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Theories of personality reviewer for board exam

Cognitive Psychology (University of Mindanao)

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY REVIEWER
Prepared by: Alethea Patricia L. Del Castillo, MA, RPm
Reference: Feist, Feist & Roberts (2013). Theories of Personality
(Eight Edition) New York: McGraw-Hill.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY
I. What Is Personality?
- Latin word: persona = the mask people wear or the
role they play in life. (But its more than just a façade)
- a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique
characteristics that give both consistency and
individuality to human behavior
- Traits: it may be unique, common to some group, or
shared by the entire species BUT the pattern is different
for each individual (consistency & stability of behavior
over time)
- Characteristics: unique qualities of an individual that
include such attributes as temperament, physique
and intelligence
II. What is a Theory?
A. Theory Defined
- Set of related assumptions that allows scientists to
use logical deductive reasoning to formulate
testable hypotheses
- Set: A single assumption can never fill all the
requirements of a good theory
- Related: Isolated assumptions can neither generate
meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal consistency
- Assumptions: not proven facts but accepted as if they
were true
- Logical Deductive Reasoning: to deduce a clearly
stated hypothesis
- Testable: must suggest the possibility that scientists
B. Why Different Theories?
- Theories are built not on proven facts but on
assumptions (assumed to be true) that are subject
to individual interpretations
- Reflection of their personal background, their
philosophical orientation, and the data they chose to
observe
- Its usefulness depends on its ability to generate
research and to explain research data and other
observations
C. What Makes a Theory Useful?
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- It generates a number of hypotheses that can be o Are people doomed to live miserable or can
investigated through research, thus yielding research they change and grow into psychologically
data healthy and fully functioning individual?
- Organizes research data into a meaningful structure
and provides explanation for the results
- Generates Research:
o A useful theory will stimulate both
descriptive research and hypothesis
testing.
o Descriptive research provides a framework
for an evolving theory whereas hypothesis
testing expands our knowledge of a scientific
discipline.
- Is Falsifiable:
o It must generate research that can
either confirm or disconfirm its major
tenets.
o A negative result will contradict the theory
and force the theorist to either discard it or
modify it
o A theory that can explain everything explains
nothing
- Organizes Data:
o It should be able to fit current research
data into an intelligible framework and
to integrate new information into its
structure.
- Guides Action:
o practical tools that guide a road map for
making day-to-day decisions.
o Example: what kind of psychotherapy
technique is going to be used to the
client?
- Is Internally consistent:
o includes operational definitions that
define concepts in terms of specific
operations to be carried out by the
observer. (logically compatible)
- Is Parsimonious:
o When two theories are equal on the first
five criteria, the simpler one is preferred.
(straightforward theories)
III. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity
- Determinism versus Free choice
o Are people’s behaviors determined by forces
over which they have no control or can people
choose to be what they wish to be?
- Pessimism versus Optimism
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- Causality versus Teleology
o Causality holds that behavior is a function
of the past experiences
o Teleology is the explanation of behavior in
terms of future goals or purposes
- Conscious versus Unconscious determinants of
behavior
o Are they aware of what and why they
are doing it? Or do unconscious forces
impinge
on them?
- Biological versus Social Influences on personality
o Are people creatures of biology? Or are
they shaped largely by their social
relationships?
- Uniqueness versus similarities among people
o Is the salient feature of people their
individuality or is it their common
characteristics?
complex was a major error and influenced a generation of
psychotherapists to interpret patients' reports of early sexual
abuse as merely childhood fantasies.
- He fell in love with Martha Bernays and marry her in
1886. They had 6 children. The youngest is Anna
Freud who held a special place in his heart
- He was mentored by Jean-Martin Charcot (hypnotic
technique for treating hysteria) and Josef Breuer
(catharsis)
- He then gradually discovered free association
technique
- Studies of Hysteria: after its publication, Freud and
Breuer had a professional disagreement and
became estranged
- Interpretation of Dreams: contains many of
Freud’s own dreams. Soon after his publication his
friendship with Fliess began to cool
- Freud and Jung interpreted each other’s dreams
that eventually led to the end of their relationship
II. Levels of Mental Life (Topographic Model)
A. Unconscious
- The unconscious consists of drives and instincts
that are beyond awareness, yet they motivate many
of our behaviors.
- Unconscious drives can become conscious only
in disguised or distorted form, such as dream
images, slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms.
- Unconscious processes originate from two sources: (1)
repression, or the blocking out of anxiety-filled
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- When he was 1 ½ year old, his mother gave birth
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> to Julius (who died at 6 months) Freud developed hostility
> to his brother and unconsciously wished him dead. He had
carried into adulthood the guilt, he thought he was the cause of
his death
CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
- A physician who never intended to practice
(PSYCHOANALYSIS)
general medicine, Freud was intensely curious
about human nature.
I. Biography of Sigmund Freud
- Early in his professional career, Freud believed that
- Sisigmund (Sigmund) Freud
hysteria was a result of being seduced during childhood
- Born in the Czech Republic in 1856 and died (of
by a sexually mature person, often a parent or other
cancer) in London in 1939, Freud spent nearly 80
relative. But in 1897, he abandoned his seduction
years of his life in Vienna.
theory and replaced it with his notion of the Oedipus
- Freud was the first born of his father and mother,
complex.
although his father already had 2 grown sons - Some scholars have contended that Freud's decision to
- He was the favorite of his mother over the 7 other abandon the seduction theory in favor of the
siblings (he was not close to any of them)
Oedipus
- His relationship with his father appears to be cold if
not occasionally hostile
experiences and (2) phylogenetic endowment, or o Unconscious: ideas can slip past the
inherited experiences that lie beyond an individual's
vigilant censor and enter into the
personal experience. (only as last resort in explaining preconscious in a disguised form
behavior)
- The unconscious mind of one person can
C. Conscious
communicate with the unconscious of another without
- Only level of mental life directly available to us,
either person being aware of the process
but it plays a relatively minor role in Freudian
- Unconscious forces constantly strive to become
theory.
conscious
- Conscious ideas stem from either the
B. Preconscious
perception of
- Contains images that are not in awareness but that can
external stimuli; that is, our perceptual conscious system,
become conscious either quite easily or with some level
or from unconscious and preconscious images after they
of difficulty.
have evaded censorship.
- Experiences that are forgotten are in the preconscious.
- 2 sources:
III. Provinces of the Mind (Structural Model)
o Conscious perception: when the focus of
A. The Id (das Es)
attention shifts to another idea (usually - completely unconscious
free from anxiety) - serves the pleasure principle and seeks constant
and immediate satisfaction of instinctual needs
- not altered by the passage of time or by
experiences of
the person.
- It is illogical and entertain incompatible ideas
- Primary process (basic drives)
B. The Ego (das Ich)
- secondary process, is governed by the reality
principle;
- partly conscious, preconscious and unconscious
- responsible for reconciling the unrealistic
demands of both the id and the superego with
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the demands of the real world. (decision-making
branch)
- It becomes anxious and would use defense
mechanisms as protect itself
- It has no energy of its own but borrows from id
- Psychologically healthy people have a well-developed
ego.
C. The Superego (Uber Ich)
- serves the idealistic principle, has two subsystems—
the conscience and the ego-ideal
- The conscience results from punishment for improper
behavior (guilt),
- whereas the ego-ideal stems from rewards for socially
acceptable behavior (inferiority feelings – when the ego fails to
meet the standards of perfection)
- Neither the id nor the superego is in contact with reality
- Development: Age 5 to 6
IV. Dynamics of Personality
The term dynamics of personality refers to those forces
that motivate people. The concept includes both instincts
and anxiety.
A. Drives (instinct or impulse) – a stimulus within an individual
- Realistic anxiety is similar to fear and is produced by the ego's
relation with the real world.
V. Defense Mechanisms
A. Repression
- Forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into the
unconscious.
- It is the most basic of all defense mechanisms because
it is an active process in each of the others.
- Many repressed experiences remain unconscious for a
lifetime but others become conscious in a
disguised form or in an unaltered form
B. Reaction Formation
- Repression of one impulse and the pretentious
expression of its exact opposite.
C. Displacement
- Redirecting of unacceptable urges and feelings onto
people and objects in order to disguise or conceal their
true nature.
- Unlike, reaction formation, it does not exaggerate or
overdo the disguised behavior
D. Fixation
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- They cannot be avoided through flight response o Masochism, which is the reception of
- Every basic drive is characterized by: sexual pleasure from painful experiences,
satisfies both sexual and aggressive
o Impetus – amt. of force it exerts
drives.
o Source – region of the body in tension
o If carried to an extreme, sadism and
o Aim – seek pleasure by removing tension
masochism is considered a sexual perversion
o Object – person or thing where the aim is
but in moderation is a common need
satisfied
- Aggression
- 2 primary instincts—sex (Eros) and aggression
(Thanatos, or the destructive instinct). o The destructive instinct aims to return
the person to an inorganic state, but it is
- Sex (libido)
ordinarily directed against other people and
o Aim: to seek pleasure, through the erogenous
zones = mouth, anus, and genitals. is called aggression.
o It can take a number of form like teasing,
o Object: any person or thing that brings sexual
pleasure. gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor &
enjoyment of other people’s suffering
o For example, narcissism, love, sadism, and
o Commandments such as “Love thy
masochism all possess large components of
the sexual drive even though they may neighbor as thyself” is a way of inhibiting
appear to be nonsexual. the strong drive to inflict pain to others.
o All infants possess primary narcissism, or These are reaction formations
B. Anxiety
self-centeredness, but the secondary
narcissism (moderate degree of self-love) of - Only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and
outside world can each be a source of anxiety.
adolescence and adulthood is not universal.
- Neurotic anxiety is apprehension about an unknown
o Sadism, which is the reception of sexual
pleasure from inflicting pain on another, and danger and stems from the ego's relation with the
id;
- Moral anxiety is similar to guilt and results from the
ego's relation with the superego; and
- When psychic energy is blocked at one stage of - They involve elevating the aim of the sexual instinct to
development, making psychological change difficult. a higher level and are manifested in cultural
- Permanent attachment of the libido to an earlier accomplishments, such as art, music, and other socially
stage of development beneficial activities.
- They are universal
E. Regression
- When a person reverts to earlier, more infantile modes
of behavior
- Usually, temporary
F. Projection
- Seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or
behaviors that actually reside in one's own
unconscious.
- When carried to extreme, projection can become
paranoia, which is characterized by delusions of
persecution.
G. Introjection
- Incorporation of positive qualities of another person in
order to reduce feelings of inadequacy.
- Hero worship might be a good example.
H. Sublimation
- Contribute to the welfare of society
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VI. Stages of Development
Freud saw psychosexual development as proceeding
from birth to maturity through four overlapping stages—the
infantile stage, the latency stage, the genital stage and the
psychologically mature stage.
A. Infantile period
- Encompasses the first 4 to 5 years of life and is
divided into three subphases:
o oral phase: pleasure through sucking Weaning
is the principal source of frustration during this
stage.
o Emergence of teeth as a defense against
environment is called oral sadistic
o anal phase: satisfaction gained through aggressive
behavior and excretory function (sadistic-anal)
o occurs at about the second year of life, when
toilet training is the child's chief source of
frustration.
o If parents use disciplinary training methods, a
child may develop the anal triad of orderliness,
stinginess, and obstinacy, all of which mark the
anal character.
o Phallic phase: boys and girls begin to have differing
psychosexual development, which occurs around
ages 3 or 4 years.
o For both genders, suppression of masturbation is the
principle source of frustration.
o young children experience the Oedipus complex
= having sexual feelings for one parent and
hostile feelings for the other.
o The male castration complex breaks up the
male Oedipus complex and results in a well-
formed male superego.
o For girls, the castration complex, in the form of penis
envy, precedes the female Oedipus complex, a
situation that leads to only a gradual and incomplete
shattering of the female Oedipus complex and
a weaker, more flexible female superego.
B. Latency Period
- From about age 5 years until puberty—in which the
sexual instinct is partially suppressed.
- It is believed that this may have roots in our
phylogenetic endowment
C. Genital Period
- Begins with puberty when adolescents experience a
reawakening of the genital aim of Eros, and it continues
throughout adulthood.
D. Maturity
- Freud hinted at a stage of psychological maturity in which
the ego would be in control of the id and superego and in which
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consciousness would play a more important role in VII. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory
behavior. A. Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique
- Freud used a very aggressive technique whereby he strongly
suggested to patients that they had been sexually seduced
as children.
- He later abandoned this technique, with a belief that he
may have elicited memories of seduction from his patients
and that he lacked clear evidence that these memories
were real
B. Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique
- Goal: uncover repressed memories through the free
association and dream analysis = to strengthen the ego
- Transference: strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or
negative, that patients develop towards the analyst during
the course of treatment
- Negative transference: form of hostility must be explained
to the client to overcome resistance to treatment
C. Dream Analysis
- manifest content (conscious description) from the
- latent content (unconscious meaning of the dream that
lies hidden from the dreamer).
- Nearly all dreams are wish-fulfillments, although the wish is
usually unconscious and can be known only through dream
interpretation.
- Dreams that are not wish-fulfillments follow the principle
of repetition compulsion and often occur after people have
had a traumatic experience, now called a post-traumatic
stress disorder.
- To interpret dreams Freud used both dream symbols and
the dreamer's associations to the dream content.
D. Freudian Slips
- slips of the tongue or pen, misreadings, incorrect
hearings, misplacing of objects, and temporary forgetting
of names or intentions are not chance accidents but
reveal a person's unconscious intentions.
VIII. Critique of Freud
Freud regarded himself as a scientist, but many
critics consider his methods to be outdated, unscientific, and
permeated with gender bias. On the six criteria of a useful
theory, psychoanalysis, we rate its ability to generate research
as high, its openness to falsification as very low, and its ability to
organize data as average. We also rate psychoanalysis as
average on its ability to guide action and to be parsimonious.
Because it lacks operational definitions, we rate it low on
internal consistency.
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IX. Concept of Humanity
Freud's view of humanity was deterministic and
pessimistic. He also emphasized causality over teleology ,
unconscious determinants over conscious processes, and biology
over culture, but he took a middle position on the dimension
of uniqueness versus similarities of people.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
II. Introduction to Adlerian Theory
feelings of unity with others (social interest)
A. Striving for Success or Superiority: The sole dynamic
CHAPTER 3: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
I. Biography of Alfred Adler
- Born in 1870 in a Viennese suburb, a second son of middle
- class Jewish parents.
- As a young child he was weak and sickly (he nearly died of
pneumonia at the age of 5), a condition that
contrasted sharply with his strong, healthy older
brother, Sigmund.
- The death of his younger brother (infant) motivated him
to become a physician
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- He was interested in social relationships – siblings o When an individual’s final goal is known, all
and peers actions make sense and subgoals takes
on new significance
- Adler developed a strong rivalry with Sigmund—a
rivalry that was similar to his later relationship with
Freud.
- Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became
a charter member of the Wednesday Psychological Society
- However, personal and professional differences between
Freud and Adler led to Adler's departure from the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911.
- Adler soon founded his own group, the Society for
Individual Psychology.
- His strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his
insightful ability to understand family dynamics.
- Adler married Raissa Epstein who was a feminist. They had
4 children
- During the last few years of his life, Adler lived in the
United States and earned a reputation as a gifted public
speaker. He died in 1937 in Scotland while on a lecture
tour.
- People are born with weak and inferior bodies 
feelings of inferiority and dependence to other people
force behind all our actions
- Transformation of drive: aggression  masculine
protest  Striving for Superiority  Striving for
success (personal superiority/success)
- The Final Goal
o The final goal of success or superiority
toward which all people strive unifies
personality and makes all behavior
meaningful.
o Its fictional and has no objective existence
o Product of creative power (age 4 or 5): people’s
ability to free shape their behavior and create their
own personality
o Reduces the pain of inferiority feelings and
leads the person to either superiority or
success
o If children felt neglected or pampered their
goals will remain unconscious
o If children experience love and security, they
set goals that are largely conscious and
clearly understood
o People are not always conscious of their final
goal, even though they may be aware of their
immediate subgoals.
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- The Striving Force as Compensation
o the striving force is innate = feelings of inferiority
 goal of superiority
o The goal is to overcome these feelings through
their natural tendency to move toward completion.
o The goal may take many forms. It is not
necessarily a mirror image of the deficiency even if
it is a compensation for it
o The striving force can take one of two courses—
personal gain or community benefit.
- Striving for Personal Superiority
o Goals are personal ones (sometimes with little or no
concern for others)
o Largely motivated by exaggerated feelings of
inferiority (inferiority complex)
o Others, although they may appear to be interested in
others, their basic motivation is personal benefit.
o to the extent that we comprehend our goal it is
conscious (helpful in striving for success)
D. Social Interest: Gemeinschaftsgefϋhl = a feeling of
oneness with all of humanity
- Origins of Social Interest
o both mothers and fathers have crucial roles in
furthering the social interest of their children
and that the parent/child relationship is so strong
that it negates the effects of heredity. (until age
underdeveloped social interest.
5)
- Importance of Social Interest
o Without social interest, societies could not
exist, because individuals could not protect
themselv es from danger.
o Thus, an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward
a nurturing person.
o social interest is "the sole criterion of human
values," and the "barometer of normality." The
worthiness of all one's actions must be viewed
by these standards.
E. Style of Life: product of interaction of heredity,
environment and person’s creative power
o healthy individuals are marked by flexible
behavior and that they have some limited ability
to change their style of life.
F. Creative Power: freedom of choice
- Ultimately style of life is shaped by our creative
power; that is, by our ability to freely choose which
building materials to use and how to use them.
- People have considerable ability to freely choose
their actions and their personality.
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- Striving for Success
o Psychologically healthy people strive for the
success of all humanity, but they do so without
losing their personal identity.
B. Subjective Perceptions: People's subjective view of the
world—not reality—shapes their behavior.
- Fictionalism
o People's beliefs and expectations of the future.
o Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because
people act as if these fictions are true.
o Example: a belief in an omnipotent God who
rewards good and punishes evil
- Physical Inferiorities
o All humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorities
that stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority and
move people toward perfection or completion
III. Abnormal Development
- Creative power is not limited to healthy people;
unhealthy individuals also create their own
personalities.
- The most important factor in abnormal development is
- In addition, people with a useless style of life tend to (1)
set their goals too high, (2) live in their own private
world, and (3) have a rigid and inflexible style of life.
A. External Factors in Maladjustment
- Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies
o Severe physical defects do not by themselv es
cause abnormal development, but they may
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o Deficiencies do not cause a particular style of
life; they are motivation for reaching goals
C. Unity of Personality: all behaviors are directed toward a
single purpose and that the entire personality functions in
a self-consistent manner.
- Organ Dialect
o People sometimes use a physical disorder to
express style of life
o A boy wetting his bed sends a message that
he does not wish to obey his parents
- Conscious and Unconscious
o Conscious and unconscious processes are unified
and operate to achieve a single goal.
o The part of our goal that is not clearly understood is
unconscious (thoughts that are not helpful)
contribute to it by generating subjective and
exaggerated feelings of inferiority.
- Pampered Style of Life
o develop low levels of social interest
o continue to have an overriding drive to establish a
permanent parasitic relationship with their mother or
a mother substitute.
o They believe they are entitled to be first in
everything
o They have not received too much love rather they
feel unloved (parents doing too much for them)
- Neglected Style of Life
o Children who feel neglected often use these
feelings as building material for a useless style of
life—one characterized by distrust of other people.
B. Safeguarding Tendencies
- means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These
safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic status quo
and protect a person from public disgrace.
- Excuses
o Frequently take the form of "Yes, but" or "If only."
By making excuses for their shortcomings, people
can preserve their inflated sense of personal worth.
- Aggression
o Behaving aggressively toward themselves or
others.
o May take the form of depreciating others'
accomplishments, accusing others of being
responsible for one's own failures, and accusing self
as a means of inflicting suffering on others.

