow’s influence: role of positive experiences in people’s lives
 Burton and King (2004) predicted that writing about these peak or intensely positive experiences
F. JONAH COMPLEX would be associated with beter physical health in the months following the writing exercise
 result: those who wrote about positive experiences, compared to those in a control condition
 fear of being one’s best who wrote about nonemotional topics, visited the doctors fewer times for illness during after
 characterized by attempts to run away from one’s destiny just as the biblical Jonah tried to writing
escape from his fate  Sonja Lyubomirskly and Collegues (2006) investigated whether or not just thinking about past
 represents fear of success, a fear of being one’s best and a feeling of awesomeness in the positive experiences would have benefits comparable to or even greater than the benefits
presence of beauty and perfection derived from writing about such experiences
 result: those who were instructed to simply think about these experiences for 15 minutes a day
Why do people run away from greatness and self-fulfillment? for 3 consecutive days reported greater well-being 1 month later than those who wrote about
 the human body is simply not strong enough to endure the ecstasy of fulfilment for any length of such experiences for the same time period
time, just as peak experiences and sexual orgasms would be overly taxing if they lasted too long
 People have a private ambition to be great. However, when they compare themselves with those Personality Development, Growth and Goals
who have accomplished greatness, they are appalled by their own arrogance  Jan Bauer and Dan McAdams (2004) assumed the existence of two kinds of approaches to
growth and development – extrinsic and intrinsic.
 Extrinsic Development: primary cognitive and revolves around one’s ability to think complexly
about one’s life goals (fame, money physical appearance, status and power)
 Intrinsic Development: primarily emotional and revolves around one’s ability to feel better about
G. PSYCHOTHERAPY one’s life (satisfaction, happiness, personal growth and healthy interpersonal relationships)
 result: intrinsic and exploratory goals were positively correlated with maturity and personality
Maslownian Therapy? development; people who are driven by happiness and need for conceptual understanding tend
 The aim of the therapy would be for client to embrace the being values, that is, to value truth, to be higher in ego-development and well0being; people high in exploratory growth goals were
justice, goodness, simplicity, and so forth. especially high in ego-development, and those high in intrinsic growth goals were especially high
in well-being; older adults had higher life satisfaction than younger adults
 I. CRITIQUE OF MASLOW Full name: Carl Ransom Rogers
Birthday: January 8, 1902
 generate research: (above average) self-actualization remains a popular topic with researchers, Birthplace: Oak Park, Illinois
and the test of self-actualization have facilitated efforts to investigate this illusive concept Father: Walter Rogers
 falsifiability: (low) researchers remained handicapped in their ability to falsify or confirm Mother: Julia Cushing Rogers
Maslow’s means of identifying self-actualizing people Wife: Helen Elliott
 organize knowledge: quite consistent with common sense Children: David Rogers and Natalie Rogers
 guide a practitioner: highly useful Death: February 4, 1987
 internal consistency: has a consistency and precision that give it popular appeal Deathplace: California
 parsimonious: a hierarchy of needs model with only five steps gives the theory a deceptive
appearance of simplicity Significant part of his life:
 closer to his mother than his father
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY  interest: farmer  religion  medicine?
 gained elementary knowledge of Freudian Psychoanalysis, but was not much influenced by it,
1. determinism and free choice even though he tried out in his practice
2. optimism  attended a lecture by Alfred Adler who shared his contention that an elaborate case history was
3. conscious and unconscious unnecessary for psychotherapy
4. biological and social influences  strongly influenced by Otto Rank, who had been one of Freud’s closest associates before his
5. uniqueness and similarities dismissal from Freud’s inner circle
6. teleological  give emphasis on the importance of growth within the patient (client)
 his therapy evolved from nondirective technique to client-therapist relationship
 formed the Center Studies of the Person
 proposed that interpersonal relationship between two individuals is a powerful ingredient that
cultivates psychological growth within both person

B. PERSON CENTERED THEORY

 Nondirective  Client-centered Person-Centered  Student-Centered Group-Centered 

Person to Person
 Theory: Person-Centered Theory
 Therapy: Client-Centered Therapy
 if-then framework
 eg: if the therapist is congruent and communicates unconditional positive regard and accurate
ROGERS: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY empathy to the client, then therapeutic change will occur; if therapeutic change occurs, then the
client will experience more self-acceptance, greater trust of self and so on.
Carl Rogers
 founder of Client-Centered Therapy Roger’s Phenomenological Position
 more concerned with helping people than with discovering why they behaved as they did  a phenomenological perspective holds that what is real to an individual is that which exists within
 wrote a “client-centered” theory of personality that person’s frame of reference, or subjective world, concluding everything in his awareness at
any point in time
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ROGERS
  a person’s sense do not directly mirror the world by reality; instead, effective reality is as it is
observed and interpreted by the reacting organism
Here and Now (ahistorical)
 in order for us to understand why a person behave in such a way, we do not need to dig into his
or her past. instead we must understand the person’s relationship to the environment as he now
exist and perceives it
Basic Assumptions
 Formative Tendency
o a tendency for all matter to evolve from simpler to more complex form through creative
process
o eg: complex organisms develop from single cells
 Actualizing Tendency
o tendency within all humans to move toward completion or fulfilment of potentials
o tendency all motive people possess
o involves the whole person because each person operates as one complete organism
o possible in animals and plants also
o life’s master motive
o Maintenance
 basic needs such as food, air and safety
 includes the tendency to resist change and to seek the status quo
 expressed in people’s desire to protect their current, comfortable self-concept
o Enhancement
 need to become more, to develop and to achieve growth
 need for enhancing the self Is seen in people’s willingness to learn things that are not
immediately rewarding
 people are willing to face threat and pain because of a biologically based tendency for
the organism to fulfill its basic nature
o whenever congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy are present in a
relationship, psychological growth will invariably occur
o this three condition are both necessary and sufficient conditions for becoming a fully
functioning or self-actualizing person
o Organismic Valuing Process (OVP): monitoring system of individuals to distinguish
experiences that promotes or hinders actualization
The Self and Self-Actualization
 infants begin to develop a vague concept of self when a portion of their experience becomes
personalized and differentiated in awareness as “I” or “me” experiences
 Self-actualization is a subset of the actualization tendency and not synonymous with it
 Actualizing Tendency: refers to organismic experiences of the individual (whole person)
 Self-Actualization: tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness
 If organism and perceived self are in harmony, the actualization tendencies and self-actualization
are nearly identical; If not, a discrepancy exists between the two.
 2 self subsystmes:
o The Self-Concept
 all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness
 not identical with organismic self (may be beyond awareness)
 composed of real self and ideal self
 Genuineness and Authenticity: being true to yourself and others by being aware of
owns feelings rather than presenting an outward facade
o The Ideal Self
 one’s view of self as one wishes to be
 contains all those attributes, usually positive that people aspire to possess
 gaps between the ideal self and self-concept indicates incongruence
Awareness
 Symbolic representation of some portion of our experience
 synonyms of conscious and symbolization
 Level of Awareness
o Some events are experiences below the threshold of awareness and are either ignored or
denied (preconscious – unconscious?)
o Some experiences are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure (you
are what you are being described)
o Experiences perceived in a distorted form (involves reshaping and distorting to be
assimilated with our self)
 Denial of Positive Experiences
o Difficulty accepting genuine compliments and positive feedback even when deserved
o Compliments, even those genuinely dispensed, seldom have a positive influence on the self-
concept of the recipient
o may be distorted because the person distrusts the giver, or tey ma be denied because te
recipient does not feel deserving of them
Becoming A Person
 Individual must make contact – positive or negative – with another person
 As children become aware that another person has some measure of regard for them, they begin
to value positive regard and devalue negative regard
 Positive Regard: a need to be loved, like or accepted by another person
 Positive Self-Regard: experience of prizing or valuing one’s self; lies in the positive regard we
receive from others, but once established, it is autonomous and self-perpetuating
Barriers to Psychological Health
 Conditions of Worth: Perception that their parents, peers or partners love and accept them only
if they meet those people’s expectations and approval
 o External Evaluation: our perceptions of other people’s view of us; prevent us from being  therapist should be experiencing a warm, positive and accepting attitude toward what
completely open to our own experiences is the client
 Incongruence: a psychological disequilibrium between organismic experiences and self-concept o Empathic Listening
o Vulnerability: the greater the incongruence, the more vulnerable we are; people are  Exists when therapists accurately sense the feelings of their clients and are able to
vulnerable when they are unaware of the discrepancy between their organismic self and communicate these perceptions so that clients know that another person has entered
their significant experience their world of feeling without prejudice, projection or evaluation.
o Anxiety and Threat: experienced as we gain awareness of such incongruence  Temporarily living in other’s life
 Defensiveness: protection of the self-concept against anxiety and threat by the denial or  Process
distortion of experiences inconsistent with it o Stages of Therapeutic Change
o (Perceptual) Distortion: we misinterpret an experience in order to fit into some aspect of 1. Unwillingness to communicate anything about oneself
our self-concept 2. Clients become slightly less rigid
o Denial: we refuse to perceive an experience in awareness 3. They more freely talk about self, although still as an object
 Disorganization: when the incongruence between people’s perceived self and their organismic 4. Begin to talk of deep feeling but not ones presently felt
experience is either too obvious or occurs too suddenly to be denied or distorted, their behavior 5. They have begun to undergo significant change and growth
becomes disorganized 6. Experience dramatic growth and an irreversible movement toward becoming fully
functioning or self-actualizing
C. PSYCHOTHERAPY 7. Become fully functioning person
o Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Change
If-Then Framework: If conditions are present, then process will transpire; If process takes place, then  when person comes to experience themselves as prized and unconditionally accepted,
outcomes can be predicted they realize, perhaps for the first time, that they are lovable
 when these persons come to prize themselves and to accurately understand
Rogerian Therapy themselves, their perceived self becomes more congruent with their organismic
 Conditions experiences
1. An anxious or vulnerable client must come into ocntact with a congruent therapist who also  they know possess the same three therapeutic characteristics as any effective helper
possesses empathy and unconditional positive regard for that client and in effect they become their own therapist
2. The client must perceive these characteristics in the therapist  Outcomes
3. The contact between client and therapist must be of some duration o more congruent ad less defensive
o Congruence o have a clearer picture of themselves
 Exists when a person’s organismic experiences are matched by an awareness of them o more realistic view of the world
and by an ability and willingness to openly express these feelings o better able to assimilate experiences into the self on symbolic level
 To be congruent means to be real or genuine, to be whole or integrated, to be what o more effective in solving problems
one truly is o have a higher level of positive self-regard
 Congruent Counselor: a complete human being with feelings of joy, anger, frustration, o more accurate view of their potentials
confusion and so on. o narrow the gap between the self-ideal and real self
 Source of Incongruence: o less physiological and psychological tension
 breakdown between feelings and awareness o less vulnerable to threat
 discrepany between awareness of an experience and the ability or willingness to o less anxiety
express it o less likely to use others’ opinion
o Unconditional Positive Regard o relationship with also improved
 When the need to be liked, prized or accepted by another person exists without any
conditions or qualifications D. THE PERSON OF TOMORROW
Characteristics of The Person Of Tomorrow Method
1. more adaptable  instruments: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Self-Other Attitude Scale (S-O Scale) and
2. open to their experiences (trust in their organismic selves) Willoughby Emotional Maturity Scale (E-M Scale)
3. live fully in the moment (existential living)  relied on Q sort Technique by William Stephenson
4. harmonious relations with others  therapeutic interviews
5. more integrated  2 different methods of control
6. have a basic trust of human nature 1. participants (wait group and no wait group)
7. greater richness in life 2. normal/volunteers (wait group and no wait goup)

The Fully Functioning Person (going towards actualization) (Spark’s) (additional) Findings
8. experiential freedom  therapy group showed less discrepancy between self and ideal self after therapy than before, and
9. creativity they retained almost all those gains through the follow-up period
10. accurate empathy (unconditional positive regard)  “normal” controls had a higher level of congruence than the therapy group at beginning of the
study, but in contrast to the therapy group, they showed almost no change in congruence
E. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE between self and self-ideal from the initial testing until the final follow up

Rogers: Scientist  Therapist  Personality Theorist Summary of Results

 Scientists must have many characteristics of the person of tomorrow
 Scientists should be complete involved in the phenomena being studied
 Scientists must care about and care for newly born ideas and nurture them lovingly through their
fragile infancy
 Science begins when an intuitive scientist starts to perceive patterns among phenomena
 Scientists communicate findings from that method to others, but the communication itself Is
subjective
 people receiving client-centered therapy generally showed some growth or improvement
 however, improvement fell short of the optimum
 the therapy group began treatment as less healthy than the control group, showed growth during
therapy, and retained most of that improvement throughout the follow-up period
 however, they never attained the level of psychological health demonstrated by normal people in
the control group