- Withdrawal
o Try to escape from life's problems by running away
from them; maintaining distance.
o People can withdraw psychologically by
moving backward, standing still, hesitating, or
constructing obstacles.
C. Masculine Protest
- Both men and women sometimes overemphasize
the desirability of being manly
IV. Applications of Individual Psychology
A. Family Constellation
- First borns are likely to have strong feelings of
power and superiority, to be overprotective, and to
have more than their share of anxiety.
V.
- His no.2 personality = an old man long since dead
- He married Emma Rauschenbach and had 5 children
- Soon after receiving his medical degree Jung
became acquainted with Freud's writings and
eventually with Freud himself.
- During their first meeting, they talked for 13
straight hours
- Not long after he traveled with Freud to the United
States, Jung became disenchanted with Freud's pansexual
theories, broke with Freud, and began his own approach to
theory and therapy, which he called analytical psychology.
(when they began interpreting each other’s dreams)
- He had affairs with Sabina (former patient) and Antonia
(another former patient – but had longer relationship with her)
- He said he was sexually abused when he was 18 yo by
an older man whom he saw as a fatherly friend
- From a critical midlife crisis during which he nearly
lost contact with reality, Jung emerged to become one
of the leading thinkers of the 20th century.
- He died in 1961 at age 85.
II. Levels of the Psyche
A. Conscious
- Ego as the center of consciousness but not the core
of personality
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- Second borns (like Adler himself) are likely to
have strong social interest, provided they do not get
trapped trying to overcome their older sibling.
- Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to
lack independence, whereas only children may have
even less social interest and tend to expect others
to take care of them.
B. Early Recollections
- Adler believed that ERs are not chance memories
but templates on which people project their current
style of life.
- ERs need not be accurate accounts of early
events; they have psychological importance
because they reflect our current view of the world.
C. Dreams
- provide clues to solving future problems.
- dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer
and usually require interpretation by another
person.
D. Psychotherapy
- create a relationship between therapist and patient
that fosters social interest. The therapist adopts
both a maternal and a paternal role.
Critique of Adler
- High in: generate research, organize data, and guide
the practitioner.
- In the psychologically mature individual, the ego
is secondary to the self.
B. Personal Unconscious
- psychic images not sensed by the ego.
- Some unconscious processes flow from our
personal experiences
- contains the complexes (emotionally toned groups
of related ideas) and the collective unconscious,
which includes various archetypes.
C. Collective Unconscious
- beyond our personal experiences and that originate
from the repeated experiences of our ancestors.
- not inherited ideas, but rather they refer to our
innate tendency to react in a particular way
whenever our personal experiences stimulate an
inherited predisposition toward action.
- Love at first sight?
D. Archetypes - Contents of the collective unconscious
- originate through the repeated experiences of our
ancestors and that they are expressed in certain types
of dreams, fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations.
- Persona—the side of our personality that we show to
others.
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- Moderate in: parsimony,
- Low in: internal consistency & falsification
VI. Concept of Humanity
Adler saw people as forward moving, social animals
who are motivated by goals they set (both consciously and
unconsciously) for the future. People are ultimately
responsible for their own unique style of life. Thus, Adler's
theory rates high on free-choice, social influences, and
uniqueness; very high on optimism and teleology; and average
on unconscious influences.
CHAPTER 4: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
I. Biography of Carl Jung
- born in Switzerland in 1875,
- the oldest by about 9 years of two surviving children.
- A son before Carl only lived for 3 days
- Jung's father was an idealistic Protestant minister
and his mother was a strict believer in mysticism
and the occult.
- Jung's early experience with parents—who were quite
opposite of each other—probably influenced his own
theory of personality, including his fanciful No. 1 and
Number 2 personalities.
- He saw his mother as having 2 separate dispositions
- Shadow—the dark side of personality. In order for
people to reach full psychological maturity, they must
first realize or accept their shadow.
- Anima - A second hurdle in achieving maturity is for
men to accept their anima—their feminine side—
irrational moods & feelings
- Animus - and for women to embrace their animus—
their masculine side. – irrational thinking & opinions
- the great mother - the archetype of nourishment and
destruction
- the wise old man - the archetype of wisdom and
meaning
- the hero - image we have of a conqueror who
vanquishes evil but who has a single fatal flaw
- Self - The most comprehensive archetype is the self;
that is, the image we have of fulfillment, completion,
or perfection.
- The ultimate in psychological maturity is self-realization,
which is symbolized by the mandala, or perfect
geometric figure.
III. Development of Personality

- Jung's emphasis on the second half of life. Jung
saw middle and old age as times when people may
acquire the ability to attain self-realization.
A. Stages of Development
- childhood, which lasts from birth until adolescence
- youth, the period from puberty until middle life: a
time for extraverted development & for being grounded
to the real world of schooling, occupation, courtship,
marriage, and family;
- middle life, from about 35 or 40 until old age and a time
when people should be adopting an introverted,
or subjective attitude; and
- old age, which is a time for psychological rebirth,
self- realization, and preparation for death.
B. Self-Realization/Individuation
- a psychological rebirth and an integration of various
parts of the psyche into a unified or whole individual.
Self-realization represents the highest level of
human development.
IV. Jung's Methods of Investigation
A. Word Association Test
- to uncover complexes embedded in the personal
unconscious. The technique requires a patient to
utter the first word that comes to mind after the
examiner reads a stimulus word.
B. Dream Analysis
- She had neither a PhD nor an MD degree but became
an analyst
- As an analyst, she specialized in working with young
children.
- She believed that children develop superego much
earlier than Freud believed (4-6 months after birth)
- She died in 1960.
II. Introduction to Object Relations Theory
- differs from Freudian theory in three important ways:
o it places more emphasis on interpersonal
relationships,
o it stresses the infant's relationship with the
mother rather than the father, and
o it suggests that people are motivated primarily for
human contact rather than for sexual pleasure.
- The term “object” refers to any person or part of a
person that infants introject, or take into their
psychic structure and then later project onto other
people
III. Psychic Life of the Infant
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- dreams may have both a cause and a purpose and Jung saw people as extremely complex beings who are
thus can be useful in explaining past events and in a product of both conscious and unconscious personal
making decisions about the future. "Big dreams" experiences. However, people are also motivated by inherited
and "typical dreams," both of which come from remnants that spring from the collective experiences of their early
ancestors. Because Jungian theory is a psychology of opposites,
the collectiv e unconscious
C. Active Imagination it receives a moderate rating on the issues of free will
versus determinism, optimism versus pessimism, and causality
- used active imagination to arrive at collective images.
versus teleology. It rates very high on unconscious influences,
- This technique requires the patient to concentrate on
low on uniqueness, and low on social influences.
a single image until that image begins to appear
in a different form. (archetypes)
D. Psychotherapy
- help neurotic patients become healthy and to
CHAPTER 5: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
move healthy people in the direction of self-
realization. Jung was eclectic in his choice of
I. Biography of Melanie Klein
therapeutic techniques and treated old people
differently than the young. - born in Vienna in 1892, the youngest of four children.
V. Critique of Jung - She felt rejected by her parents, especially her father
- She developed fondness to her older siblings, Sidonie
- many of his writings have more of a philosophical
than a psychological flavor. and Emmanuel who both died
- As a scientific theory, it rates below average on its - She married Arthur Klein, Emmanuel’s close friend, at
age 21
ability to generate research, but very low on its
- They had 3 children; she has an estranged relationship
ability to withstand falsification. It is about average
with her eldest child, Melitta
on its ability to organize knowledge but low on
- Klein separated from her husband
each of the other criteria of a useful theory.
VI. Concept of Humanity
- infants begin life with an inherited predisposition separate and opposing feelings—a desire to harbor
to reduce the anxiety that they experience as a the breast and a desire to bite or destroy it.
consequence of the clash between the life instinct - To tolerate these two feelings, the ego splits itself by
and the death instinct retaining parts of its life and death instincts while
A. Phantasies projecting other parts onto the breast.
- very young infants possess an active, unconscious
phantasy life.
- Their most basic fantasies are images of the
"good" breast and the "bad" breast.
B. Objects
- drives have an object (hunger: good breast; sex: sexual
organ)
- child's relationship with these objects (parents' face,
hands, breast, penis, etc.), which she saw as having a life of their
own within the child's phantasy world.
IV. Positions
- In their attempts to reduce the conflict produced
by good and bad images, infants organize their
experience into positions
A. Paranoid-Schizoid Position: the first 3-4 months of life
- The struggles that infants experience with the
good breast and the bad breast lead to two
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- It then has a relationship with the ideal breast and
the persecutory breast.
- To control this situation, infants adopt the
paranoid- schizoid position, which is a tendency to
see the world as having both destructive and
omnipotent qualities.
B. Depressive Position: the first 5-6 months of life
- the anxiety that infants experience around 6 months
of age over losing their mother and yet, at the
same time, wanting to destroy her.
- resolved when infants phantasize that they have
made up for their previous offenses against their
mother and also realize that their mother will not
abandon them.
V. Psychic Defense Mechanisms
- children adopt various psychic defense mechanisms to
protect their ego against anxiety aroused by their own
destructive fantasies.
A. Introjection
- phantasy of taking into one's own body the
images that one has of an external object,
especially the mother's breast.
- Infants usually introject good objects as a
protection against anxiety, but they also introject
bad objects in order to gain control of them.
B. Projection
- phantasy that one's own feelings and impulses reside
within another person
- Children project both good and bad images so that they
ease the unbearable anxiety of being destroyed by the
dangerous internal forces
C. Splitting
- mentally keeping apart, incompatible images to tolerate
good and bad aspects of themselves and of
external objects.
- Splitting can be beneficial to both children and adults,
because it allows them to like themselves while
still recognizing some unlikable qualities.
D. Projective Identification
- split off unacceptable parts of themselves, project them
onto another object, and finally introject them in
an altered form.
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VI. Internalizations o normal symbiosis, when infants behave as if
- After introjecting external objects, infants organize they and their mother were an all-powerful,
them into a psychologically meaningful framework interdependent unit.
A. Ego
- Internalizations are supported by the early ego's
ability to feel anxiety, to use defense mechanisms, and
to form object relations in both phantasy and reality.
- a unified ego emerges only after first splitting itself
into the two parts—the life instinct and the death
instinct.
B. Superego
- the superego preceded rather than followed the
Oedipus complex. Klein also saw the superego
as being quite harsh and cruel.
C. Oedipus Complex
- begins during the first few months of life, then
reaches its peak during the genital stage, at about 3
or 4 years of age
- based on children's fear that their parents will
seek revenge against them for their phantasy of
emptying the parent's body.
- For healthy development, children should retain positiv
e feelings for each parent.
- the little boy adopts a "feminine" position very early
in life and has no fear of being castrated as
punishment for his sexual feelings toward his
mother. Later, he projects his destructive drive onto
his father, whom he fears will bite or castrate him. It
is resolved when the boy establishes good relations
with both parents.
- The little girl also adopts a "feminine" position
toward both parents quite early in life. She has a
positiv e feeling for both her mother's breast and
her father's penis, which she believes will feed
her with babies. Sometimes the girl develops
hostility toward her mother, whom she fears will
retaliate against her and rob her of her babies, but
in most cases, the female Oedipus complex is
resolved without any jealousy toward the mother.
VII. Later Views of Object Relations
A. Margaret Mahler's View
- From careful observations of infants as they
bonded with their mothers during their first 3 years
of life.
- three major developmental stages.
o normal autism (first 3 to 4 weeks of life) a time
when infants satisfy their needs within the all-
powerful protective orbit of their mother's care.
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o separation-individuation (4 months until about 3
years) a time when children are becoming
psychologically separated from their mothers
and achieving individuation, or a sense of
personal identity.
B. Heinz Kohut's View
- emphasized the development of the self.
- In caring for their physical and psychological needs,
adults treat infants as if they had a sense of self.
- The parents' behaviors and attitudes eventually help
children form a sense of self that gives unity and
consistency to their experiences.
Object relations theorists see personality as being a
product of the early mother-child relationship, and thus they
stress determinism over free choice. The powerful influence
of early childhood also gives these theories a low rating on
uniqueness, a very high rating on social influences, and high
ratings on causality and unconscious forces. Klein and other
object relations theorists rate average on optimism versus
pessimism.

C. John Bowlby's Attachment Theory

- three stages of separation anxiety:
o protest
o apathy and despair
o emotional detachment from people, including
the primary caregiver. Children who reach
the third stage lack warmth and emotion
in their later relationships.

D. Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation

- developed a technique called the Strange Situation
for measuring one of three the types of attachment
styles— secure attachment, anxious-resistant
attachment, and anxious-avoidant attachment.

VIII. Psychotherapy
The goal of Klein's therapy was to reduce
depressive anxieties and persecutory fears and to lessen the
harshness of internalized objects. To do this, Klein
encouraged patients to reexperience early fantasies and
pointed out the differences between conscious and
unconscious wishes.