G. RELATED RESEARCH
F. THE CHICAGO STUDIES
Self-Discrepancy Theory
Purpose
 E. Tory Higgins: argues that it is not only the real self-ideal self discrepancy can form mental
 to investigate both the process and the outcomes of client-centered therapy discomfort but also real self-ought self discrepancy
 Phillips and Silva (2005) clarifies the conditions under which self discrepancies predict emotional
Hypotheses
experience
 all person have within themselves the capacity, either or latent, for self-understanding as well as
 result: the phenomenon of experiencing negative emotion as a result of self discrepancies
the capacity and tendency to move in the direction and self-actualization and maturity
occurred only among those participants who were highly self-aware
 clients would assimilate into their self-concepts those feelings and experiences previously denied
 Wolfe and Maisto (2000) predicted that the higher real-ideal self discrepancy would be related to
to awareness
greater alcohol consumption in a sample of university students
 the discrepancy between real self and ideal self would diminish and that the observed behavior
 result: a positive relationship between discrepancy and amount of wine consumed for the low
of clients would become more socialized, more self-accepting, and more accepting of others
salience (filler task) group – only the greater the discrepancy, the more wine consumed; for the
 high salience group, the researchers found a small negative relationship – the greater the
discrepancy, the less wine consumed

Motivation and Pursuing One’s Goals

 Organismic Valuing Process (OVP): a natural instinct directing us towards the most fulfilling
pursuit; monitoring system of individuals to distinguish experiences that promotes or hinders
actualization
 Ken Sheldon and Colleagues (2003) explored the existence of an OVP in college students by
designing studies that ask students to rate the importance of several goals repeatedly over the
course of multiple week
 result: the participants tended to rate the more fulfilling goals with increasing importance over
time and the materialistic goals with decreasing importance
 Schwartz and Waterman (2006) explored the extent to which having more self-realizing
experiences in which people are allowed to express who they really are is related to experiencing
more intrinsic motivation
 result: the more activities people engage in reflect self-realization, the more likely those activities
are to be interesting, self-expressive, and lead to an experience of “flow” – the experience of
being fully immersed and engaged in an experience to the point of losing track of time and one’s
sense of self

H. CRITIQUE OF ROGERS

 generate research: (average) moderately productive outside the psychotherapy and classroom
learning
 falsification: spelled his theory in an if-then framework, and such a paradigm lend itself to either
confirmation or disconfirmation
 organize knowledge: (high) can be extended to relatively wide range of human personality
 guide for the solution: unequivocal for the psychotherapist MAY: EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
 internally consistent: (very high) consistent and carefully worked-out operational definitions
 parsimonious: some of the language is awkward and vague Rollo May
 the foremost spokesperson for existential psychology in the United States
I. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY  approach was not based on any controlled scientific research nut rather on clinical experience
 sae people as living in the world of present experiences and ultimately being responsible for who
1. free choice they become
2. optimistic  believed that many people lack the courage to face their destiny so they give up much of their
3. teleology freedom and then they run away from their responsibility; not being willing to make choice,
4. uniqueness people lose sight of who they are and develop a sense of insignificance and alienation
5. social influences  in contrast, healthy people challenge their destiny, cherish their freedom and live authentically
6. conscious? with other people and with themselves. they recognize the inevitability of death and have the
courage to live life in the present

A. BIOGPRAGHY OF MAY
Full name: Rollo Reese May What is Existentialism?
Birthday: April 21, 1909  Existence takes precedence over essence (people’s essence is their power to continually redefine
Birthplace: Ada, Ohio themelves through choices they make)
Father: Earl Tittle May  Existentialism opposes the split between subject and object (people are both subjective and
Mother: Matie Boughton May objective and must search for truth by living active and authentic lives)
Wifre: Florence DeFrees, Ingrid Kepler Scholl, Georgia Lee Miller Johnson  People search for some meaning to their lives (who am I?,..)
Children: Rober, Allegra, and Carolyn May  Existentialists hold that ultimately each of us is responsible for who we are and what we
Death: October 22, 1994 become (we cannot blame parents, teachers, employers, God, or circumstances)
Deathplace: Tiburon, California  Existentialists are basically antitheoretical (theories further dehumanize people and render
them as objects)
Significant part of his life
 his early intellectual climate was virtually non-existent Basic Concepts
 not particularly close to either of his parents  Being-in-the-World (Dasein)
 attributed his own two failed marriages to his mother’s unpredictable behavior and to his older o the basic unity of person and environment is Dasein – meaning to exist there
sister’s psychotic episode o Being-in-the-World: the hyphens in this term imply a oneness of subject and object of
 St. Claire River became his friend person and world
 listen to his innver voice, the one that spoke to him of beauty o Alienation (isolation that brings anxiety and despair) is the illness of ourtime, and it
 admired Adler and learned much about human behavior and about himself manifests itself in 3 areas:
 enter seminary to ask the ultimate questions concerning the nature of human beings  separation from nature
 learned much of his philosophy from Tillich  lack of meaningful interpersonal relations
 met Sullivan and was impressed with his notion that the therapist is participant observer and that  alienation from one’s authentic self
therapy is a human adventure capable of enhancing the life of both patient and therapist
 met and was influenced by Erich Fromm o Thus, people experience 3 simultaneous modes in their being-in-the-world:
 admired by Freud but he was more deeply moved by Keirkegaard’s view of anxiety as a struggle  Umwelt: the environment around us
against nonbeing, that is, loss of consciousness  Mitwelt: our relations with other people
 best known American representative of the existential movement  Eigenwelt: oure relationship with ourself
 Nonbeing
B. BACKGROUND OF EXISTENTIALISM o The dread of not being
o nothingness
Soren Kierkegaard o to grasp what it means to exist, one needs to grasp the fact that he might not exist
 where existential psychology rooted o life is more vital, more meaningful when we confront the possibility of our death
 concerned with the increasing trend in postindustrial societies toward the dehumanization of o can be expressed in other forms such as: addiction, sexual activity, compulsive behaviors,
people blind conformity to society’s expectations
 concerned with both the experiencing person and the person’s experience o the fear of death or nonbeing often provokes us to live defensive and to receive less from
 sought to overcome the dichotomy of reason and emotion by turning people’s attentions to the than if we would confront the issue of our nonexistence
reality of the immediate experience which underlies both subjectivity and objectivity
 emphasized a balance between freedom and responsibility C. THE CASE OF PHILIP

Other people involved in Existentialism  Existential Psychology is concerned with the individual’s struggle to work through life’s
 Friedrich Neitzsche, Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, Karl Jaspers, Victor experiences and to grow toward becoming more fully human.
Frankl, Jean-Paul Sarre, Alrmert Camus, Martin Buber, Paul Tillich  Cast: Nicole and Philip
  Nicole cheated 3 times but Philip is still trying to understand her  stems from people’s inability to perceive accurately the world of others
 Philip wished to accept Nicole’s behavior, but on another, he felt betrayed by her affairs, Yet e did  can see other people only through our own eyes and can never perfectly judge the eeds
not seem to be able to leave her and to search for another women to love of these other people
 he was paralyzed – unable to change his relationship with Nicole but also unable to break it off o Eigenwelt
 denial of our own potentialities or with our failure to fulfill them
D. ANXIETY  grounded in our relationship with self

Much of human behavior is motivated by an underlying sense of dread and anxiety. F. INTENTIONALITY
The failure to confront death serves as a temporary escape from the anxiety or dread of nonbeing. But the
escape cannot be permanent. Intentionality
Death is the one absolute of life that sooner or alter everyone must face.  Structure that give meaning to experiences and allow people to make decision about the future
Philip was suffering from neurotic anxiety. Like others who experience neurotic anxiety, he behaved in a  structure of meaning which makes it possible for us, subjects that we are, to see and understand
nonproductive, self-defeating manner. Although he was deeply hurt by Nicole’s unpredictable and “crazy” the outside world, objective that it is
behavior, he became paralyzed with inaction and could not break off their relationship.  made the dichotomy between the subject and object partially overcome
 action implies intentionality as intentionality implies action
Anxiety  sometimes unconscious (eg: case of Philip)
 experienced by people when they become aware that their existence or some value identified
with it might be destroyed
 subjective state of the individual’s becoming aware that his existence can be destroyed, that he
can become nothing
 a threat to some important value
 acquisition of freedom leads to anxiety G. CARE, LOVE AND WILL
 Normal Anxiety
o proportionate to the threat, does not involve repression, and can be confronted Care
constructively on the conscious level  to care for someone means to recognize that person as a fellow human being, to identify with
 Neurotic Anxiety that person’s pain or joy, guilt or pity
o reaction which is disproportionate to the threat, involves repression and other forms of  active process, opposite of apathy
intrapsychic conflict, and is managed by various kinds of blocking-off of activity and  state in which something does matter
awareness  source of love and will

E. GUILT Love
 to love means to care, to recognize the essential humanity of the other person, to have an active
Guilt regard for that person’s development
 If anxiety arises when people are faced with the problem of fluffing their potentialities, guilt  delight in the presence of the other person and an affirming of that person’s development as
arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurate perceive the needs of fellow much as one’s own
humans, or remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural world  without care, there can be no love – only empty sentimentality or transient sexual arousal
 3 forms of ontological guilt:
o Umwelt Will
 also called as separation guilt  the capacity to organize one’s self so that movement in a certain direction or toward a certain
 arise from a lack of awareness of one’s being-in-the-world goal may take place
 alienation from the nature  different from wish
o Mitwelt
Union of Love and Will  possibility of changing, although we may not know what those changes might be.
 unhealthy division of love and will: Love has become associated with sensual love or sex,  entails being able to harbor different possibilities in one’s mind even though it is not clear at the
whereas will have come to mean a dogged determination or will power. moment which way one must act
 When love is seen as sex, it becomes temporary and lacking in commitment; there is no will, but  often leads to normal anxiety
only wish.
 When will is seen as will power, it becomes self-serving and lacking in passion; there is no care, Forms of Freedom
but only manipulation.  Existential Freedom
 people’s task is to unite love and will o It is the freedom of action—the freedom of doing
 for the mature person, both love and will mean a reaching out toward another person, both o freedom to act on the choices that one makes
involve care, both necessitate choice, both imply action and both require responsibility  Essential Freedom
o freedom of being
Forms of Love:
 Sex Destiny
o a biological function that can be satisfied through sexual intercourse or some other release  The design of the universe speaking through the design of each one of us
of sexual tension  ultimate destiny of human: death
o physiological that seeks gratification through the release of tension  includes other biological properties such as intelligence, gender, size and strength
o plain sex, manipulation of organ, pleasure  our destination, our terminus, our goal
 Eros
o a psychological desire that seeks procreation or creation through an enduring union with a The paradox is that freedom owes its vitality to destiny, and destiny owes its significance to freedom
loved one Philip’s Destiny
o making love, union  Philip, like other people, had the freedom to change his destiny, but first he had to recognize his
o combination of sex and philia biological, social, and psychological limitations.
 Philia  Philip lacked both the understanding and the courage to confront his destiny.
o an intimate nonsexual friendship between two people  As Philip came to terms with his destiny, he began to be able to express his anger, to feel less
o cannot be rushed; it takes time to grow, to develop, to sink its roots. trapped in his relationship with Nicole, and to become more aware of his possible. In other
o does not require that we do anything for the beloved except accept him, be with him, enjoy words, he gained his freedom of being
him
o friendship in the simplest, most direct terms I. THE POWER OF MYTH
 Agape
o esteem for the other, the concern for the other’s welfare beyond any gain that one can get Myths
out of it; disinterested love, tupically the love of God for man  not falsehoods; rather, they are conscious and unconscious belief systems that provide
o spiritual love that carries with it the risk of playing God. It does not depend on any behaviors explanation for personal and social problems
or characteristics of the other person.  like a support beams in a house – not visible from the outside, but they hold the house together
o altruistic, undeserved, unconditional and make it habitable
 stories that unify a society; they are essential to the process of keeping our souls alive and
H. FREEDOM AND DESTINY bringing us new meaning in a difficult and often meaningless world
 eg: Oedipus Story
Freedom
 individual’s capacity to know that he is the determined (destined) one 2 levels of people’s communication:
 comes from an understanding of our destiny: an understanding that death is a possibility at any  through rationalistic language: truth takes precedence over the people who are communicating.
moment, that we are male and female, that we have inherent weaknesses, that early childhood  through myths: the total human experience is more important than the empirical accuracy of the
experiences dispose us toward certain patterns of behavior communication.
  Arndt and Colleagues (2007) examined the prediction that mortality salience should therefore
J. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY increase both reasons for wanting to exercise, namely increasing fitness and looking better (self-
esteem)
 According to May, apathy and emptiness—not anxiety and guilt—are the malaise of modern  results: mortality salience did immediately increase intention to exercise relative to the painful
times. dental procedure condition; fitness self-esteem also was not related to intention to exercise
 When people deny their destiny or abandon their myths, they lose their purpose for being; they  overall results: the idea that people may well be motivated to undertake behaviors that fight
become directionless. against death and disease when their own morality is made salient, especially if exercise is a
 Without some goal or destination, people become sick and engage in a variety of self-defeating relevant source of their self-esteem
and self-destructive behaviors
 Psychopathology is due to lack of communication – the inability to know others and to share K. CRITIQUE OF MAY
oneself with them
 Psychologically disturbed individuals deny their destiny and thus lose their freedom  generate scientific research: (very low) may did not formulate his views in theoretical structure
and a paucity of hypotheses is suggested by his writings
K. PSYCHOTHERAPY  falsified: (very low) theory is too amorphous to suggest specific hypotheses that could either
confirm or disconform its major concepts
Existential Therapy  organize knowledge: (average) neglect several important topics in human personality
 Psychotherapy should make people more human  guide to action: (weak) gathered his views more from philosophical than from scientific sources
 In becoming human, help them expand their consciousness so that they will be in a better  internal consistency: never presented operational definitions of some terms
position to make choices – leading to simultaneous growth of freedom and responsibility  parsimony: (moderate) dealt with complex issued and did not attempt to oversimplify human
 May insisted that psychotherapy must be concerned with helping people experience their personality
existence, and that relieving symptoms is merely a by-product of that experience.
 Our task is to help patients get to the point where they can decide whether they wish to remain L. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
victims or whether they choose to leave this victim-state and venture through purgatory with the
hope of achieving some sense of paradise. 1. free choice
2. optimistic
Fantasy Conversation 3. teleology
 client’s speaking both for himself and his fantasies (could be other people) 4. conscious and unconscious
5. social and biological influences
J. RELATED RESEARCH 6. uniqueness