CHAPTER 6: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY

IX. Critique of Object Relations Theory

I. Biography of Karen Horney
Object relations theory shares with Freudian theory an
- born in Germany in 1885, only daughter of her parents
inability to be either falsified or verified through empirical
and she has an older brother
research. Nevertheless, some clinicians regard the theory
- Her mother is 18 years younger than her father (he
as being a useful guide to action and as possessing
had other children from his previous marriage)
substantial internal consistency. However, the theory must be
- She is mad at her father and idolized her mother
rated low on parsimony and also low on its ability to organize
- She was not a happy child = superficially independent
knowledge and to generate research.
but dependent to men inside
- She married Oskar Horney and had 3 daughters
X. Concept of Humanity
- She had several love affairs (Erich Fromm)
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- Horney was one of the first women in Germany
admitted to medical school, where she specialized
in psychiatry.
- Horney died in 1952 at age 65.
II. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory
Her theories are also appropriate to normal
development. She agreed with Freud that early childhood
traumas are important, but she placed far more emphasis
on social factors.
A. Horney and Freud Compared
- Neuroses are not instincts but a person’s attempt to
find its paths in the society
- Criticisms to Freudian theory:
o its rigidity toward new ideas
o its skewed view of feminine psychology
o its overemphasis on biology and the pleasure principle.
B. The Impact of Culture
- Feelings of isolation  needs for affection 
overvalue love  neuroses
- See love and affection as the solution to problems
- Both normal and neurotic personalities
experience intrapsychic conflicts through their
desperate attempts to find love
C. The Importance of Childhood Experiences
- Lack of genuine love  neurotic needs(rigid behavioral
patterns  gain feeling of safety/love
III. Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety
- Protection from basic anxiety (does not
necessarily indicate neurosis):
o Affection: not real love
o Submissiveness: in order to gain affection
o Power/prestige/possesion: dominate, humiliate, deprive
others
o Withdrawal: emotionally detached from people
- Normal people have the flexibility to use any or all
of these approaches, but neurotics are compelled to
rely rigidly on only one.
only in their mind. Horney recognized three aspects of the
IV. Compulsive Drives
idealized self-image.
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Neurotics frequently are trapped in a vicious circle in which
their compulsive need to reduce basic anxiety leads to a variety
of self-defeating behaviors; these behaviors then produce
more basic anxiety, and the circle continues.
A. Neurotic Needs: a single person may use more than one
- for affection and approval
- for a powerful partner
- to restrict one's life within narrow borders
- for power
- to exploit others
- for social recognition or prestige
- for personal admiration
- for ambition and personal achievement
- for self-sufficiency and independence
- for perfection and unassailability.
B. Neurotic Trends: applies to normal individual;
neurotics are limited to a single trend
- Moving Toward People
o undue compliance to others' wishes to protect
against the feeling of helplessness
o strives for affection, seek a powerful partner
o they see themselves as loving, generous, humble,
unselfish and sensitive to feelings
- Moving Against People
o assume that everyone is hostile, and, therefore,
should be aggressive people who exploits other
for their own benefit
o they seldom admit their mistakes and need
to appear perfect, powerful and superior
o They play to win than to enjoy
- Moving Away From People
o People who feel isolated from others insist on
privacy, independence, and self-sufficiency.
o Their greatest need is to need other people
V. Intrapsychic Conflicts
- people experience inner tensions
- become part of people's belief system and take on a
life of their own, separate from the interpersonal
conflicts that created them.
A. The Idealized Self-Image
- No love and affection during childhood  blocked self-
realization and stable sense of identity
- extravagantly positive picture of themselves that exists
- 1. The Neurotic Search for Glory
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o Comprehensive drive to actualize the idealized
self-image
o tyranny of the should, neurotic ambition, and
the drive toward a vindictive triumph
- 2. Neurotic Claims
o They believe that they are entitled to special
privileges and make neurotic claims on other
people that are consistent with their idealized view
of themselves.
- 3. Neurotic Pride
o a false pride based not on reality but on a
distorted and idealized view of self.
B. Self-Hatred: because reality always falls short of their
idealized view of self.
- relentless demands on self
- merciless self-accusation
- self-contempt
- self-frustration
- self-torment or self-torture
- self-destructive actions and impulses
VI. Critique of Horney
Although Horney's theory has not generated
much research, it has provided an interesting way of
looking at humanity. The strength of her theory was her vivid
portrayal of the neurotic personality. As scientific theory,
however, it rates very low in generating research, low on its
ability to be falsified, to organize knowledge, and to serve as a
guide to action. The theory receives a moderate rating on
internal consistency and parsimony.
VII. Concept of Humanity
Horney's concept of humanity was based mostly on her
clinical experiences with neurotic patients, but it can easily
be extended to normal people. In summary, Horney's view
of humanity is rated high on free choice, optimism,
unconscious influences, and social factors; average on causality
vs. teleology ; and low on uniqueness.
CHAPTER 7: HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS
I. Biography of Erich Fromm
- born in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1900, the only child of
orthodox Jewish parents.
- His humanistic philosophy grew out of an early reading
of the biblical prophets and an association with several Talmudic
scholars.
- Fromm's first wife was Frieda Fromm-Reichmann but
divorced
- Fromm moved to the United States and began a
psychoanalytic practice in New York, where he

resumed his friendship with Karen Horney and became lovers
and then separated
- He then married Henny Gurland, two years younger
than him but died
- He met Annis Freeman and got married again
- He died in Switzerland in 1980.
II. Fromm's Basic Assumptions
- human personality can only be understood in the
light of history.
- humans have been torn away from their prehistoric
union with nature and left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a
changing world.
- they have acquired the ability to reason, which means
they can think about their isolated condition.
- Fromm called this situation the human dilemma
- Existential Dichotomies
o Life & Death
o Goal of complete self-realization & shortness of life
to reach the goal
o Alone & cannot tolerate isolation
III. Human Needs (existential needs)
Our human dilemma cannot be solved by satisfying our animal
needs, but it can only be addressed by fulfilling our human needs,
which would move us toward a reunification with the natural world.
A. Relatedness: desire for union with another person/s
- Submission: transcends separateness of his existence by
becoming part of something bigger than oneself
- Power: welcome submissive partners: symbiotic relationship
- Love: solve our basic human dilemma. It is the ability to
unite with another while retaining one's own individuality
and integrity.
B. Transcendence: urge to rise above a passive and
accidental existence
- to transcend their nature by destroying or
creating people or things.
- Humans can destroy through malignant
aggression (killing for reasons other than survival; not
common to all humans) but they can also create and
care about their creations
C. Rootedness: establish roots and to feel at home again in
the world
- Like the other existential needs, rootedness can
take either a productive or a nonproductive mode.
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- With the productive strategy, we grow beyond the - It is the successful solution to the human dilemma of
being part of the natural world and yet separate from it.
security of our mother and establish ties with the outside
world.
- With the nonproductive strategy, we become fixated
and afraid to move beyond the security and safety
of our mother or a mother substitute.
D. Sense of Identity: awareness of ourselves as a separate
person.
- The drive for a sense of identity is expressed
nonproductively as conformity to a group and
productively as individuality.
E. Frame of Orientation: a road map which we find our
way through the world
- Expressed nonproductively as a striving for irrational
goals
- Express productively as movement toward rational
goals.
F. Summary of Human Needs
People are highly motivated to satisfy the five
existential, or human, needs because if they are unsatisfied in
these needs, they are driven to insanity. Each of the needs
has both a positive and a negative component, but only the
satisfaction of positive needs leads to psychological health.
IV. The Burden of Freedom
- humans are the freaks of the universe
- High freedom = High isolation from others
- Freedom  basic anxiety (a burden of being alone)
A. Mechanisms of Escape: To reduce the frightening sense
of isolation and aloneness
- Authoritarianism
o The tendency to give up one's independence and
to unite with a powerful partner
o Take the form of either masochism or sadism.
o Masochism stems from feelings of powerlessness
and can be disguised as love or loyalty.
o Sadism involves attempts to achieve
unity through dominating, exploiting, or
hurting others.
- Destructiveness
o Feelings of isolation; an escape mechanism that is
aimed at doing away with other people or
things.
o To restore feeling of power
- Conformity
o surrendering of one's individuality in order to meet
the wishes of others.
B. Positive Freedom
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V. Character Orientations
People relate to the world by acquiring and using things
(assimilation) and by relating to self and others (socialization), and
they can do so either nonproductively or productively.
A. Nonproductive Orientations: those that fail to
move people closer to positive freedom and self-
realization.
- Receptive
o only way they can relate to the world is to
receive things, including love, knowledge, and
material objects.
o Positive qualities include loyalty and trust;
o negative ones are passivity and submissiveness.
- Exploitative
o aggressively take what they want rather
than passively receiving it.
o Positive qualities of exploitative people
include pride and self-confidence;
o negative ones are arrogance and conceit.
- Hoarding
o try to save what they have already
obtained, including their opinions, feelings,
and material possessions.
o Positive qualities include loyalty,
o negative ones are obsessiveness and
possessiveness.
- Marketing
o see themselves as commodities and value
themselves against the criterion of their ability
to sell themselves.
o They have fewer positive qualities than the
other orientations, because they are essentially
empty.
o They can be open-minded and adaptable, as well
as opportunistic and wasteful.

B. The Productive Orientation:

- work toward positive freedom through productive
work, love, and thoughts.
- Productive love necessitates a passionate love of all
life and is called biophilia.

VI. Personality Disorders: failures to work, think,

and especially to love productively.
A. Necrophilia
- the love of death and the hatred of all humanity.
- their destructiveness is a reflection of a basic character.
B. Malignant Narcissism
- Convinced that everything belonging to them is of
great value and anything belonging to others is
worthless.
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- Narcissistic people often suffer from moral

hypochondrias, or preoccupation with excessive guilt.
C. Incestuous Symbiosis
- Extreme dependence on one's mother or mother
surrogate to the extent that one's personality is blended
with that of the host person
- Hitler, possessed all three of these disorders, a
condition he termed the syndrome of decay.
**Syndrome of growth: love, biophilia and positive freedom

VII. Critique of Fromm

Fromm evolved a theory that provide insightful ways of
looking at humanity. The strength of his theory is his lucid writings
on a broad range of human issues. As a scientific theory,
however, Fromm's assumptions rate very low on their ability
to generate research and to lend themselves to falsification;
Fromm rates low on usefulness to the practitioner, internal
consistency , and parsimony. Because it is quite broad in
scope, Fromm's theory rates high on organizing existing
knowledge.
VIII. Concept of Humanity
Fromm's concept of humanity came from a rich
variety of sources—history, anthropology, economics, and clinical
work. Because humans have the ability to reason but few
strong instincts, they are the freaks of nature. To achieve
self- actualization, they must satisfy their human, or existential,
needs through productive love and work. In summary, we rated
Fromm's theory as average on free choice, optimism,
unconscious influences, and uniqueness; low on causality;
and very high on social influences.

CHAPTER 8: POST-FREUDIAN THEORY

I. Biography of Erik Erikson

- born in Germany in 1902: Erik Salomonsen.
- After his mother married Theodor Homberger,
Erik eventually took his stepfather's name.
- At age 18 he left home to pursue the life of a
wandering artist and to search for self-identity.
- Married Joan Serson and they had 4 children; one had
a down syndrome whom they sent to a facility
- In mid-life, Erik Homberger moved to the United States,
changed his name to Erikson, and took a position at
the Harvard Medical School.
- Later, he taught at Yale, the University of California at
Berkeley, and several other universities. He died
in 1994, a month short of his 92nd birthday.

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II. The Ego in Post-Freudian Psychology - psychosexual mode: oral-sensory, - Mistrust: if no correspondence between their needs and their
- emphasis on ego rather than id functions which is characterized by environment
- ego is the center of personality and is responsible for a unified both receiving and accepting.
- basic strength: hope
sense of self. - Trust: the mother provides food (or relates) - core pathology: withdrawal
- Ego is the person’s ability to unify experiences and regularly
B. Early Childhood: Autonomy versus Shame & Doubt
actions in an adoptive manner - (2nd to 3rd year) a period that compares to Freud's anal
- Childhood: weak and fragile stage
- Adult: formation and strengthening - includes mastery of other body functions such as
- It consists of three interrelated facets: walking, urinating, and holding.
o body ego – seeing our physical self as different
from other people - psychosexual mode: anal-urethral-muscular, children
o ego ideal – image of ourselves vs an established ideal behave both impulsively and compulsively
o ego identity – image of ourselves in the social roles - Autonomy: faith in themselves
we play - Shame & Doubt: self-consciousness, uncertainty
- basic strength: will
A. Society's Influence - core pathology: compulsion.
- Society (cultural environment) shapes the ego C. Play Age: Initiative versus Guilt
- influenced by child-rearing practices and other cultural - (3rd to the 5th year) a period that parallels Freud's
customs. phallic phase.
- Pseudospecies = fictional notion that they are superior - Oedipus complex as an early model of lifelong
to other cultures. playfulness and a drama played out in children's minds as
- they attempt to understand the basic facts of life
B. Epigenetic Principle - psychosexual mode: genital-locomotor, children have both
- it grows according to a genetically established rate and an interest in genital activity and an increasing ability to
in a fixed sequence. move around.
- A step-by-step growth - Initiative: to act with purpose and set goals
- It does not replace the earlier stage - Guilt: too little purpose
- Basic strength: Purpose
- Core pathology: inhibition

D. School Age: Industry versus Inferiority

- (6 to about 13 years) a time of psychosexual latency , but
III. Stages of Psychosocial Development it is also a time of psychosocial growth beyond the family.
- marked by an interaction of opposites -- a - learn the customs of their culture, including both formal and
syntonic (harmonious) element and a dystonic informal education.
(disruptive) element, which produces a basic - Industry: work hard & finish the job
strength or ego quality (must have both - Inferiority: work is not sufficient to achieve goals
experiences) - Basic strength: competence
- Also, from adolescence on, each stage is characterized - Core pathology: inertia
by an identity crisis or turning point, which E. Adolescence: Identity versus identity confusion
may produce either adaptive or maladaptive - (puberty) a time of psychosexual growth & psychosocial
adjustment latency.
- Too little basic strength will result to a core pathology - psychosexual mode: genital maturation
for that stage - Identity emerges from a) childhood identifications and
A. Infancy: Trust versus Mistrust b) historical and social context
- (the 1st year) was similar to Freud's concept of the oral - Identity: having a sense of who they are
stage - Identity confusion: divided self-image
- include sense organs such as the eyes and ears. - Basic strength: fidelity

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- Core pathology: role denial
F. Young Adulthood: Intimacy versus Isolation
- (18 - 30 years)
- psychosexual mode: genitality, expressed as mutual
trust between partners in a stable sexual
relationship.
- Intimacy: ability to fuse one's identity with that
of another person without fear of losing it
- Isolation: fear of losing one's identity in an intimate
relationship.
- Basic strength: capacity to love
- Core pathology: exclusivity
G. Adulthood: Generativity versus Stagnation
- (31 to 60 years) a time when people make
significant contributions to society
- psychosexual mode: procreativity, or the caring
for one's children, the children of others, and the
material products of one's society.
organize knowledge, and to guide the practitioner. It rates
high on internal consistency and about average on parsimony.
V. Concept of Humanity
Erikson saw humans as basically social animals who have limited
free choice and who are motivated by past experiences,
which may be either conscious or unconscious. In addition,
Erikson is rated high on both optimism and uniqueness of
individuals.
CHAPTER 9: HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY
I. Biography of Abraham H. Maslow
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- Generativity: guiding the next generation
- Stagnation: too self-indulgent, too much self-
absorption
- Basic Strength: Care
- Core pathology: rejectivity (of certain individuals)
H. Old Age: Integrity versus Despair
- (age 60 until death)
- psychosexual mode: generalized sensuality;
taking pleasure in a variety of sensations and an
- born in New York City in 1908, the oldest of seven
children of Russian Jewish immigrants.
- Had the most lonely and miserable childhood (shy,
inferior, depressed)
- Oldest of the seven children
- He never overcame the intense hatred he had towards
his mother. He refused to attend her funeral.
- After 2 or 3 mediocre years as a college student,
Maslow's academic work improved at about the time he was
married.
- He married his first cousin, Bertha Goodman
- He received both a bachelor's degree and a PhD from
the University of Wisconsin, where he worked
with Harry Harlow conducting animal studies
(monkeys).
- Poor health forced him to move to California, where he
died in 1970 at age 62.
II. Maslow's View of Motivation
1. the whole organism is motivated at any one time;
2. otivation is complex, and unconscious motives often
underlie behavior;
3. people are continually motivated by one need or
another;
4. people in different cultures are motivated by the same
basic needs; and
5. needs can be arranged on a hierarchy
A. Hierarchy of Needs
- lower level needs have prepotency over higher level
needs; that is, lower needs must be satisfied
before higher needs become motivators.
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appreciation of the traditional life style of people of the
other gender.
- Integrity: the maintenance of ego-identity (social roles)
- Despair: the surrender of hope (originated from infancy)
- Basic strength: wisdom
- Core pathology: Disdain = feelings of being finished
or helpless
As Erikson himself aged, he and his wife began to describe a
ninth stage—a period of very old age when physical and
mental infirmities rob people of their generative abilities and
reduce them to waiting for death.
IV. Critique of Erikson
Although Erikson's work is a logical extension of
Freud's psychoanalysis, it offers a new way of looking at
human development. As a useful theory, it rates high on its
ability to generate research, about average on its ability to be
falsified, to
- Called CONATIVE needs: have a striving or
motivational character
- As long as the need is not yet satisfied, the
person will continue to strive to satisfy it (almost
doing anything to obtain it)
- physiological needs
o oxygen, food, water
- safety needs
o physical security, stability, dependency,
protection, and freedom from danger
o Children: threats, animals, strangers,
punishments
- love and belongingness needs
o desire for friendship, the wish for a mate
and children, and the need to belong
o 1st group: need fully satisfied; feels accepted
and will not feel devastated if rejected
o 2nd group: never experienced love; thus,
incapable of giving love
o 3rd group: received the need in small
doses; strongest motivation to seek love
o Children: straightforward and direct
o Adults: disguise; self-defeating behaviors
- esteem needs
o satisfaction of love needs and which include
self- esteem and the recognition that we have
a positiv e reputation
- self-actualization needs

o self-fulfillment, realization of one’s own potential
o they become independent of the lower needs
o should embrace the B-values as truth, beauty,
oneness, justice, etc
*Other categories of needs include aesthetic needs, cognitive
needs, and neurotic needs.
B. Aesthetic Needs
o higher level needs (love, esteem, and self-
actualization) are later on the evolutionary
scale than lower level needs and that they
produce more genuine happiness and more
peak experiences.
o Seems like these needs follow a
development course
III. Self-Actualization
- an ultimate level of psychological health called self-
actualization.
- (1) absence of psychopathology,
- (2) satisfaction of each of the four lower level needs,
- (3) full realization of one's potentials for growth, and (4)
acceptance of the B-values.
A. Values of Self-Actualizers
- Self-actualizing people are metamotivated by such
B- values as truth, goodness, beauty, justice, and
simplicity.
- If people’s metaneeds are not met they experience
existential illness
B. Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People
- not all self-actualizers possess each of these
characteristics to the same extent.
- (1) more efficient perception of reality; they often have
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- desire for beauty and order, and some people have
much stronger aesthetic needs than do others.
- Will get sick if not met
- people with strong aesthetic needs do not automatical ly
reach self-actualization
- Not universal
C. Cognitive Needs
- desire to know, to understand, and to be curious.
- Knowledge is a prerequisite for each of the five conativ e
needs. (only for those who have this need)
- people who are denied knowledge and kept in
ignorance become sick, paranoid, and depressed.
- people who have satisfied cognitive needs do not
necessarily become self-actualized.
D. Neurotic Needs
- desire to dominate, to inflict pain, or to subject oneself to
the will of another person.
- lead to pathology whether or not they are satisfied
E. General Discussion of Needs
- Reversed Order Needs
o Maslow insisted that much of our surface
behaviors are actually motivated by more basic and
often unconscious needs.
an almost uncanny ability to detect phoniness in others, and they
are not fooled by sham;
- (2) acceptance of self, others, and nature;
- (3) spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness; they have
no need to appear complex or sophisticated;
- (4) problem-centered; they view age-old problems from
a solid philosophical position;
- (5) the need for privacy, or a detachment that allows
them to be alone without being lonely;
- (6) autonomy; they have grown beyond dependency on
other people for their self-esteem;
- (7) continued freshness of appreciation and the
ability to view everyday things with a fresh vision
and appreciation;
- (8) frequent reports of peak experiences, or those
mystical experiences that give a person a sense
of transcendence and feelings of awe, wonder,
ecstasy , reverence, and humility;
- (9) Gemeinschaftsgefühl, that is, social interest or
a deep feeling of oneness with all humanity;
- (10) profound interpersonal relations but with no
desperate need to have a multitude of friends;
- (11) the democratic character structure; or the ability
to disregard superficial differences between people;
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o For example, a starving mother may be
motivated by love needs to give up food in
order to feed her starving children. However,
if we understand the unconscious motivation
behind many apparent reversals, we might
see that they are not genuine reversals at all.
- Unmotivated Behavior
o Some behaviors are not motivated even
though all behaviors have a cause
o Conditioned reflexes, maturation, or drugs
- Expressive and Coping Behavior
o have no aim or goal but are merely a
person's mode of expression
o deal with a person's attempt to cope with the
environment
- Deprivation of Needs
o leads to pathology of some sort
- Instinctoid Nature of Needs
o Innately determined needs that can be
modified by learning
o Thwarting of instinctoid needs produces
pathology whereas the frustration of
noninstinctoid needs does not
o Specie-specific
- Comparison of Higher and Lower Needs
- (12) discrimination between means and ends, meaning
that self-actualizing people have a clear sense of right
and wrong, and they experience little conflict about
basic values;
- (13) a philosophical sense of humor; or humor that is
spontaneous, unplanned, and intrinsic to the situation;
- (14) creativeness; they possess a keen perception of
truth, beauty, and reality;
- (15) resistance to enculturation; they have the ability to
set personal standards and to resist the mold set by the
dominate culture.
C. Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization
- Maslow compared D-love (deficiency love) to B-love
(love for the being or essence of another person).
- Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love; that is,
they have the ability to love without expecting
something in return.
- B-love is mutually felt and shared and not based on
deficiencies within the lovers.
IV. Measuring Self-Actualization
- The most widely used of these is Everett Shostrom's
Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), a 150-forced- choice
inventory that assesses a variety of self- actualization facets.