Mortality Salience and Denial of Our Animal Nature

 Terror Management Theory: humans are first and foremost motivated by fear of death
 Jamie Goldenberg and Colleagues (2001) conducted a study to investigate the extent to which
mortality salience would lead to greater denial of our animal nature
 result: disgust reactions were greatest adter death had been made salient and even more so
when there had been a delay between mortality salience and disgust evaluations
 Cathy Cox and Colleagues (2007) extended the findings of Goldenberg and colleagues by
investigating a very specific type of disgust reaction related to our animal nature: breast-feeding
 result: when their own mortality is made more slient, people tend to be increasingly disgusted by
creaturely behaviors such as breast-feeding

Fitness as a Defense Against Mortality Awareness

  early interest in philosophical and religious questions and had more facility for words than for
games
 a social isolate who fashioned his own circle of activities
 entered Harvard, following the footsteps of his brother Floyd
 meet with Sigmund Freud and get embarrassed for telling the story of a child with dirt phobia
 study under the great German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, William Stern,
Heinz Werner and others
 married a clinical psychologist who had the clinical training he lacked
 had a study about the case of Jenny Gove Masterson and the case of Marion Taylor
 became a president APA in 1939

B. ALLPORT’S APPROACH TO PERSONALITY

ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL Allport believed that psychologically healthy humans are motivated by present, mostly conscious drives and
that they not only seek to reduce tensions but to establish new ones.
Psychology of the Individual He also believed that people are capable of proactive behavior, which suggests that they can consciously
 emphasized the uniqueness of the individual behave in new and creative ways that foster their own change and growth.
 Allport believed that attempts to describe people in terms of general traits rob them of their
unique individuality What is Personality?
 the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine
Morphogenic Science his unique adjustments to his environment  characteristic behavior and thought
 used by Allport in his study  changed that last part because he thought the first implied that people merely adapt to their
 study of the individual environment
 those that gather data on a single individual  conveyed the idea that behavior is expressive as well as adaptive; people not only adjust to their
environment, but also reflect on it and interact with it in such a way as to cause their
Nomothetic Method environment to adjust to them
 used by other theorists  dynamic organization implies an integration or interrelatedness of the various aspects of
 gather data in groups of people personality
 psychophysical emphasizes the importance of both the psychological and physical aspects of
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ALLPORT personality
 determine suggests that personality is something and does something
Full name: Gordon Willlard Allport  personality is not merely the mask we wear, nor is it simply behavior but the individual behind
Birthday: November 11, 1897 the façade, the person behind the action
Birthplace: Montezuma, Indiana  characteristic implies individual or unique
Father: John E. Allport (Physician)  behavior (external) and thought (internal) refers to anything the person does
Mother: Nellie Wise Allport  this definition suggests that human beings are both product and process; people have some
Wife: Ada Lufkin Gould Allport (Clinical Psychologist) organized structure while, at the same time, they possess the capability of change; pattern that
Child: Robert Allport (Pediatrician) coexists with growth, order with diversification

Significant part of his life What is the role of Conscious Motivation?

  Healthy individuals are generally aware of what they are doing and their reasons for doing it Personal Dispositions
 However, Allport recognized the fact that some motivation is driven by hidden impulses and  a generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the individual), with the capacity to render
sublimated drives many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of
 He believed that most compulsive behaviors are automatic repetitions, usually self-defeating, and adaptive and stylistic behavior
motivated by unconscious tendencies; they often originate in childhood and retain a childish
flavor into adult years Common Traits
 general characteristics that held in common by many people
What are the characteristics of a Healthy Person?  provide the means by which people within a given culture can be compared to one another
 psychologically mature people are characterized by proactive behavior; that is, they not only
react to external stimuli, but they are capable of consciously acting on their environment in new
and innovative ways and causing their environment to react tot hem Level of Personal Dispositions
 mature personalities are more likely than disturbed ones to be motivated by conscious process, 1. Cardinal Dispositions
which allow them to be more flexible and autonomous than unhealthy people, who remain o eminent characteristic or ruling passion so outstanding that it dominates their lives
dominated by unconscious motives that spring from childhood experiences o too obvious that cannot be hidden
 criteria for mature personality o most people do not have a cardinal disposition, but those people who do are often known by
o extension of the sense of self: mature people continually seek to identify with and that single characteristic
participate in events outside themselves 2. Central Dispositions
o warm relating of self to others: they have the capacity to love others in an itiamte o 5 to 10 outstanding characteristics around which a person’s life focuses
compassionate manner o those who would be listed in an accurate letter of recommendation written by someone who
o emotional security or self-acceptance: accept themselves for what they are and possess knew the person quite well
emotional poise o everyone has it
o realistic perception (of their environment): they do not live in a fantasy world or bend 3. Secondary Dispositions
reality to fir their own wishes o less conspicuous but far greater in number than central dispositions
o insight and humor: mature people know themselves and have no need to attribute their o everyone has many secondary dispositions that are not central to the personality yet occur
own mistakes and weaknesses to others; have a nonhostile sense of humor with some regularity and are responsible for much of one’s specific behavior
o unifying philosophy of life: have a clear view of the purpose of life
Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions
C. STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY  Motivational Dispositions
o intensely experienced dispositions
Continuity Theory o initiate action
 suggests that development of personality is essentially the accumulation of skill, habits and  Stylistic Dispositions
discriminations, without anything really new appearing in the person’s makeup o less intensely experienced dispositions
o guide action
Discontinuity Theory
 suggests that in the course of development an organism experiences genuine transformations or Proprium
changes and consequently reaches successively higher levels of organization  all characteristics that are “peculiarly mine”
 those behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and important in their
Structure of personality lives
 refers to its basic units or building block  includes those aspects of life that a person regards as important to a sense of self-identity and
 those that permit the description of the person in terms of individual characteristics – Personal self-enhancement
Dispositions  includes a person’s values as well as that part of the conscience that is personal and consistent
with one’s adult belief
  nonpropriate behaviors:
o basic drives and needs that are ordinarily met and satisfied without much difficulty
o tribal customs
o habitual behaviors that are performed automatically and that are not crucial to the person’s
sense of self
D. MOTIVATION
Most people are motivated by present drives rather than by past events and are aware of what they are
doing and have some understanding of why they are doing it.
Peripheral Motives
 those that reduce a need
Propriate Strivings
 seek to maintain tension and desequilibrium
A Theory of Motivation
 a comprehensive theory must not only include an explanation of reactive theories
(see people as being motivated primarily by needs to reduce tension and to return to a state of
equilibrium), but also must include those proactive theories (must view people as consciously
acting on their environment in a manner that permits growth toward psychological health)
 The mature person is not motivated merely to seek pleasure and reduce pain but to acquire new
systems of motivation that are functionally independent from their original motives
Functional Autonomy
 Allport’s explanation for the myriad human motives that seemingly are not accounted for by
hedonistic or drive reduction principles
 represent a theory of changing rather than unchanging motives and is the capstone of Allport’s
ideas on motivation
 holds that some human motives are functionally independent from the original motive
responsible for the behavior
 what begins as one motive may grow into a new one that is historically continuous with the
original but functionally autonomous from it
 Requirement for an adequate theory of motivation:
o will acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives
o will be a pluralistic theory – allowing for motives of many types
o will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive processes
o will allow for the concrete uniqueness of motives
 2 levels of functional autonomy:
o Perseverative: refers to those habits and behaviors that are not part of one’s proprium
o Propriate: self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium
 Criterion for Functional Autonomy
o a present motive is functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks new goals; meaning,
the behavior will continue even as the motivation for it changes
 Processes that are not Functionally Autonomous
o biological drives (eating, breathing, sleeping)
o motives directly linked to the reduction of basic drives
o reflex actions (eyeblink)
o constitutional equipment (physique, intelligence, temperament)
o habits in the process of being formed
o patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement
o sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires
o some neurotic or pathological symptoms
E. THE STUDY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Morphogenic Science
 2 scientific approaches:
o nomothetic: seeks general laws
o idiographic: peculiar to single case
 Allport abandoned the term Idiographic and change it to Morphogenic because of misconception
and idiographic does not suggest structure or pattern
 Morphogenic: patterned properties of the whole organism and allows for intrapeson
comparisons
 Methods of Morphogenic Psychology: verbatim recordings, interviews, dreams, confessions,
diaries, letters, some questionnaires, expressive documents, projective documents, literary
works, art forms, automatic writings, doodles, handshakes, voice patterns, body gestures,
handwriting, gait and autobiographies
 Semimorphogenic Approches: self-rating scales
The Diaries of Marion Taylor
 In the late 1930's, Allport and his wife became acquainted with diaries written by woman they
called Marion Taylor. These diaries-along with descriptions of Marion Taylor by her mother,
younger sister, favorite teacher, friends, and a neighbor-provided the Allports with a large
quantity of material that could be studied using morphogenic methods. However, the Allports
never published this material.
Letters from Jenny
  Even though Allport never published data from Marion Taylor's dairies, he did publish a second  falsifiability: (low) the concept of four somewhat independent religious orientations can be
case study-that of Jenny Gove Masterson. Jenny had written a series of 301 letters to Gordon and verified or falsified
Ada Allport, whose son had been a roommate of Jenny's son. Two of Gordon Allport's students,  Organizations of observations: must of what is known about human personality cannot be easily
Alfred Baldwin and Jeffrey Paige used a personal structure analysis and factor analysis integrated into Allport’s theory.
respectively, while Allport used a commonsense approach to discern Jenny's personality structure  guide for the practitioner: has moderate usefulness
as revealed by her letters. All three approaches yielded similar results, which suggests that  internally consistent: high
morphogenic studies can be reliable.  parsimonious: high

F. RELATED RESEARCH H. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY

Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Religious Orientation 1. optimistic

 Religious Orientation Scale: applicable only for churchgoers; measuring 11 extrinsic and 9 2. free choice
intrinsic orientation 3. teleological
 Kevin Master and Colleagues (2005) conducted a study looking at religious orientation and 4. conscious?
cardiovascular health (high blood pressure) 5. social influences
 result: those who held an intrinsic religious orientation did not experience the same increased 6. uniqueness
blood pressure than those who held an extrinsic orientation did
o general characteristics that held in common by many people
o provide the means by which people within a given culture can be compared to one another
 Timothy Smith and Colleagues (2003) reviewed all the research on the topic of religion and
depression in an attempt to conclusively determine whether religion could serve as a buffer
against depression
 result: the more intrinsically oriented toward religion a person is, the less likely he or she will
experience depressive symptoms. But themroe extrinsically oriented a person, the more likely he
or she will be depressed

How to Reduce Prejudice: Optimal Contact

 Contact Hypothesis: if members of majority and minority groups interacted more under optimal
conditions, there would be less prejudice
 Optimal Conditions: 1. Equal status between the two groups; 2. common goals; 3. cooperation
between group; and 4. support of an authority figures, law or custom
 Thomas Pettigrew and Linda Tropp (2005) have built a large research program targeted at
investigating the conditions under which contact between groups can reduce prejudice
 result: not only that prejudice can be reduced, but all that the four criteria originally outlined by
Allport are essential to this reduction; optimal contact works to reduce prejudiced attitudes
toward the elderly and the mentally ill