V. The Jonah Complex
- fear of being or doing one's best, a condition that all
of us have to some extent.
- False humility that stifle creativity and that fall short of
self-actualization
VI. Critique of Maslow
Maslow's theory has been popular in psychology
and other disciplines, such as marketing, management,
nursing, and education. The hierarchy of needs concept
seems both elementary and logical, which gives Maslow's
theory the illusion of simplicity. However, the theory is somewhat
complex, with four dimensions of needs and the possibility
of unconsciously motivated behavior. As a scientific theory,
Maslow's model rates high in generating research but low in
falsifiability. On its ability to organize knowledge and guide
action, the theory rates quite high; on its simplicity and
internal consistency, it rates only average.
VII. Concept of Humanity
Maslow believed that people are structured in such
a way that their activated needs are exactly what they want
most.
II. Person-Centered Theory
A. Basic Assumptions
- the formative tendency that states that all matter, both
organic and inorganic, tends to evolve from simpler
to more complex forms and
- an actualizing tendency, which suggests that all living
things, including humans, tend to move toward
completion, or fulfillment of potentials.
o Maintenance = of needs
o Enhancement = willingness to face pain
because of the biological tendency to fulfill basic
nature wc is actualization
- relationship with another person who is genuine,
or congruent, and who demonstrates complete
acceptance and empathy for that person. Lead
people to become actualized
B. The Self and Self-Actualization
- A sense of self during infancy, once established, allows
a person to strive toward self-actualization
- The self has two subsystems:
o self-concept: aspects of one's identity that are
perceived in awareness, and
o ideal self: view of our self as we would like it to
be or what we would aspire to be.
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Hungry people desire food, frightened people look for safety,
and so forth. Although he was generally optimistic and
hopeful, Maslow saw that people are capable of great evil and
destruction. He believed that, as a species, humans are
becoming more and more fully human and motivated by
higher level needs. In summary, Maslow's view of humanity
rates high on free choice, optimism, teleology, and uniqueness
and about average on social influences.
Once formed, the self-concept tends to resist change, and gaps between
it and the ideal self result in incongruence and various levels of
psychopathology.
C. Awareness
- People are aware of both their self-concept and
their ideal self, although awareness need not be
accurate.
- Any experience not consistent with the self-concept—
even positive experiences—will be distorted or denied.
o Person distrusts the giver
o Recipient does not feel deserving of them
o Compliment carries an implied threat
- three levels of awareness:
o (1) those that are symbolized below the
threshold of awareness and are ignored,
denied, or not allowed into the self-concept;
o (2) those that are distorted or reshaped to fit it into
an existing self-concept; and
o (3) those that are consistent with the self-
concept and thus are accurately symbolized
and freely admitted to the self-structure.
D. Needs
- As awareness of self emerges, an infant begins
to receive positive regard from another person, that is,
to be loved or accepted.
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CHAPTER 10: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
l. Biography of Carl Rogers
- born into a devoutly religious family in a Chicago
suburb in 1902.
- Carl became interested in scientific farming and learned
to appreciate the scientific method.
- When he graduated from the University of Wisconsin,
Rogers intended to become a minister, but he gave up
that notion and completed a PhD in psychology
from Columbia University in 1931.
- In 1940, after nearly a dozen years working as a
clinician, he took a position at Ohio State
University. Later, he held positions at the University of
Chicago and the University of Wisconsin.
- In 1964, he moved to California where he helped found
the Center for Studies of the Person.
- His personal life was marked by change and openness
to experience
- He was shy and social inept but he got married to
Helen Elliott and had 2 children
- He died in 1987 at age 85.
- Incongruence: experienced when basic organismic
needs are denied or distorted in favor of needs to be
loved or accepted.
- Self-regard: people acquire only after they perceive that
someone else cares for them and values them
- Once established, however, self-regard becomes
autonomous and no longer dependent on another
person's continuous positive evaluation.
- Contact (with another person)  Positive regard (from
others)  positive self-regard
E. Barriers to Psychological Health
- Conditions of Worth
o not unconditionally accepted
o they feel that they are loved and accepted only
when and if they meet the conditions set by others.
o External evaluations: our perceptions of other
people’s view of us that do not foster psychological
health
- Incongruence
o Organismic experience versus self-experiences
o The greater the incongruence between self-
concept and the organismic experience, the more
vulnerable that person becomes.
o Anxiety exists whenever the person becomes
dimly aware of the discrepancy

o threat is experienced whenever the person
becomes more clearly aware of this incongruence
- Defensiveness
o To prevent incongruence
o With distortion, people misinterpret an experience
so that it fits into their self-concept
o with denial, people refuse to allow the experience
into awareness
o When people's defenses fail to operate properly,
their behavior becomes disorganized or psychotic
- Disorganization
o people sometimes behave consistently with their
organismic experience and sometimes in
accordance with their shattered self-concept.
III. Psychotherapy
For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, six
conditions are necessary:
(1)A vulnerable or anxious client must
(2)have contact of some duration
(3)with a congruent counselor
(4)who demonstrates unconditional positive regard
(5)and who listens with empathy to a client
- these people would be more adaptable and more
flexible in their thinking.
- they would be open to their experiences, accurately
symbolizing them in awareness rather than denying or
distorting them. would listen to themselves and
hear their joy, anger, discouragement, fear, and
tenderness.
- a tendency to live fully in the moment, experiencing
a constant state of fluidity and change. They would
see each experience with a new freshness and
appreciate it fully in the present moment; tendency
to live in the moment as existential living.
- remain confident of their own ability to experience
harmonious relations with others. They would feel
no need to be liked or loved by everyone, because
they would know that they are unconditionally prized
and accepted by someone.
- they would be more integrated, more whole, with no
artificial boundary between conscious processes
and unconscious ones. Because they would be
able to accurately symbolize all their experiences
in awareness, they would see clearly the
difference between what is and what should be.
- have a basic trust of human nature. They would
experience anger, frustration, depression, and other
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(6) who perceives the congruence, unconditional positive
regard, and empathy.
If these conditions are present, then the process
of therapy will take place and certain predictable outcomes
will result.
A. Conditions
- counselor congruence, or a therapist whose
organismic experiences are matched by awareness
and by the ability and willingness to openly express
these feelings.
- Unconditional positive regard exists when the
therapist accepts and prizes the client without
conditions or qualifications.
- Empathic listening is the ability of the therapist
to sense the feeling of a client and also to
communicate these perceptions so that the client
knows that another person has entered into his or
her world of feelings without prejudice, projection,
or evaluation.
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B. Process
- Rogers saw the process of therapeutic change as
taking place in seven stages:
- (1) clients are unwilling to communicate anything about
themselves;
- (2) they discuss only external events and other people;
- (3) they begin to talk about themselves, but still as
an object;
- (4) they discuss strong emotions that they have felt
in the past;
- (5) they begin to express present feelings;
- (6) they freely allow into awareness those experiences
that were previously denied or distorted; and
- (7) they experience irreversible change and growth.
C. Outcomes
- (1) become more congruent, less defensive, more open
to experience, and more realistic;
- (2) experience a narrowing of the gap between ideal
self and true self;
- (3) experience less physiological and psychological
tension;
- (4) improve their interpersonal relationships: and
- (5) become more accepting of self and others.
IV. The Person of Tomorrow
negative emotions, but they would be able to express
rather than repress these feelings.
- open to all their experiences, they would enjoy a greater
richness in life than do other people. They would live in
the present and thus participate more richly in the
ongoing moment.
V. Critique of Rogers
Rogers' person-centered theory is one of the most
carefully constructed of all personality theories, and it meets quite
well each of the six criteria of a useful theory. It rates very high
on internal consistency and parsimony, high on its ability to be
falsified and to generate research, and high average on its ability
to organize knowledge and to serve as a guide to the practitioner .
VI. Concept of Humanity
Rogers believed that humans have the capacity to
change and grow—provided that certain necessary and sufficient
conditions are present. Therefore, his theory rates very high on
optimism. In addition, it rates high on free choice, teleology
, conscious motivation, social influences, and the uniqueness of
the individual.
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l. Biography of Rollo May

- born in Ohio in 1909, but grew up in Michigan
- he spent 3 years as an itinerant artist roaming
throughout eastern and southern Europe.
- he entered the Union Theological Seminary, from which
he received a Master of Divinity degree.
- He then served for 2 years as a pastor, but quit in order
to pursue a career in psychology.
- He received a PhD in clinical psychology from Columbia
in 1949 at the relatively advanced age of 40.
- During his professional career, he served as lecturer or
visiting professor at a number of universities, conducted
a private practice as a psychotherapist, and wrote
a number of popular books on the human condition.
- May died in 1994 at age 85.

II. Background of Existentialism

- Søren Kierkegaard, the Danish philosopher and
theologian, is usually considered to be the founder
of modern existentialism.
- he emphasized a balance between freedom and
CHAPTER 11: EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY responsibility.