G. CRITIQUE OF ALLPORT

 generate research: (moderate) his religious orientation scale, the study of values, and his interest
in prejudice have led multiple studies on the specific study of religion, values and prejudice
 Significant part of his life:
 little for him of his parents
 had a theatrical family
 grew up with little parental discipline and few strict controls over his behavior
 believe that environmental experiences have little to do with personality development
 inability to take physics because of taking the wrong subject in the entrance exam so he end up
with psychology
EYSENCK, MCCRAE AND COSTA: TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORY  in his time, the psychology department of University of London was pro-Freudian, but it also had
a strong emphasis on psychometrics with Charles Spearman having just left and with Cyril Burt
Presently, most researchers who study personality traits agree that five, and only five, and no fewer that still presiding
five dominant traits continue to emerge from factor analytic techniques – mathematical procedures  was not comfortable with most of the traditional clinical diagnostic categories; using factor
capable of examining personality traits from mountains of test data. analysis, he found that two major personality factors – neuroticism/emotional stability and
extraversion/introversion – could account for all traditional diagnostic groups
Raymond B. Cattell  was perhaps the most prolific writer in the history of psychology for having published some 800
 found many more personality traits journal articles or book chapters and more than 75 books
 believe that psychotherapies are no more effective than placebo treatments
Hans J. Eysenck
 insisted that only three major factors can be discerned by a factor analytic approach B. THE PIONEERING WORK OF RAYMOND B. CATTELL
 factor analytic technique yielded three general bipolar factors or types:
extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism/superego Raymond B. Cattell
 an important figure in the early years of psychometrics
Gordon Allport  did not have a direct influence on Eysenck
 his commonsense approach yielded 5 to 10 traits that are central to each person’s life
 major contribution to trait theory may have been his identification of nearly 18,000 trait names in Cattell Eysenck
an unabridged English language dictionary Inductive Method Deductive Method
Used 3 different media of observation to examine Limited to responses on questionnaires
people:
The Five-Factor Theory (Big Five)
1. L Data (person’s life derived from
 includes neuroticism and extraversion observations made by other people)
 but it adds openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness 2. Q Data (self-reports)
3. T Data (objective tests)
A. BIOGRAPHY OF EYSENCK Divided traits into common traits (shared by many)
and unique traits (peculiar to one individual).
Also distinguished source traits or surface traits.
Full name: Hans Jurgen Eysenck
Classified traits into temperament (how),
Birthday: March 4, 1916 motivation (why) and ability (how far or how fast).
Birthplace: Berlin 16 Personality Factors 3 Personality Factor
Father: Anton Eduard Eysenck (Comedian, Singer and Actor) Measuring a large number of traits Concentrating on types or superfactors that make
Mother: Ruth Werner (Film Star) up several interrelated traits
Wife: Margaret Davies (mathematician?), Sybil Rostal
Children: Michael (first marriage) and 3 others (second marriage) C. BASIC OF FACTOR ANALYSIS
Death: September 4, 1997 (cancer)
Deathplace: London
A comprehensive knowledge of the mathematical operation involved in factor analysis is not essential to an
understanding of trait and factor theories of personality but a general description of this technique should
be useful.
Steps in using Factor Analysis:
1. making specific observations of many individuals (quantified)
2. determine which of these variables are related to which other variables and to what extent
through calculation of correlation coefficient
3. result of these calculations would require a table of intercorrelations or a matrix (could be zero
to high; negative or positive)
4. turn to factor analysis which can account for a large number of variables with a smaller number
of more basic dimensions – Traits (factors that represent a cluster of closely related values)
5. determine the extent to which each individual score contributes to the various factors – factor
loadings (correlations of score with factors; give us an indvidation of the purity of the various
factors and enable us to interpret their meanings)
6. traits generate through factor analysis may be either unipolar (scaled from zero to some large
amount; height, weight and intellectual ability) and bipolar (one pole to opposite pole with zero
midpoint; introversion vs extroversion, liberalism vs conservatism…)
7. the plotted scores are rotated (orthogonal rotation (right angle) or oblique method (90 degrees))
into a specific mathematical relationship with each other to have a psychological meaning
D. EYSENCK’S FACTOR THEORY
Criteria for Identifying Factors
 psychometric evidence: factor must be reliable and replicable
 heritability: must fit an established genetic model
 make sense from a theoretical view: (deductive method) theory  gathering data
 possess social relevance: mathematically derived factors have a relationship with such socially
relevant variables as drug addiction, psychotic behavior, criminality, sporty and so on
Hierarchy of Behavior Organization
types or superfactors
trait
habitual acts or cognitions
specific actions or cognitions
E. DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
All 3 superfactors are bipolar.
The bipolarity of Eysenck’s factor does not imply that most people are at one end or the other of the three
main poles.
Each factor is unimodally, rather than bimodically distributed.
Each of these factors meet his four criteria for identifying personality dimensions.
3 superfactors:
1. Extraversion /Introversion
o primary cause of differences between extraverts and introverts is one of cortical arousal
level – a physiological condition that is largely inherited rather than learned
o extraverts
 have a lower level of cortical arousal, they have higher sensory threshold and thus
lesser reactions to a sensory stimulations
 because extraverts have a habitually low level of cortical arousal, they need a high level
of sensory stimulation (eg: wild activities) to maintain an optimal level of stimulation
o introverts
 higher level of arousal, and as a result of lower sensory threshold, they experience
greater reactions to a sensory stimulation
 to maintain an optimal level of stimulation with their congenitally low sensory
threshold, they avoid situations that will cause too much excitement
2. Neuroticism/Stability
o accepted the diatheses-stress model – suggests that some people are vulnerable to illness
because they have either a genetic or an acquired weakness that predisposes them to an
illness
o neuroticism can be combined with different points on the extraversion scale so no single
syndrome can define neurotic behavior
o neurotic: tendency to overreact emotionally and to have difficulty returning to a normal
state after emotional arousal; frequently complain of physical symptoms; does not
necessarily suggest neurosis
3. Psychoticism/Superego
o psychotic: egocentric, cold, nonconforming, impulsive, hostile, aggressive, suspicious,
psychopathic, antisocial
o superego: altruistic, highly socialized, emphatic, caring, cooperative,, conforming and
conventional
 o people who score high on psychoticism and who are also experiencing levels of stress have  He also argued that many psychology studies have reached erroneous conclusion because they
an increased chance of developing a psychotic disorder have ignored personality factors
o independent of both E and N  He hypothesized that P is related to genius and creativity
 both high P and high E scorers are likely to be troublemakers as children
 He believed that psychologists can be led astray if they do not consider the various combinations
F. MEASURING PERSONALITY of personality dimensions in conducting their research

Evolution of 4 Personality Inventories Personality and Disease

1. Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI); assessed only E and N and yielded some correlation
between two factors
2. Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI): contains a lie (L) scale to detect faking, but more
importantly, it measures extraversion and neuroticism independently
3. Junior Eysenck personality Inventory: extended to children 7 to 16 years of age
4. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): included extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism;
has both adult and junior version
G. BIOLOGICAL BASES OF PERSONALITY
 Eysenck and David Kissen (1962) found that people who scored low on neuroticism on the MPI
tended to suppress their emotion and were much more likely than high N scorers to receive a
later diagnosis of lung cancer
 Eysenck, Yugoslav and Ronald Grossarth-Maticek investigate not only the relationship between
personality and disease, but also the effectiveness of behavior therapy on prolonging the life of
cancer and CVD patients.
 result: on the relationship between personality and disease, it do not prove that psychological
factors cause cancer and heart disease. rather, these diseases are caused by many interaction of
many factors.

¾ of personality factors determinant can be accounted by heredity and ¼ is accounted by environmental I. THE BIG FIVE: TAXONOMY OR THEORY
factors.
Eysenck’s three factor theory approach is a good example of how a scientific theory can cause a taxonomy
3 Threads of Evidence for a Strong Biological Component in Personality to generate hundreds of hypotheses.
1. researchers have found nearly identical factors among people in various parts of the world In Big 5, attempt to identify basic personality traits  taxonomy  theory
2. evidence suggests that individuals tend to maintain their position over time on the different
dimensions of personality J. BIOGRAPHIES OF MCCRAE AND COSTA
3. studies of twins show a higher concordance between identical twins than between same-gender
fraternal twins reared together, suggesting that factors play a dominant part indetermining Full name: Robert Roger McCrae
individual differences Birthday: April 28, 1949
Birthplace: Maryville, Missouri, Kansas City
Psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism have both antecedents (genetic and biological) and Father: Andrew McCrae
consequences (experimental variables such as sensitivity and social behaviors ) Mother: Eloise Elaine McCrae
Genetic determinants  Biological Intermediaries  mold P, E, N
Significant part of his life
H. PERSONALITY AS A PREDICTOR  philosophy  psychology
 intrigued by psychometric work of Raymond Cattell
Psychometric traits of P, E, and N can combine with one another and with genetic determinants, biological  curious about using factor analysis to search for a simple method for identifying the structural
intermediates, and experimental studies to predict a variety of social behaviors. traits found in the dictionary
 believe that traits were real and enduring not consistent as what Walter Mischel believes
Personality and Behavior  James Fozard (he assists in research) referred him to other Boston-based personality
 PEN should predict results of experimental studies as well as social behaviors psychologists, Paul T. Costa Jr.
 Eysenck argued that an effective theory of personality should predict both proximal and distal  worked with Costa as project coordinator in Smoking and Personality for 2 years
consequences
  conducted work on traits with Costa tat ensured them a prominent role in the 40-year history of Openness imaginative, creative, original, down-to-earth, uncreative,
analysing the structure of personality prefers variety, curious, liberal conventional, prefers routine,
uncurious, conservative
Full name: Paul T. Costa Jr.
Agreeableness Softhearted, trusting, generous, Ruthless, suspicious, stingy,
Birthday: September 16, 1942 acquiescent, lenient, good-natured antagonistic, critical and irritable
Birthplace: Franklin, New Hampshire
Father: Paul T. Costa Sr. Conscientiousness Conscientious, hardworking, well- Negligent, lazy, disorganized, late,
Mother: Esther Vasil Costa organized, punctual, ambitious, aimless, quitting
Wife: Karol Sandra Costa persevering
Children: Nina, Lora and Nicholas

L. EVOLUTION OF THE FIVE FACTOR THEORY

Significant part of his life
 major in human develop and has interests in individual differences and the nature of personality
 Five factor taxonomy  five factor theory
 worked with Salvatore R. Maddi and published a book on humanistic personality theory
 Old theories cannot simply be abandoned: they must be replaced by a new generation of theories
 worked with Robert R. McCrae in National Institute of Aging’s Gerontology Research Center
that grow out of the conceptual insights of the past and the empirical findings of contemporary
research
K. IN SEARCH OF THE BIG FIVE
 New theory should be able to incorporate the change and growth of the individual that has
occurred the last 25 years as well as be grounded in the current empirical principles that have
Allport and Odbert (1930s)  Cattell (1940s)  Tupes, Christal and Norman (1960s)  Costa and McCrae
emerged from research
(1970s and 1980s) (used factor analytic techniques)
Neuroticism and Extraversion  Openness to Experience
Units of the Five-Factor Theory
Lewis Goldberg: first used the term “Big Five” in 1981
 Core Components of Personality
o Basic Tendencies: universal raw material of personality capacities and dispositions that are
Five Factors Found
generally inferred rather than observed (eg: cognitive abilities)
 1983: 3 factor model
o Characteristic Adaptations: acquired personality structures that develop as people adapt to
 1985: they began to report work on the five factors of personality
their environment (eg: habits)
 NEO-PI: new five-factor personality inventory includes Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness and
o Self-Concept: knowledge, views and evaluations of the self (eg:
Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
 Peripheral Components
 last two dimension: agreeableness and conscientiousness (fully developed on NEO-PI R in 1992)
o Biological Bases: genes, hormones and brain structures
 factor analysed different personality inventory including Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and
o Objective Biography: everything that person does, thinks, or feel across the whole lifespan;
Eysenck Personality Inventory
what has happened in people’s lives
o External Influence: how we respond to the opportunity and demands of the context
Description of the Five Factors

Basic Postulates
TRAITS HIGH SCORES LOW SCORES
 Postulates for Basic Tendencies
Extraversion affectionate, joiner, talkative, fun reserved, loner, quiet, sober, passive, o Individuality: unique set of traits  unique combination of trait patterns
loving, active, passionate unfeeling o Origin: personality traits are result of internal forces (biological)
o Development: traits develop and change through childhood, slows in adolescence and stop
Neuroticism anxious, temperamental, self-pitying, calm, even-tempered, self-satisfied,
in mid-adulthood
self-consciousness, emotional, comfortable, unemotional, hardy
vulnerable o Structure: organized hierarchically from narrow and specific to broad and general
(deductive?)
  Postulates for Characteristic Adaptations
o Over time, people are adapting to the environment by pattern of thoughts, feelings and
behavior that are consistent in their personality traits and earlier adaptation.
o Maladjustment suggests that our responses are not always consistent with personal goals or
cultural values
o Basic traits may chance over time in response to biological maturation, changes in the
environment or deliberate interventions
M. RELATED RESEARCH
The Biology of Personality Traits
 Eysenck’s Hypothesis: if introverts have lower thresholds of arousal than do extraverts, then they
should be more reactive to sensory stimulation
 Beauducel and Colleagues (2006) predicted that extraverts would be less cortically aroused and
show worse performance on a boring and monotonous task
 result: supports Eysenck’s theory about extraversion and introversion regarding arousal
 Anthony Gale (1983) summarized the findings from 33 studies examining EEG and extraversion
 result: introverts showed greater cortical arousal than did extraverts in 22 of the 33 studies
 Robert Stelmack (1997) reviewed the literature and came to two basic conclusions: first,
introverts are more reactive than extraverts on various measures of arousal; second, extraverts
are quicker to respond on simple motor tasks. the faster motoric response rates of extraverts
correspond well with their greater spontaneity, social disinhibition, and impulsiveness
 Cynthia Doucet and Stelmack (2000) has found out in their study that it was only motoric
response rate – not cognitive processing speed – that differentiated introverts and extraverts.
extraverts were faster motorically but not cognitively. extraverts may move faster but they do
not think faster than introverts
 Eysenck’s Hypothesis: introverts should work best in environments of relatively low sensory
stimulation, whereas extraverts should perform best under conditions of relatively high sensory
stimulation
 Russell Geen (1984) introverted and extraverted participants were randomly assigned to either a
low noise or high noise condition and then given a relatively simple cognitive task to perform.
 results: showed that introverts outperformed extraverts under conditions of low noise, whereas
extraverts outperformed introverts under conditions of high noise
Traits and Academics
 Erik Noftle and Richard Robins (2007) conducted a study in which they measured the traits and
academic outcomes of more than 10,000 students
 result: those who are high on the trait of conscientiousness tend to have higher GPAs in both high
school and college; Big 5 traits were not strong predictors of scores on the math section of the
SAT, but openness was related to scores on the verbal section
 Michael Zyphur and Colleagues (2007) conducted a study to see whether those high on
neuroticism were indeed more likely to retake the SAT
 result: supported the researchers’ hypothesis in that those who scored high on neuroticism were
more likely to take the SAT multiple times; also, scores on the SAT tended to increase over time
so participants in the study tended to score higher the second time than the first and higher still
the third time they took the test
Traits and Emotion
 Murray McNiel and William Fleeson (2006) conducted a study to determine the direction of
causality for the relationships between extraversion and positive mood and between neuroticism
and negative mood
 result1: participants reported higher positive mood when they were instructed to act extraverted
than when they were instructed to act introverted; regardless of your natural level of
extraversion, just acting in an extraverted manner can make you feel better than if you act
introverted
 result2: participants reported being in a worse mood when they acted neurotic than when they
did not
 conclusion: if you are in a bad mood but want to be in a good mood, act extraverted
 Michael Robinson and Gerald Clore (2007) suggest that it is not the case that everybody who
scores high on neuroticism experiences more negative mood. there are individual differences for
the speed with which people process incoming information, and these differences might
influence the relationship between neuroticism
 result: neuroticism did predict experiencing more negative over the course of the 2-week
reporting period but only for those who were slow at the computer task; those who were high
on neuroticism but fast at the computer task did not report any more negative emotion over the
course of the 2-week period than their low neuroticism counterparts
N. CRITIQUE OF EYSENCK, MCCRAE AND COSTA
 generate research: (very high)reported significant amounts of research in these and other fields
of research
 falsifiable: (moderate to high) eysenck’s research results has not been replicated by outside
researchers: mccrae and costa lends itself to falsification
 organize knowledge: (high) can present a framework in organizing many disparate observations
about human personality
 guides action: (equivocal) provide a comprehensive and structured taxonomy
 internally consistent: (equivocal) some are consistent and some are not
 parsimony: (excellent) factor analysis is predicted on the idea of the fewest explanatory factors
possible
O. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
1. neither determinism vs free choice
2. neither optimism vs optimism
3. neither teleological vs causal
 4. consciousness  finished PhD in psychology and now confident of his identity as a behaviourist
5. biological influences/genetic factors  hunting permanent job: junior fellow in Society of Fellows doing laboratory research  teaching
6. individual differences/uniqueness and research position
SKINNER: BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS  second identity crisis: involved with two of his most interesting ventures: pigeon-guided missile
and baby-tender (built for Debbie)
Behaviorism  published Walden Two that became his break in his entire career (resolution to his identity crisis)
 an approach emerged from laboratory studies of animals and humans  involved with the application of behavioural analysis to the technology of shaping human
 early pioneers were E.L. Thorndike and John Watson behavior
 but the person most associated was B.F. Skinner
B. PRECURSORS TO SKINNER’S SCIENTIFIC BEHAVIORISMS
Behavioral Analysis
 clear departure from the highly speculative psychodynamic theories Skinner agreed in the following:
 minimized speculations and focused almost entirely on observable behavior
Edward L. Thorndike
 observable behavior is not limited to external events because private behaviors such as thinking,
remembering and anticipating are all observable by the person experiencing them  observed that learning takes place mostly because of the effects that follow a response
 radical behaviourism: a doctrine that avoids all hypothetical constructs such as ego, traits, drives,  Law of Effect
needs, hunger and so forth o responses to stimuli that are followed immediately by a satisfier (reward) tend to be
 human behavior does not stem from an act of the will, but like any observable phenomenon, it is “stamped in”
lawfully determined and can be studies scientifically (Skinner’s a determinist) o responses to stimuli that are followed immediate by an annoyer (punishment) tend to be
 held that psychology must not explain behavior on the basis of the physiological or constitutional “stamped out”  inhibits behavior not stamp out
components of the organism but rather on the basis of environmental stimuli\  Skinner also agreed to Thorndike that the effects of rewards are more predictable than the
effects of punishments in shaping behavior
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF SKINNER
John B. Watson
Full name: Burrhus Frederic Skinner  studied bothn animals and humans and became convinced that the concepts of consciousness
Birthday: March 20, 1904 and introspection must play no role in the scientific study of human behavior
Birthplace: Susquehanna, Pennsylvania  argued that human behavior, like the behavior of animals and machines, can be studied
Father: William Skinner (lawyer and aspiring politician) objectively
Mother: Grace Mange Burrhus Kinner (housewife)  instinct, sensation, perception, motivation, mental states, mind and imagery are beyond the
Wife: Yvonne Blue realm of scientific psychology
Children: Deborah
Death: August 18, 1990 (leukemia) C. SCIENTIFIC BEHAVIORISM
Deathplace: Harvard?
Scientific Behaviorism
Significant part of his life  Skinner insisted that human behavior should be studied scientifically
 felt more simply independent and less emotionally attached to his parents when his brother  Behavior can best be studied without reference to needs, instincts, or motives. Attributing
Edward was born motivation to human behavior would be like attributing a free will to natural phenomena.
 become “the family boy” when his brother died  he believed that internal states are outside the domain of science
 more inclined in music and literature and wanted to become a professional writer  psychology must avoid internal mental factors and confine itself to observable physical events
 first identity crisis: had his dark year as identity confusion when decided to just be a writer at  abandoned the practice of attributing motives, needs, or willpower to the motion (behavior) of
home in the attic living organisms and inanimate objects
 became determined to be behaviourist after his dark year
  Cosmology: concern with causation and clouds the issue and relegates much of psychology ot o a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross
that ream of philosophy approximations of the behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the desired behavior
itself – Successive Approximations
Philosophy of Science o 3 Conditions:
 Scientific behaviorism allows for an interpretation of behavior but not an explanation of its  Antecedent (A): environment or setting in which the behavior takes place
causes.  Behavior (B): actions
 Interpretation permits as scientist to generalize from a simple learning condition to a more  Consequence (C): reward or punishment
complex one o Operant Discrimination: organism learns to respond to some elements in the environment
but not to others
Characteristic of Science o Stimulus Generalization: a response to a similar environment in the absence of previous
1. Cumulative: growing reinforcement
2. An attitude that values empirical observation: a disposition to deal with facts rather than with  Reinforcement
what someone has said about them. o strengthens the behavior and rewards the person
3 components of scientific attitude: o Positive Reinforcement: any stimulus that, when added to a situation, increases the
o rejects authority: just because someone respected said it does it mean it should be a fact probability that a given behavior will occur
already o Negative Reinforcement: removal of an aversive stimulus from a situation also increases the
o demands intellectual honesty: require scientists to accept facts even when these facts are probability that the preceding behavior will occur
opposed to their wishes  Punishment
o suspends judgment: should be verified, tested and replicated. o the presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a positive one; sometimes but not
3. Search for order and lawful relationships- the scientific method consists of prediction, control, always weakens a response
and description. o Effects of Punishment
 supress behavior
D. CONDITIONING  conditioning of a negative feelingspread of its effects
 Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers
2 kinds of Conditioning: o Conditioned Reinforcers: those environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but
become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers
Classical Conditioning (Respondent Conditioning) o Generalized Reinforcers: associated with more than one primary reinforce
 a response is drawn out of the organism by a specific, identifiable stimulus  Schedules of Reinforcement
 behavior is elicited from the organism (drawn from the organism) o Continuous Schedules: organism is reinforced for every response
 US  UR; US  CS  CR; CS  CR o Intermittent Schedules: reinforced only on certain selected occurrences of ther esponse
 pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response  Fixed Ratio: number of responses (ex: every after 5)
 ex: Little Albert by Watson and Rosalie Rayner  Variable Ratio: nth response on the average (ex: after 5, then 10, 15)
 Fixed Interval: designated period of time (ex: every 5 minutes)
Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian Conditioning)  Variable Interval: lapse of random or varied periods of time (ex: every 5 min, 10, 15)
 behavior is made more likely to recur when it is immediately reinforced  Extinction: once learned, responses can be lost for at least four reasons:
 behavior is emitted from the organism (simply appears because of reinforcement) o forgotten during the passage of time
 the immediate reinforcement of a response o lost due to the interference of preceding or subsequent learnings
 does not cause the behavior, but increases the chances of repetition o disappear due to punishment
o weakened upon nonreinforcement – Extinction
o Operant Extinction: takes place when an experimenter systematically withhold
reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response
 Shaping
diminishes to zero
  Social Control
E. THE HUMAN ORGANISM o operant conditioning
o describing contingencies
Human behavior (and human personality) is shaped by three forces: o deprivation and satiation
1. Natural Selection o physical restraints
2. Cultural Practices  Self-Control
3. Individual’s History of Reinforcement o use physical aids to alter their environment
o change their environment, thereby increasing the probability of the desired behavior
Natural Selection o arrange their environment so that they can escape from an aversive stimulus only by
 determined by genetic composition and personal histories of reinforcement producing the proper response
 behaviors that were beneficial to the species tended to survive o take drugs as a means of self-control
o do something else in order to avoid behaving in an undesirable fashion
Cultural Evolution
 selection is responsible for those cultural practices that have survived, just as selection plays a F. THE UNHEALTHY PERSONALITY
key role in humans’ evolutionary history and also with the contingencies of reinforcement
The techniques of social control and self-control sometimes produce detrimental effects, which can result in
Inner States inappropriate behavior and unhealthy personality development.
 refer as feelings of love, anxiety, or fear
 can be studied but the observation is limited Counteracting Strategies
 Self-Awareness:: awareness of the consciousness of self (thoughts, feelings, recollections and  Escape: people withdraw from the controlling agent either physically or psychologically.
intentions)  Revolt: controls behave more actively, counterattacking the controlling agent
 Drives: effects of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding probability that the  Passive resistance: stubbornness
organism will respond
 Emotions: behaviors followed by delight, joy, pleasure , and other pleasant emotions tend to be Inappropriate Behaviors
reinforced, increasing the probability to recur  excessively vigorous behavior: makes no sense in terms of the contemporary situation but might
 Purpose and Intention: exist within the skin, but they are not subject to direct outside scrutiny be reasonable in terms past history
 excessively restrained behavior: means of avoiding the aversive stimuli associated with
Complex Behavior punishment
 even the most abstract and complex behavior is shaped by natural selection, cultural evolution,  blocking out reality: paying no attention to aversive stimuli
or the individual’s history of reinforcement  defective self-knowledge: self-deluding responses such as boasting, rationalizing, or claiming to
 Higher Mental Processes: thinking, problems solving, and reminiscing are covert behaviors be the Messiah
amenable to the same contingencies of reinforcement as overt behavior  self-punishment: punishing themselves or arranging environmental variables so that they are
 Creativity: result of random or accidental behaviors (overt or covert) punished by others
 Unconscious Behavior: behavior is labeled unconscious when people no longer think about it
because it has been suppressed through punishment
 Dreams: covert and symbolic forms of behavior that are subject to the same contingencies of
reinforcement as other behaviors are
 Social Behavior: individuals establish groups because they have been rewarded for doing so G. PSYCHOTHERAPY