- People acquire freedom of action by expanding o a basic unity exists between people and their
their self-awareness and by assuming responsibility for environments
their actions. o a phenomenological approach that intends to
- However, this acquisition of freedom and responsibility understand people from their own perspective
is achieved at the expense of anxiety and dread. o Three simultaneous modes of the world
A. What Is Existentialism? characterize us in our Dasein:
 Umwelt, or the environment around us;
- existence takes precedence over essence, meaning
 Mitwelt, or our world with other people; and
that process and growth are more important than
 Eigenwelt, or our relationship with our self.
product and stagnation.
- Nonbeing
- existentialists oppose the artificial split between subject
and object. o People are both aware of themselves as
living beings and also aware of the possibility
- stress people's search for meaning in their lives.
- insist that each of us is responsible for who we are and of nonbeing or nothingness.
o Death is the most obvious form of nonbeing, which
what we will become.
can also be experienced as retreat from life's
- take an antitheoretical position, believing that
experiences.
theories tend to objectify people.
o Other forms: addictions, promiscuous sexual
activity, other compulsive behaviors, blind
conformity to society’s expectations
III. Anxiety
People experience anxiety when they become
aware that their existence or something identified with it
might be destroyed. The acquisition of freedom inevitably leads
to anxiety,
B. Basic Concepts
- Being-in-the-world (Dasein)
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which can be either pleasurable and constructive or painful and
destructive.
A. Normal Anxiety
- proportionate to the threat, does not involve
repression, and can be handled on a conscious level.
B. Neurotic Anxiety
- a reaction that is disproportionate to the threat and
that leads to repression and defensive behaviors.
- It is felt whenever one's values are transformed into
dogma. Neurotic anxiety blocks growth and productive
action.
IV. Guilt
Guilt arises whenever people deny their potentialities,
fail to accurately perceive the needs of others, or remain blind
to their dependence on the natural world. Both anxiety and guilt
are ontological; that is, they refer to the nature of being and
not to feelings arising from specific situations.
V. Intentionality
- The structure that gives meaning to experience and
allows people to make decisions about the future
- permits people to overcome the dichotomy between
subject and object because it enables them to see that their
intentions are a function of both themselves and their
environment.
VI. Care, Love, and Will

- Care is an active process that suggests that
things matter.
- Love means to care, to delight in the presence of
another person, and to affirm that person's value as much as
one's own.
- Care is also an important ingredient in will, defined as a
conscious commitment to action.
A. Union of Love and Will
May believed that our modern society has lost sight
of the true nature of love and will, equating love with sex and will
with will power. He further held that psychologically healthy
people are able to combine love and will because both imply
care, choice, action, and responsibility.
B. Forms of Love
- Sex: A biological function through sexual intercourse
- Eros is a psychological desire that seeks an
enduring union with a loved one. It may include sex,
but it is built on care and tenderness.
- Philia, an intimate nonsexual friendship between
two people, takes time to develop and does not
depend on the actions of the other person.
- Agape is an altruistic or spiritual love that carries with it
the risk of playing God. Agape is undeserved and
unconditional.
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VII. Freedom and Destiny action; low on internal consistency (because it lacks
Psychologically healthy individuals are comfortable operationally defined terms) ,
with freedom, able to assume responsibility for their
choices, and willing to face their destiny.
A. Freedom Defined
Freedom comes from an understanding of our destiny
. We are free when we recognize that death is a possibility at
any moment and when we are willing to experience changes
even in the face of not knowing what those changes will
bring.
B. Forms of Freedom
May recognized two forms of freedom: (1) freedom
of doing, or freedom of action, which he called existential
freedom, and (2) freedom of being, or an inner freedom,
which he called essential freedom.
C. Destiny Defined
May defined destiny as "the design of the
universe speaking through the design of each one of us." In
other words, our destiny includes the limitations of our
environment and our personal qualities, including our
mortality, gender, and genetic predispositions. Freedom
and destiny constitute a paradox because freedom gains
vitality from destiny, and destiny gains significance from
freedom.
VIII. Psychopathology
May saw apathy and emptiness—not anxiety or
depression—as the chief existential disorders of our time.
People have become alienated from the natural world
(Umwelt), from other people (Mitwelt) and from themselves
(Eigenwelt) . Psychopathology is a lack of connectedness
and an inability to fulfill one's destiny.
IX. Psychotherapy
The goal of May's psychotherapy was not to cure
patients of any specific disorder, but rather to make them
more fully human. May said that the purpose of psychotherapy
is to set people free, that is to allow them to make choices and to
assume responsibility for those choices.
X. Critique of May
May's psychology has been legitimately criticized
as being antitheoretical and unjustly criticized as being
anti- intellectual. May's antitheoretical approach calls for a new
kind of science—one that considers uniqueness and personal
freedom as crucial concepts. However, according to the criteria
of present science, May's theory rates low on most
standards. More specifically, we give it a very low rating on
its ability to generate research, to be falsified, and to guide
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 lOMoARcPSD|15903725

average on parsimony, and high on its organizational powers, due

to its consideration of a broad scope of the human condition.

XI. Concept of Humanity

May viewed people as complex beings, capable of both
tremendous good and immense evil. People have become
alienated from the world, from other people, and, most of all, from
themselves. On the dimensions of a concept of humanity,
May rates high on free choice, teleology, social influences,
and uniqueness. On the issue of conscious or unconscious
forces, his theory takes a middle position.

CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL

1. Biography of Gordon Allport

- born in Indiana in 1897, the son of a physician
and former school teacher.
- He received an undergraduate degree in philosophy
and economics and a PhD from Harvard,
- spent 2 years studying under some of the great
German psychologists, but he returned from Europe
to teach at Harvard.
- Two years later he took a position at Dartmouth, but
after 4 years at Dartmouth, he returned to
Harvard, where he remained until his death in 1967.

2. Allport's Approach to Personality Theory

A. What Is Personality?
- "the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine [the person's]
behavior and thought.
- Dynamic organization: patterned yet subject to change
- Psychophysical: importance of both psychological and
physical aspects of personality
- Determine: not merely the mask we wear but the
person behind that
- Characteristics: uniqueness of the individual

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- Behavior and thinking: anything the person does
(external or internal)
B. What is the Role of Conscious Motivation?
- began with his short-lived discussion with Freud, when
Allport had not yet selected a career in psychology.
- Whereas Freud would attribute an unconscious
desire in the story of the young boy on the tram car,
Allport saw the story as an expression of a conscious
motive.
- He was inclined to accept self-reports at face value
C. What Are the Characteristics of a Healthy Person?
- Proactive behavior: not only reacting to external stimuli
but causing their environment to react to them
- Motivated by conscious process: flexible and
autonomous
- Relatively trauma-free childhood
- Extension of the sense of self: not self-centered; social
interest are important to them
- Warm relating of self to others: intimate and
compassionate; love other unselfishy
- Emotional security or self-acceptance: not overly upset
when things do not go as planned
- Realistic perception: problem oriented
- Insight & humor: no need to attribute their own
mistakes and weakness to others; can laugh at
themselves; see themselves objectively
- Unifying philosophy of life: have a clear view of
the purpose of life (not necessarily religious)
3. Structure of Personality
- most important structures of personality are those
that permit description of the individual in terms of
individual characteristics, and he called these
individual structures personal dispositions.
A. Personal Dispositions
- “common traits” which permit inter-individual
comparisons
- “personal dispositions” which are unusual to the
individual.
- Interpersonal comparisons are inappropriate to
personal dispositions and any attempt of
comparison transforms it to a common trait
- Levels (continuum) of personal dispositions:
o Cardinal dispositions: characteristics that
are so obvious and dominating that they
cannot be hidden from other people. Not
everyone have this
o Central dispositions: all people have 5 to 10
central dispositions, or characteristics around
which their lives revolve
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Secondary dispositions: are less reliable and
o o
less conspicuous than central traits. Occur with
some regularity
B. Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions
- Allport further divided personal dispositions into
o motivational dispositions - strong enough to initiate
action
o stylistic dispositions - the manner in which an
individual behaves and which guide action
(does not really have an exact drive or instinct that
causes the behavior)
C. Proprium
- all those behaviors and characteristics that people
regard as warm and central in their lives.
- self/ego could imply an object or thing within a
person that controls behavior,
- whereas proprium suggests the core of one's
personhood (values/conscience)
4. Motivation
- motives change as people mature and also that people
are motivated by present drives and wants.
A. Theory of Motivation
- people not only react to their environment, but they also
shape their environment and cause it to react to
them.
- His proactive approach emphasized the idea that
people often seek additional tension and that they
purposefully act on their environment in a way
that fosters growth toward psychological health.
B. Functional Autonomy
- some (but not all) human motives are functionally
independent from the original motive responsible for
a particular behavior.
- two levels of functional autonomy:
o perseverative functional autonomy: tendency of
certain basic behaviors (such as addictiv e
behaviors) to perseverate or continue in the
absence of reinforcement
o propriate functional autonomy: self-sustaining
motives (such as interests) that are related to
the proprium.
- a behavior is functionally autonomous to the extent that
it seeks new goals, as when a need (eating) turns into
an interest (cooking).
- Not all behaviors are functionally autonomous:
o biological drives = eating, breathing, and sleeping
o reflex actions such as an eye blink
o physique, intelligence, and temperament
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habits in the process of being formed;
o patterns of behavior that require primary
reinforcement
o sublimations that can be tied to childhood
sexual desires
o some neurotic or pathological symptoms.
5. Critique of Allport
His views are based more on philosophical speculation
and common sense than on scientific studies. His theory rates low
on its ability to organize psychological data and to be falsified.
It rates high on parsimony and internal consistency and
about average on its ability to generate research and to
help the practitioner.
6. Concept of Humanity
Allport saw people as thinking, proactive, purposeful
beings who are generally aware of what they are doing and why.
On the six dimensions for a concept of humanity, Allport
rates higher than any other theorist on conscious influences and
on the uniqueness of the individual. He rates high on free
choice, optimism, and teleology and about average on social
influences.
CHAPTER 13: FIVE-FACTOR TRAIT THEORY
1. The Pioneering Work of Raymond B. Cattell
- Raymond Cattell used factor analysis to identify a large
number of traits, including personality traits.
- Included in personality traits were temperament traits,
which are concerned with how a person behaves.
- Temperament traits include both normal and abnormal
traits. Of the 23 normal traits, 16 are measured
by Cattell's famous 16 PF scale.
- Whereas, McRae and Costa’s work yielded scores
on only 5 personality traits (NEO-PI Inventory)
2. Basics of Factor Analysis
- a mathematical procedure for reducing a large number
of scores to a few general variables or factors.
- Correlations of the original, specific scores with the
factors are called factor loadings.
- Traits generated through factor analysis may be either
unipolar (scaled from zero to some large amount) or bipolar
(having two opposing poles, such as introversion and
extraversion).
- For factors to have psychological meaning, the analyst
must rotate the axes on which the scores are
plotted.