Control of Human Behavior Skinnerian Behavior Therapy

 individual’s behavior is controlled by environmental contingencies erected by society, another  a therapist is a controlling agent and a patient must learn to discriminate between punitive
individual or self authority figures and a permissive therapist
  patients: cold and rejecting; therapist: warm and accepting, patients: critical and judgmental; brain – right and left ventral striatum, left amygdala, substantia nigra and left orbitofrontal cortex
therapist: supportive and empathic – than their low behavioural activation counterparts
 a therapist molds desirable behavior by reinforcing slightly improved changes in behavior  conclusion: personality is realted to differences in biological processes of how we respond to
 if behavior is shaped by inner causes, then some force must be responsible for the inner cause reward

H. RELATED RESEARCH I. CRITIQUE OF SKINNER

How Conditions Affect Personality  generate research: (very high) spawned great quantity of research
 Jennifer Tidey, Suzanne O’Neill and Stephen Higgins (2000) conducted a study if psychomotor  falsifiability: (very high) spawned great quantity of research
stimulants really increase smoking levels in those who smoke  organize knowledge: (moderate) his approach was to describe behavior and the environmental
 result: smoking levels in both the money and in the free smoking session increased in proportion contingencies under which it takes place
to d-amphetamine; the higher the dose of d-amphetamine, the more the participants smoked;  guide action: (very high) abundance of descriptive research turned out by Skinner nad his
smoking was chosen over money in the choice session in direct proportion to the amount of d- followers has made operant conditioning an extremely practical procedure
amphetamine administered  internal consistency: (very high)m defined his terms precisely and operationally
 conclusion: reinforcers can change their value over time and in combination with other timuli  parsimonious: difficult to rate, on one hand it is free from cumbersome hypothetical construct on
the other it demands a novel expression of everyday phrases
How Personality Affects Conditioning
 Stacey Sigmon and Colleagues (2003) studied the effects that d-amphetamine has on smoking J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
using two different reinforcers: cigarette and money;; in addition to trying to replicate thefinding
that psychomotor stimulants specifically increase the reinforcing value of nicotine compared to 1. determinism
money, they wanted to examine whether there were any individual differences in the effect 2. optimism
 result: responders were willing to work harder to get cigarettes under increasing amounts of d- 3. causality
amphetamine but this result did not hold for the 8 nonresponders; possiblre reasons were seen 4. unconscious
in the subjective rating of the effects of the drug 5. social factors
 Jeffrey Gray and Alan Pickering (1999) Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory : temperamental and 6. uniqueness
biological states affect response sensitivity to conditioning
 Philip Corr (2002) examine the differences in anxiety and impulsivity and their association to
response sensitivities
 result: participants who were highly anxious but also impulsive showed a lower startle response
especially when viewing negative images compared to participants who were highly anxious but
not impulsive
 conclusion: people do not response to reinforcers in the same way, and personality is one of the
key mechanisms that moderates their effect

Reinforcement in the Brain

 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging: technology used to study brain activation
 John Beaver and Colleagues (2006) examine what parts of the brain were activated when BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
participants looked at various food-related stimuli and if there were individual differences in
personality that predicted this brain activation Social Cognitive Theory
 result: people who scored higher on the personality variable of behavioural activation  the outstanding characteristics of humans is plasticity – humans have the flexibility to learn a
experienced increased activation to the pictures of cake and ice cream in five specific areas of the variety of behaviors in diverse situation
o vicarious learning: learning by observing others
  through a triadic reciprocal causation model that includes behavioural, environment, and
personal factors, people have the capacity to regulate their lives
o two important forces of triadic model: chance encounters and fortuitous events
 takes an agentic perspective – humans have the capacity to exercise control over the nature and
quality of their lives
o important component of triadic model: self-efficacy (confidence that they can perform those
behaviors that will produce desired behaviors in a particular situation)
o can predict performance: proxy agency (people are able to rely on others for goods and
services) and collective efficacy (people’s shared beliefs that they can bring about change
 people regulate their conduct through both external factors (people’s physical and social
environments) and internal factors (self-observation, judgmental process and self-reaction)
 when people find themselves in morally ambiguous situations, they typically attempt to regulate
their behavior through moral agency – includes redefining behavior, disregarding or distorting
the consequences of their behavior, dehumanizing or blaming the victims of their behavior, and
displacing or diffusing responsibility for their actions
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF BANDURA
Full name: Albert Bandura
Birthday: December 4, 1925
Birthplace: Mundare, Northern Alberta
Father: Unnamed
Mother: Unnamed
Significant part of his life:
 encouraged by his sisters to be independent and self-reliant
 studied in a school were learning was left to the initaitve of the students
 experience contact with several coworkers who manifested various degrees of psychopathology
which kindled him an interest in clinical psychology
 told Richard Evans that his decision to become a psychologist was quite accidental; that is, it was
a result of a fortuitous event
 most of his early publications were in clinical psychology, dealing primarily with psychotherapy
and the Rorschach Test
 collaborated with Richard H. Walters to publish a paper on aggressive delinquents and was
encouraged to do some with other graduate students as well
B. LEARNING
Although people can do learn from direct experience, much of what they learn is acquired through
observing others.
Observational Learning
 observation allows people to learn without performing any behavior
 Modeling
o involves adding and subtracting from the observed behavior and generalizing from one
observation to another
o involves cognitive processes and is not simply mimicry or imitation
o symbolically representing information and storing it for use at a future time
o several factors that determine whether a person will learn from a model:
 characteristics of the model are important
 characteristics of the observer affect the likelihood of modelling
 the consequence of behavior being modelled may have an effect on the observer
 Processes Governing Observational Learning
o Attention: attending and recognizing the distinctive features of the model’s response
o Representation: patterns must be symbolically represented in memory
o Behavioral Production: converting cognitive representations into appropriate actions
o Motivation: inspiration to execute the action again or not again
Enactive Learning
 complex human behavior can be learned when people think about and evaluate the
consequences of their behaviors
 3 Functions of the Response Consequences:
o inform us of the effects of our actions
o motivate our anticipatory behavior
o to reinforce behavior
C. TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION
Triadic Reciprocal Causation
 assumes that human action is a result of an interaction among three variables –behavior (B),
environment (E) and person (P)
 “reciprocal” to indicate a triadic interaction of forces, not similar or opposite counteraction
An Example of Triadic Reciprocal Causation
 E: child begging her father for a second brownie
 B: not giving another brownie
 P: father/’s cognition
 E  B: child’s please affecting her father’s behavior
 E  P: father’s cognition
 B  E: father’s behavior helped shape the child’s behavior
 B  P: behavior impinged his own thought
 P  B: his cognition partially determined his behavior
 P  E: father, as a father, has an effect on the child
Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events
 Chance encounters: an unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each other
 Fortuitous event: an environmental experience that is unexpected and unintended
 fortuity adds a separate dimension in any scheme used to predict human behavior and it makes
accurate predictions practically impossible
 chance encounters influence people only by entering the triadic reciprocal causation paradigm at
point E and adding to the mutual interaction of person, behavior and environment
 chance encounters and fortuitous events are not uncontrollable rather people can make it
happen

D. HUMAN AGENCY
Human Agency
 humans have the capacity to exercise control over their own lives
 essence of humanness
 active process of exploring, manipulating, and influencing the environment in order to attain
desired outcomes
Core Features of Human Agency
 Intentionality: refers to acts a person performs intentionally
 Forethought: people set goals, anticipate likely outcomes of their actions and select behaviors
that will produce desired outcomes and avoid undesirable ones
 Self-Reactiveness: motivating and regulating actions
 Self-Reflectiveness: examines their own functioning, think about and evaluate their motivations,
values and the meanings of their life goals and they can think about the adequacy of their own
thinking
Self-Efficacy
 people’s belief in their capability to exercise some measure of control over their own functioning
and over environmental events
 foundation of human agency
 varies from situation to situation depending on the competencies required for different activities
 people’s belief in their personal efficacy influence what courses of action they choose to pursue,
how much effort they will invest in activities, how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles
and failure experiences, and their resiliency following setbacks
 What contributes to self-efficacy?
o Mastery Experiences: past performances
 successful performance raises self-efficacy in proportion to the difficulty of the task
 tasks successfully accomplished by oneself are more efficacious than those completed
with the help of others
 failure is most likely to decrease efficacy when we know that we put forth our best
effort
 failure under conditions of high emotional arousal or distress are not as self-debilitating
as failure under maximal conditions
 failure prior to establishing a sense of mastery is more detrimental to feelings of
personal efficacy than later failure
 occasional failure has little effect on efficacy
o Social Modeling: vicarious experiences provided by other people
o Social Persuasion: persuasion from others can raise or lower self-efficacy
o Physical and Emotional States: people’s physiological and emotional states
Proxy Agency
 Involves indirect control over those social conditions that affect everyday living
 relying on the competence and power of others
Collective Efficacy
 People’s shared beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results
 confidence people have that their combined efforts will bring about group accomplishments
 2 Techniques for measuring Collective Efficacy:
o combine individual members’ evaluations of their personal capabilities to enact nbehaviors
that benefit the group
o measure the confidence of each person has in the group’s ability to bring about a desired
outcome
 Several factors that can undermine self-efficacy:
o human live in a transnational world; what happens in one part of the world can affect people
in other countries, giving them a sense of helplessness
o recent technology that people neither understand nor believe that they can control may
lower their sense of collective efficacy
o complex social machinery, with layers of bureaucracy that prevent social change
o the tremendous scope and magnitude of human problems
E. SELF-REGULATION
Self-Regulation
 when people have high levels of self-efficacy, are condiment in their reliance on proxies, and
possess solid collective efficacy they will have considerable capacity to regulater their own
behavior
 2 Strategies: they reactively attempt to reduce the discrepancies between their accomplishments
and their goal; but after they close those discrepancies, they proactively set newer and higher
goals for themselves
 Processes that contribute to self-regulation:
o people possess limited ability to manipulate the external factors that feed into the reciprocal
interactive paradigm
o people are capable of monitoring their own behavior and evaluating it in terms of both
proximate and distant goals
 Behaviors then stems from a reciprocal influence of both external and internal factors
o External Factors in Self-Regulation
 provide us with standard for evaluating our own behavior
 influence self-regulation by providing the means of reinforcement
 Internal Factors in Self-Regulation
 Self-Observation: monitoring own performance
 Judgmental Processes: regulating behavior through the process of mediation and
depends on:
 Personal Standards: allow us to evaluate our performances without comparing
them to the conduct of others.
 Referential Performance: comparing their performances to others or to their
previous performances
 Valuation of Activity: spend much effort on high valued activities and vice versa
 Performance Attribution: causes of our behavior
 Self-Reaction: people respond positively or negatively to their behaviors depending on
how these behaviors measure up to their personal standards
 Self-Reinforcement
 Self-Punishment
Self-Regulation Through Moral Agency
  People also regulate their actions through moral standards of conduct
 2 Aspects:
o doing no harm to people
o proactively helping people
 Selective Activation: self-regulatory influences are not automatic but operate only if they are
activated
 Disengagement of Internal Control: separation of disengagement of people from the
consequences of their behavior by justifying the morality of their actions
 Mechanisms in Disengaging or Selectively Activating Self-Control
o Redefine the Behavior: people justify otherwise reprehensible actions by a cognitive
restructuring that allow them to minimize or escape responsibility through this techniques:
 moral justification: culpable behavior is made to seem defensible or even noble
 palliative comparisons: comparing own behavior to the even greater atrocities
committed by others
 euphemistic labels: white lies?
o Disregard or Distort the Consequences of Behavior: distorting or obscuring the relationship
between the behavior and its detrimental consequences through these techniques:
 minimize the consequences of their behavior
 disregard or ignore the consequences of their actions
 distort or misconstrue the consequences of their actions
o Dehumanize or Blame the Victims: dehumanizing the victims or attributing the blame to
them
o Displace or Diffuse Responsibility: in displacement, people minimize the consequences of
their actions by placing responsibility on an outside source; in diffusing responsibility, the
consequences were spread so think that no one person is responsbility
F. DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR
Depression
 failure  depression  undervalue their own accomplishments
 chronic misery, feelings of worthlessness, lack of purposefulness, and pervasive depression
 Dysfunctional Depression occurring in Self-Regulatory Subfunction: Self-Observation,
Judgmental processes, and Self-Reactions
Phobias
 Fears that are strong enough and pervasive enough to have severe debilitating effects on one’s
daily life
 learned by direct contact, inappropriate generalization, and especially by observational
experiences
Aggression
 acquired trough observation of others, direct experiences with positive and negative
reinforcements, training, or instruction, and bizarre beliefs
 5 Reasons of Aggression:
o they enjoy inflicting injury on the victim (positive reinforcement)
o they avoid or counter the aversive consequences of aggression by others (negative
reinforcement)
o they receive injury or harm for not behaving aggressively (punishment)
o they live up to their personal standards of conduct by their aggressive behavior (self-
reinforcement)
o they observe others receiving rewards for aggressive acts or punishment for nonaggressive
behavior
 children who observed other behaving aggressively displayed more aggression than a control
group of children who did not view aggressive acts (Bobo Doll experiment)
G. Therapy
Social Cognitive Therapy
 ultimate goal: self-regulation
 to achieve this end, the therapist introduces strategies designed to induce specific behavioural
changes, to generalize those changes to other situations, and to maintain those changes by
preventing relapse
 Steps:
1. instigate some change in behavior
2. generalize specific changes
3. maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors
 Basic Treatment Approaches
o Overt or Vicarious Modeling: observing live or filmed models
o Covert or Cognitive Modeling: visualizing model performing fearsome behaviors
o Enactive Mastery: requires patients to perform those behaviors that previously produced
incapacitating fears (systematic desensitization)
 Cognitive Mediation: common mechanism which is the reason for the effectiveness of the
treatment approaches
H. RELATED RESEARCH
Self-Efficacy and Terrorism
 Peter Fischer and Colleagues (2006) were interested in investigating the possible link between
religion, self-efficacy, and coping with the threat of terrorism
 results: when the salience of terrorism was high, intrinsically religious people were in a better
mood and reported greater self-efficacy than nonreligious people; better mood experienced by
intrinsically religious people was due to their increased feelings of self-efficacy; when the salience
of terrorism was low, there were no differences on mood between intrinsically religious and
nonreligious people
 conclusion: the more we feel in control and capable of handling unforeseen circumstances, the
less the threat pf terrorism will negatively affect our well-being
Self-Efficacy and Diabetes
 William Sacco and Collegaues (2007) studied Bandura’s construct of self-efficacy as it relates to
Type 2 Diabetes; explore the role of self-efficacy as a variable that could increase adherence to
the disease management plan and decrease negative physical and mental health symptoms
 result: higher levels of self-efficacy were related to lower levels of depression, increased
adherence to doctors’ orders, lower BMI and fewer and decreased severity of diabetes
symptoms; self-efficacy was directly responsible for both the relationship between BMI and
depression and the relationship between adherence and depression
 Birthday: October 22, 1916
I. CRITIQUE OF BANDURA Birthplace: Brooklyn
Father: unnamed
 generate research: (very high) generated several thousand research studies
Mother: unnamed
 falsifiability: (high) suggests several areas of possible research that could lead to falsification of
Wife: Clara Rotter
self-efficacy theory
 organize knowledge: (high) many finding from psychology research can be organized by social Children: Jean and Richard
cognitive theory
 guide to action/practical: provides useful and specific guidelines Significant part of his life
 internally consistent: has outstanding internal consistency because it is not highly speculative  highly competitive, fighting youngest child
 parsimony: (high) simple, straightforward and unencumbered by hypothetical ro fanciful  depression sparked in him a lifelong concern for social injustice and taught him the importance of
explanations situational conditions affecting human behavior
 was an avid reader and was able to Adler, Freud, and Menninger’s writings; was impressed by
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Adler and Freud and soon returned for more
1. free choice  attended Adler’s medical lectures and several of his clinical demonstrations and came to
2. optimism personally know Adler
3. social factors  took a job at Ohio State University, where he attracted a number of outstanding graduate
4. causality and teleology students, including Walter Mischel
5. conscious
 Him and George Kelly reigned as the two most dominant members of the psychology department
6. uniqueness
at Ohio State

K. INTRODUCTION TO ROTTER’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

5 Basic Hypotheses of Social Learning Theory

 humans interact with their meaningful environments: people’s reaction to environmental
stimuli depends on the meaning or importance that they attach to an event
 human personality is learned: it can be changed or modified as longs as people are capable of
learning
 personality has a basic unity: people to evaluate new experiences on the basis of previous
reinforcement
ROTTER AND MISCHEL: COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY  motivation is goal directed: human behavior lies in people’s expectations that their behaviors are
advancing them toward goals
Cognitive Social Learning Theory o empirical law of effect: defines reinforcement as any action, condition, or event which
 cognitive factors help shape how people will react to environmental forces affects the individual’s movement toward a goal
 one’s expectation of future events are prime determinants of performance  people are capable of anticipating events: they use their perceived movement in the direction of
 Rotter: people’s cognition, past histories, and expectations of the future are keys to predicting the anticipated event as a criterion for evaluating reinforcers
behavior
 Mischel: cognitive factors, such as experience, subjective perceptions, values, goals and personal B. PREDICTING SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS
standards, play important roles in shaping personality
Four variables that must be analysed in order to make accurate predictions in any specific situation:
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ROTTER  Behavior Potential
o likelihood that a given behavior will occur in a particular situation
Full name: Julian B. Rotter o behavior potential in any situation is a function of both expectancy and reinforcement value
  Expectancy
o a person’s expectation that some specific reinforcement or set of reinforcements will occur
in a given situation
o probability is not determined by the individual’s history of reinforcements, but is
subjectively held by the person
o 2 kinds of Expectancies: Generalized Expectancies and Specific Expectancies (E’ or E prime)
o total expectancy partially determines the amount of effort people will expend in pursuit of
their goals
 Reinforcement Value
o the preference of a person attaches to any reinforcement when the probabilities for the
occurrence of a number of different reinforcements are all equal
o when experiences and situational variables are held constant, behavior is shaped by one’s
preference for the possible reinforcements, that is, reinforcement value
o determinants of reinforcement value
 Internal Reinforcement: perception of an individual that contributes to the positive or
negative value of an event
 External Reinforcement: events, conditions or actions on which one’s society or culture
places a value
o what adds to reinforcement value: needs and expected consequences
o reinforcement-reinforcement sequence: cluster of reinforcement
 Psychological Situation
o part of the external and internal world to which the person is responding
o complex pattern of cues that a person perceives during a specific time period
o a complex set of interacting cues acting upon an individual for any specific time period
o people do not behave in a vacuum; instead, they respond to cues within their perceived
environment.
 Basic Prediction Formula
o BPx1, s1, ra = f(Ex1,ra,s1 +RV a, s1)
 This formula is read: the potential for behavior x to occur in situation 1 in relation to
reinforcement a is the function of the expectancy that behavior x will be followed by
reinforcement a in situation 1 and the value of reinforcement a in situation 1.
 Because precise measurement of each of these variables may be beyond the scientific study of
human behavior, Rotter proposed a strategy for predicting general behaviors
C. PREDICTING GENERAL BEHAVIORS
Generalized Expectancies
 includes generalization and generalized expectancies
 involves what he has been or what he experienced before predicting someone’s behavior
 predicting reaction is a matter of knowing how he views the options available to him and also the
status of his present needs
Needs
 any behavior or set of behaviors that people see as moving them in the direction of a goal.
 Categories of Needs
o Recognition-Status: need to be recognized by others and to achieve status
o Dominance: need to control the behavior of others
o Independence: need to be free of the domination of others
o Protection-Dependency: needs to be cared for by others, to be protected from frustration
and harm, and to satisfy the other need categories
o Love and Affection: need for acceptance by others that go beyond recognition and status to
include some indication that other people have warm, positive feelings for them
o Physical Comfort: needs that includes behaviors aimed at securing food, good health, and
physical security
 Need Components (analogous to the more specific concepts of behavior potential, expectancy
and reinforcement value)
o Need potential (NP): possible occurrence of a set of functionally related behaviors directed
toward satisfying the same or similar goal
o Freedom of Movement (FM): one’s overall expectation of being reinforced for performing
those behavior that are directed toward satisfying some general need
o Need Value: degree to which she or he prefers one set of reinforcements to another;
General Prediction Formula
 NP = f (FM + NV)
 This equation means that need potential (NP) is a function of freedom of movement (FM) and
need value (NV). The formula is analogous to the basic prediction formula, and each factor is
parallel to the corresponding factors of that basic formula.
Internal and External Control of Reinforcement
 reinforcement does not automatically stamp in behaviors but that people have the ability to see a
causal connection between their own behavior and the occurrence of the reinforce
 people strive to reach their goals because they have a generalized expectancy that such strivings
will be successful
 but many people did not increase their feeling of personal control after experiencing success and
that others did not lower their expectancies after repeated failure
 Locus of Control: internal and external control of reinforcement
 Internal-External Control Scale: to assess internal and external control of reinforcement or the
locus of control; measure the degree to which people perceive a causal relationship between
their efforts and environmental consequences
 Misconception in I-E Control Scale
o scores are determinant of behavior
o locus of control is specific and can predict achievement in a specific situation
 o scale divides people into distinct types – internal and external
o many people seem to believe that high internal scores signify socially desirable traits and
that high external scores indicate socially undesirable characteristics
Interpersonal Trust Scale
 Interpersonal Trust: a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word, promise, oral
or written statement of another individual or group can be relied on
 asked people to agree or disagree to 25 items that assessed interpersonal trust and 15 filler
items designed to conceal the nature of the instrument
 high trusters are not gullible or naïve, and rather than being harmed by their trustful attitude,
they seem to possess many of the characteristics that other people regard as positive and
desirable
D. Maladaptive Behavior
Maladaptive Behavior
 any persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desired goal
 it frequently, but not inevitably, arises from the combination of high need value and low freedom
of movement: that is, from goals that are unrealistically high in relation to one’s ability to achieve
them
 people may also have low freedom of movement because they make a faulty evaluation of the
present situation
 people have low freedom of movement because they generalize from one situation in which,
perhaps, they are realistically inadequate to other situations in which they could have sufficient
ability to be successful
 characterized by unrealistic goals, inappropriate behaviors, inadequate skills or unreasonably low
expectancies of being able to execute the behaviors necessary for positive reinforcement
E. PSYCHOTHERAPY
Rotterian Therapy
 “the problems of psychotherapy are problems of how to effect changes in behavior through the
interaction of one person with another. That is, they are problems in human learning in a social
situation.”
 goal: to bring freedom of movement and need value into harmony, this reducing defensive ad
avoidance behaviors
 the therapist assumes an active role as a teacher and attempts to accomplish the therapeutic goal
in two basic ways:
o changing the importance of goals
o eliminating unrealistically low expectancies for success
Changing Goals
 help the patients understand the faulty nature of their gals and to teach them constructive means
of striving toward realistic goals
 3 sources of problems that follow from inappropriate goals
o two or more important goals may be in conflict
o destructive goal
o many people find themselves in trouble because they set their goals too and are continually
frustrated when they cannot reach or exceed them
Eliminating Low Expectancies
 therapist tries to eliminate patient’s low expectancies of success and its analog, low freedom of
movement
 3 reasons why people may have low freedom of movement:
o they may lack the skills or information needed to successfully strive toward their goals
o low freedom of movement is faulty evaluation of the present situation
o low freedom of movement can spring from inadequate generalization
 Several techniques
o teach patients to look for alternative courses of action
o help patients understand other people’s motives
o help patients look at the long-range consequences of their behaviors and to understand that
many maladaptive behaviors produce secondary gains that outweigh the patients’ present
frustration
o have patietns enter into a previously painful social situation, but rather than speaking as
much as usual, theya r asked to reamin as quitet as possible and merely observe
Therapist should be an active participant in a social interaction with the patient.
F. INTRODUCTION TO MISCHEL’S PERSONALITY THEORY
2 Types of Personality Theories
 personality as a dynamic entity motivated by drives, perceptions, needs goals and expectancies
o include Adler’s, Maslow’s, Bandura’s
o emphasizes cognitive and affective dynamics that interact with the environment to produce
behavior
 personality as a function of relatively stable traits or personal dispositions
o include Allport’s, Eysenck’s, McCrae and Costa’s
o sees people as being motivated by a limited number of drives or personal traits that tend to
render a person’s behavior somewhat consistent
Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory
 holds that behavior stems from relatively stable personal dispositions and cognitive-affective
processes interacting with a particular situation
 G. BIOGRAPHY OF WALTER MISCHEL  this view suggests that behavior is not caused by global personal traits but by people’s
perceptions of themselves in a particular situations
Full name: Walter Mischel  behavior is shaped by personal dispositions plus a person’s specific cognitive and affective
Birthday: February 22, 1930 processes
Birthplace: Vienna  person’s beliefs, values, goals, cognitions, and feelings interact with those dispositions to shape
Father: unnamed behavior
Mother: unnamed  neither the situation alone nor stable personality traits alone determine behavior rather behavior
Wife: Harriet Nerlove is a product of both

Significant part of his life I. COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM

 grew up in a pleasant environment only a short distance from Freud’s home
 divided his time among art, psychology, and life
 appalled by the rat-centered introductory psychology classes tat seemed to him far removed
from the everyday lives of humans
 his humanistic inolinations were solidified by reading Freud, the existential thinkiers, and the
great poet
 association with the most influential faculty, Julian Rotter and George Kelly, in Ohio State
University
 his cognitive social theory was influenced by Rotter’s social learning theory and Kelly’s cognitively
based theory of personal constructs
 Rotter taught Mischel the importance of research design for improving assessment techniques
and for measuring the effectiveness of therapeutic treatment; Kelly taught him that participants
in psychology experiments are like the psychologists who study them in that they are thinking
 practiced spirit possession and investigate delay of gratification in a cross-cultural setting
 become a colleague of Albert Bandura
 his experiences as consultant to the Peace Corps taught him that under the right conditions,
people are atleast as capable as standardized tests at predicting their own behavior
 argued that traits are weak predictors of performance in a variety of situations and that the
situations is more important than traits in influencing behavior
H. BACKGROUND OF THE COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
Behavior was largely a function of the situation.
Consistency Paradox
 people’s behavior is relatively consistent, yet empirical evidence suggests much variability in
behavior
 some basic traits do persist over time, but little evidence exists that they generalize from one
situation to another
Person-Situation Interaction
 personal dispositions influence behavior only under certain conditions and in certain situations
Cognitive-Affective Personality System (Cognitive-Affective Processing System; CAPS)
 accounts for variability across situations as well as stability of behavior within a person
 predicts that a person’s behavior will change from situation to situation but in a meaningful
manner
 variations in behavior can be conceptualized in this framework: If A, then X; If B, then Y
Behavior Prediction
 if-then framework
 if personality is a stable system that processes the information about the situations, external or
internal, then it follows that as individuals encounter different situations, their behaviors should
vary across the situations
 assumes that personality may have temporal stability and that behaviors may vary from situation
t0 situation
 prediction of behaviors rests on a knowledge of how and when various cognitive-affective units
are activated
Situation Variables
 The relative influence of situation variables and personal qualities can be determined by
observing the uniformity or diversity of people’s responses in a given situation.
 when different people are behaving in a very similar manner, situation variables are more
powerful than personal characteristics
 events that appear the same may produce widely different reactions because personal qualities
override situational ones
Cognitive-Affective Units
 includes all those psychological, social and physiological aspects of people that cause them to
interact with their environment with a relatively stable pattern of variation
 Encoding Strategies: people’s ways of categorizing information received from external stimuli
 Competence and Self-Regulatory Strategies: what people can do and their strategies and plans
to accomplish a desired behavior
o Competencies: vast array of info we acquire about the world and our relationship to it
 o Self-regulatory strategies: used by people to control their own behavior through self-
imposed goals and self-produced consequences generate research: generated both quantity and quality research
 Expectancies and Beliefs: people behave depends on their specific expectancies and beliefs about falsifiable: exposes these theories to possible falsification and verification
the consequences of each of the different behavioral possibilities organize knowledge: (above average)
 Goals and Values: people do not react passively to situations but are active and goal directed; guide to action: (moderately high)
people’s subjective goals, values, and preferences internally consistent: careful in defining terms so that the same term does not have two ormroe emanings
 Affective Responses: include emotions, feelings and physiological reactions; interlocking parsimonious: relatively simple and does not purport to offer explanations for all human personality
cognitive-affective untis as more basic than the other cognitive-affective units
L. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
J. RELATED RESEARCH
1. free choice
Locus of Control and Holocaust Heroes 2. optimism and pessimism?
 Midlarsky and Colleagues (2005) sought to use personality variables to predict who was a 3. conscious
Holocause hero and who was a bystander during the tragic years of WWII 4. social factors
 result: the researchers found that possessing an internal sense of control was positively related to 5. unique factors and similarities
all the personality variables measured, which means that those who had a high sense of internal 6. teleology
control also were more autonomous, took more risks, had a stronger sense of social
responsibility, were more tolerant, were more empathic, and exhibited higher levels of altruistic
moral reasoning
 further analysis revealed that those who put their own life on the line to assist their prescuted
neighbors had a higher sense of internal control than those who did not offer assistance

Person-Situation Interaction
 Lara Kammrath and her colleagues (2005) demonstrated the if-then framework very clearly; the
goal of the study was to show that people understand the if-then framework and use it when
making judgments about others
 result: average person understands that people do not behave in the same manner in all
situations - depending on their personality, people adjust behavior to match the situation
 Mischel and Colleagues (2001) conducted a study on the conditional nature of dispositions in an
“I am… when…” framework
 result: support the prediction that students would feel more sadness in the unconditional self-
evaluation condition than in the conditional one; at least when making unconditional self-
evaluations, those who made trait-like self-evaluations experienced greater sadness than those
who made state-like self-evaluations’ those who believed intelligence and personality tend to be
fixed entities reported greater sadness to the failure experiences than those who believed those
traits were more malleable
 conclusion: social-cognitive interactionist conceptualization of the person-situation environment
is a more appropriate way of understanding human behavior than the traditional
“decontextualized” views of personality in which people behave in a given way regardless of the
context

K. CRITIQUE OF ROTTER AND MISCHEL

 Human Behavior is based on reality and people’s perception of reality.

Personal Constructs
 ways of interpreting and explaining events, hold the key to predicting their behavior
 Personal Constructs Theory: a theory of people construction of events: that is, their personal
inquiry into their world

KELLY: PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS Person as a Scientist

 Your perception of reality is colored by your personal construct- your way of look at, explaining,
Psychology of Personal Constructs and interpreting events in your world
 “metatheory”: theory about theories  all people, in their quest for meaning, make observations, construe relationships among events,
 all people anticipate events by the meanings or interpretations (constructs) they place on those formulate theories, generate hypotheses, test those that are plausaible, and reach conclusions
events from their experiments
 behavior is shaped by their gradually expanding interpretation or construction of that world
 constructive alternativism: assumes that people are constantly active and that their activity is Scientist as a Person
guided by the way they anticipate events  the pronouncements of scientists should be regarded with the same skepticisim with which we
view any behavior
A. BIOGRAPHY OF KELLY  every scientific observation can be looked at from a different perspective
 every theory can be slightly tilted and viewed from a new angle
Full name: George Alexander Kelly
Birthday: April 28, 1905 Constructive Alternativism
Birthplace: Perth, Kansan, South of Wichita  people construe reality in different ways, and the same person is capable of changing his or her
Father: Theodore V. Kelly (ordained presbyterian minister) view of the world
Mother: Elfleda M. Kelly (schoolteacher)  People always have alternative ways of looking at things. It assumes that facts can look at from
Wife: Gladys Thompson different perspective.
Death: March 6, 1967  person, not the facts, holds the key to an individual;s future

Significant part of his life C. PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS

 attended school only irregularly, seldom for more than a few weeks at a time and 4 different high
schools in 4 years
 man of many diverse interests: physics and mathematics  educational sociology  oratory 
drama coach  aeronautical engineering  education  physiological psychology 
psychotherapist
 pointed out that his decision was not dictated by circumstances but rather by his interpretation
of events; that is, his own construction of reality altered his life course
 formulate a theory of personality in his days in Fort Hays State
 association
 with Rotter, Maslow and Mischel
B. KELLY’S PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION
Personal Constructs
 assumes that people’s interpretation of a unified, ever-changing world constitutes their reality
 one’s way of seeing how things (or people) are alike and yet different from other things (or
people)
Basic Postulate
 “A person’s process (living, changing, moving human being) are psychological channelized (people
move with a direction through a network of pathways or channels) by the ways in which
anticipate events (people guide their actions according to their repdictions of the future).”
 people’s behaviors (thoughts and actions) are directed by the way they see the future
 all psychological process are directed with the ways in which anticipates event

Supporting Corollaries
 Similarities among Events (Construction Corollary): similarity among events
 Differences among people (Individuality Corollary): individual differences
 Relationship among Constructs (Organization Corollary): different people organize similar events
in a manner that minimizes incompatibilities and inconsistencies
 Dichotomy of Construct/ Dichotomy Corollary: either-or proposition
 Choice between Dichotomies (Choice Corollary): people choose actions that are most likely to
extend their future range of choices
 Range of Convenience (Range Corollary): personal constructs are finite and not relevant to
everything.
o concept: all elements having a common property, and it excludes those that do not have
that property
o construct: outside the range of convenience is not considered part of the contrasting field
but simply an area of irrelevancy
 Experience and Learning (Experience Corollary): person’s construction system varies as he/she
successively construes the replication of events
 Adaptation to Experience (Modulation Corollary): the extent to which people revise their
construct is related to degree of permeability of their existing construct.
 Incompatible Construct (Fragmentation Corollary): allows for the incompatibility of specific
elements
 Similarities among People (Commonality Corollary): similarities among people
 Social Processes (Sociality Corollary): extent that people accurately construe the belief system of
others, they may play a role in a social process involving other people
Role
 pattern of behavior that results of a person’s understanding of the construct of others with whom
that person is engaged in a task
D. APPLICATIONS OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCT
Abnormal Development
 psychologically healthy people validate their personal constructs against their experiences with
the real world
 unhealthy people stubbornly cling to outdates personal constructs, fearing validation of any new
constructs that would upset their present comfortable view of the world
 disorder: any personal construction which is used repeatedly in spite of consistent invalidation
 four common elements in most human disturbance
o threat: awareness of imminent comprehensive change in one’s core structures
o fear: specific and incidental change in a person’s core structures
o anxiety: recognitions that the events with which one is confronted lie outside the range of
convenience of one’s construct system
o guilt: sense of having lost one’s core role structure
E. PSYCHOTHERAPY
Psychological distress exists whenever people have difficulty validating their personal constructs,
anticipating future events, and controlling their present environment. When distress becomes
unmanageable, they may seek outside help in the form of psychotherapy.
Kellyian’s Therapy
 clients, not the therapist, select the goals
 clients are active participants in therapeutic process and the therapist’s role is to assist them to
alter their construct systems in order to improve efficiency in making predictions
 Techniques:
o Fixed-Role Therapy
 help clients change their outlook on life (personal constructs) by acting out a
predetermined role
 together with the therapist, clients work out a role, one that includes attitudes and
behaviors not currently part of their core role
 this new role is then tried out in everyday life in much the same manner that a scientist
tests a hypothesis – cautiously and objectively
 creative process that allows clients to gradually discorepreviously hiddent aspects of
themselves
o The Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test
 used to discover ways in which people construe significant people in their lives
 a person is give a Role Title list and asked to designate people who fit the roles titles by
writing their names on a card
F. RELATED RESEARCH
Gender as a Personal Construct
 Marcel Harper and Wilhelm Schoeman (2003) argued that although gender is perhaps one of the
most fundamental and universal schemas in person perception, not all people are equal in the
extent to which they organize their beliefs and attitudes about other around gender
 prediction: less information someone has about a person, the more likely he or she will use
stereotypic gender schemas to evaluate that person
 result: gender was a basic category for many participants, with no one scoring 0, and the mean
was slightly less than 10 out of 20; those who used gender most as a way of categorizing people
on the Rep also were more likely to apply gender stereotypes to strangers in social situations
 conclusions: participants who frequently engaged in gender stereotyping also organized their
person schemas in terms of gender; this suggests that participants who use gender stereotypes in
 perceiving strangers also tend to circumscribe their perceptions of friends, family members and
acquaintances along gendered lines

Smoking and Self-Concept

 Peter Weiss and Colleagues (2003) predicted that smokers would identify with and rate their
own personalities more similar to the personality description they had of other smokers than of
nosmokers’ also, lower self-concept for smokers than for nonsmokers
 result: both the smokers and nonsmokers identified with and valued more highly the traits of
nonsmokers than of smokers; the prediction that smokers would have lower self-esteem did not
hold
 conclusion: Rep test is not only a useful tool for assessing self-concept, but it is perhaps a more
valiud and more individualized tool than standard questionnaire inventories

Personal Constructs and the Big Five

 James Grice (2006) sought to determine just how good the repertory grid approach was at
capturing uniqueness compared to he Big Five’ measure the amount of overlap in participants’
repertory grid ratings and Big Five scores
 result: there was only 50% overlap; this means that the repertory grid was capturing aspects of
people the Big Five was not and that the Big Five was capturing aspects the repertory grid was
not

G. CRITIQUE OF KELLY

 generate research: (moderate to strong) generated a sizable number of studies)

 falsifiability: (low) theory does not lend itself easily to either verification or falsification
 organize knowledge: (low) limited in giving specific meanings
 guide to action: (low) playing the role of a fictitious person, someone the client would like to
know, is indeed an unusual and practical approach to therapy
 internal consistency: (very high) exceptionally careful in choosing terms and concepts to explain
his fundamental postulate and the 11 corollaries
 parsimony: exceptionally straightforward and economical

H. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY

1. optimism
2. free choice
3. teleological
4. conscious
5. social factors
6. uniqueness