- Eysenck used an orthogonal rotation whereas
Cattell favored an obiique rotation. The oblique
procedure ordinarily results in more traits than the
orthogonal method.
3. The Big Five: Taxonomy or Theory?
A large number of researchers, including Robert
McCrae and Paul Costa, Jr., have insisted that all personality
structure can be narrowed down to five, and only five, and
no fewer than five dominant traits to emerge from factor
analytic techniques.
4. In Search of the Big Five
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Costa and
McCrae quickly discovered the traits of extraversion (E),
neuroticism (N), and openness to experience (O).
A. Five Factors Found
- the five factors have been found across a variety
of cultures and languages. In addition, the five
factor s show some permanence with age; that is,
adults tend to maintain a consistent personality
structure as they grow older.
B. Description of the Five Factors
- McCrae and Costa agreed with Eysenck that
personality traits are basically bipolar, with some people
scoring high on one factor and low on its
counterpart.
- Neuroticism: people who score high on N tend to
be anxious, temperamental, self-pitying, self-
conscious, emotional, and vulnerable to stress-
related disorders, whereas people with low scores
on N tend to have opposite characteristics.
- Extraversion: People who score high on E tend to
be affectionate, jovial, talkative, a joiner, and fun-
loving, whereas low E scorers tend to have
opposing traits.
- Openness (to experience): High O scorers prefer
variety in their life and are contrasted to low O
scorers who have a need for closure and who gain
comfort in their association with familiar people and
things.
- Agreeableness: People who score high on A tend
to be trusting, generous, yielding, acceptant, and
good natured. Low A scorers are generally
suspicious, stingy, unfriendly, irritable, and critical of
other people.
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rotation
- Conscientiousness: people high on the C scale tend - their Five-Factor taxonomy was being transformed into
to be ordered, controlled, organized, ambitious, a Five-Factor Theory (FFT)
achievement-focused, and self-disciplined.
A. Units of the Five-Factor Theory
- The three core components include:
5. Evolution of the Five-Factor Theory o basic tendencies - the universal raw material of
personality; define the individual’s potential &
direction; basis in biology and their stability over
time and situation
o characteristic adaptations - are acquired
personality structures that develop as people
adapt to their environment (flexibility); what we
learn
o self-concept – an important characteristic
adaptation which are the knowledge and attitudes
about oneself
- Peripheral components include:
o biological bases - which are the sole cause of basic
tendencies (genes, hormones, brain structures)
o objective biography - everything a person does or
thinks over a lifetime (objectively = not how they
view experiences)
o external influence - or knowledge, views, and
evaluations of the self; “how we respond” to the
opportunities and demands
B. Basic Postulates
- Basic tendencies: four postulate:
o individuality - every adult has a unique pattern of
traits
o origin - all personality traits originate solely from
biological factors, such as genetics, hormones,
and brain structures
o development - traits develop and change through
childhood, adolescence, and mid-adulthood
o structure - traits are organized hierarchically from
narrow and specific to broad and general.
6. Critique of Trait and Factor Theories
The factor theories of Eysenck and of McCrae and
Costa rate high on parsimony, on their ability to generate
research, and on their usefulness in organizing data; they are
about average on falsifiability, usefulness to the practitioner, and
internal consistency.
7. Concept of Humanity
Factor theories generally assume that human
personality is largely the product of genetics and not the
environment. Thus, we rate these two theories very high on
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biological influences and very low on social factors. In
addition, we rate both about average on conscious versus
unconscious
influences and high on the uniqueness of individuals. The
concepts of free choice, optimism versus pessimism, and
causality versus teleology are not clearly addressed by these
theories.
determine how people will react to environmental forces.
Both theorists suggest that our expectations of future
events are major determinants of performance.
2. Biography of Julian Rotter
Julian Rotter was born in Brooklyn, New York n in 1916.
As a high school student, he became familiar with some of
the writings of Freud and Adler, but he majored in chemistry
rather than psychology while at Brooklyn College. In 1941, he
received a PhD in clinical psychology from Indiana University.
After World War II, he took a position at Ohio State, where one of
his students was Walter Mischel. In 1963, he moved to the
University of Connecticut and has remained there since
retirement.

3. Introduction to Rotter's Social Learning Theory

- motivation is goal directed.
- people are capable of anticipating events, and thus
they are capable of changing their environment and
their personality.
4. Predicting Specific Behaviors - must be analyzed in order
to make accurate predictions in any specific situation.
A. Behavior Potential - possibility that a particular
response will occur at a given time and place in relation to its likely
reinforcement.
B. Expectancy - their confidence that a particular
reinforcement will follow a specific behavior in a specific situation
or situations. Expectancies can be either general or specific,
and the overall likelihood of success is a function of both
generalized and specific expectancies.
C. Reinforcement Value - person's preference for any
particular reinforcement over other reinforcements if all
are equally likely to occur. Internal reinforcement is the
individual's perception of an event, whereas external
reinforcement refers to society's evaluation of an event.
Reinforcement-reinforcement sequences suggest that
the value of an event is a function of one's expectation
- it assumes that humans interact with their meaningful
environments: that is, human behavior stems from
the interaction of environmental and personal
factors.
- human personality is learned, which suggests that it
CHAPTER 14: COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY can be changed or modified as long as people are
capable of learning.
- personality has a basic unity, suggesting that
1. Overview of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
personality has some basic stability.
Both Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel believe
that cognitive factors, more than immediate reinforcements,
that a particular reinforcement will lead to futur e B. Needs
reinforcements. Needs refer to functionally related categories of
D. Psychological Situation - part of the external and behaviors. Rotter listed six broad categories of needs, with each
internal world to which a person is responding.
Behavior is a function of the interaction of people
with their meaningful environment.
E. Basic Prediction Formula - Hypothetically, in any
specific situation, behavior can be predicted by
the basic prediction formula, which states that the
potential for a behavior to occur in a particular situation
in relation to a given reinforcement is a function of
people's expectancy that their behavior will be
followed by that reinforcement in that situation.
5. Predicting General Behaviors
The basic prediction is too specific to give clues
about how a person will generally behave.
A. Generalized Expectancies
To make more general predictions of behavior, one
must know people's generalized expectancies, or their
expectations based on similar past experiences that a
given behavior will be reinforced. Generalized expectancies
include people's needs, that is, behaviors that move them toward
a goal.
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need being related to behaviors that lead to the same or
similar reinforcements: (1) recognition-status refers to the need
to excel, to achieve, and to have others recognize one's
worth; (2) dominance is the need to control the behavior of
others, to be in charge, or to gain power over others; (3)
independence is the need to be free from the domination of
others; ( 4) protection- dependence is the need to have
others take care of us and to protect us from harm; (5) love
and affection are needs to be warmly accepted by others and
to be held in friendly regard; and
(6) physical comfort includes those behaviors aimed at securing
food, good health, and physical security. Three need
components are: (1) need potential, or the possible
occurrences of a set of functionally related behaviors directed
toward the satisfaction of similar goals; (2) freedom of
movement, or a person's
overall expectation of being reinforced for performing those
behaviors that are directed toward satisfying some general need;
and (3) need value, or the extent to which people prefer one
set of reinforcements to another. Need components are
analogous to the more specific concepts of behavior potential,
expectancy, and reinforcement value.
C. General Prediction Formula
The general prediction formula states that need
potential is a function of freedom of movement and need
value. Rotter's two most famous scales for measuring
generalized expectancies are the Internal-External Control
Scale and the Interpersonal Trust Scale.
D. Internal and External Control of Reinforcement
The Internal-External Control Scale (popularly called
"locus of control scale") attempts to measure the degree to which
people perceive a causal relationship between their own effor
ts and environmental consequences.
E. Interpersonal Trust Scale
The Interpersonal Trust Scale measures the extent to
which a person expects the word or promise of another person to
be true.
6. Introduction to Mischel's Personality System
Like Bandura and Rotter, Mischel believes that
cognitive factors, such as expectancies, subjective perceptions,
values, goals, and personal standards are important in shaping
personality. In his early theory, Mischel seriously questioned the
consistency of personality, but more recently, he and Yuichi
Shoda have advanced the notion that behavior is also a
function of relatively stable cognitive-affective units.
7. Biography of Walter Mischel
Walter Mischel was born in Vienna in 1930, the second
son of upper-middle-class parents. When the Nazis
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invaded Austria in 1938, his family moved to the United
States and
Mischel originally believed that human behavior was
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eventually settled in Brooklyn. Mischel received an MA from
City College of New York and a PhD from Ohio State, where
he was influenced by Julian Rotter. He is currently a
professor at Columbia University.
8. Background of the Cognitive-Affective Personality
System
mostly a function of the situation, but more lately he has
recognized the importance of relatively permanent cognitive -
affective units. Nevertheless, Mischel's theory continues to
recognize the apparent inconsistency of some behaviors.
A. The Consistency Paradox
The consistency paradox refers to the observation that,
although both lay people and professionals tend to believe
that behavior is quite consistent, research suggests that it
is not. Mischel recognizes that, indeed, some traits are
consistent over time, but he contends that there is little
evidence to suggest that they are consistent from one situation
to another.
B. Person-Situation Interaction
Mischel believes that behavior is best predicted from an
understanding of the person, the situation, and the interaction
between person and situation. Thus, behavior is not the result
of some global personality trait, but rather of people's perceptions
of themselves in a particular situation.
9. Cognitive-Affective Personality System
However, Mischel does not believe that inconsistencies
in behavior are due solely to the situation; he recognizes
that inconsistent behaviors reflect stable patterns of variation
within a person. He and Shoda see these stable variations in
behavior in the following framework: If A, then X; but if B, then
Y. People's pattern of variability is their behavioral signature,
or their unique and stable pattern of behaving differently in
different situations.
A. Behavior Prediction
Mischel's basic theoretical position for predicting
and explaining behavior is as follows: If personality is a stable
system that processes information about the situation, then
as people encounter different situations, they should behave
differently as those situations vary. Therefore, Mischel
believes that, even though people's behavior may reflect
some stability over time, it tends to vary as situations vary.
B. Situation Variables
Situation variables include all those stimuli that
people attend to in a given situation.
C. Cognitive-Affective Units
Cognitive-affective units include all those psychological,
social, and physiological aspects of people that permit them
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to interact with their environment with some stability in

their
behavior. Mischel identified five such units. First are encoding
strategies, or people's individualized manner of categorizing
information they receive from external stimuli. Second are
the competencies and self-regulatory strategies. One of the
most important of these competencies is intelligence, which
Mischel argues is responsible for the apparent consistency of
other traits. In addition, people use self-regulatory strategies to
control their own behavior through self-formulated goals and
self-produced consequences. The third cognitive-affective
units are expectancies and beliefs, or people's guesses
about the consequences of each of the different behavioral
possibilities. The fourth cognitive-affective unit includes
people's subjectiv e goals and values, which tend to render
behavior fairly consistent. Mischel's fifth cognitive-affective
unit includes affectiv e responses, including emotions,
feelings, and the affect that accompanies physiological
CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
reactions.
1. Overview of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory
10. Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Kelly's theory of personal constructs can be seen as
Cognitive social learning theory combines the rigors
a metatheory, or a theory about theories. It holds that
of learning theory with the speculative assumption that people people anticipate events by the meanings or
are forward-looking beings. It rates high on generating research interpretations that they place on those events. Kelly
and on being internally consistent; it rates about average on its called these interpretations personal constructs. His
ability to be falsified, to organize data, and to guide action. philosophical position, called constructive alternativism,
assumes that alternative interpretations are always
11. Concept of Humanity available to people.
Rotter and Mischel see people as goal-directed,
cognitive animals whose perceptions of events are more 2. Biography of George Kelly
crucial than the events themselves. Cognitive social George Kelly was born on a farm in Kansas in 1905.
learning theory rates very high on social influences, and high During his school years and his early professional career, he
on uniqueness of the individual, free choice, teleology, and dabbled in a wide variety of jobs, but he eventually received a
conscious processes. On the dimension of optimism versus PhD in psychology from the University of Iowa. He began his
pessimism, Rotter's view is slightly more optimistic, whereas academic career at Fort Hays State College in Kansas, then after
Mischel's is about in the middle. World War II, he took a position at Ohio State. He remained
there until 1965 when he joined the faculty at Brandeis. He
died 2 years later at age 61.

3. Kelly's Philosophical Position

Kelly believed that people construe events according to
their personal constructs, rather than reality.
A. Person as Scientist
People generally attempt to solve everyday problems in
much the same fashion as do scientists; that is, they observe, ask
questions, formulate hypotheses, infer conclusions, and predict
future events.
B. Scientist as Person
Because scientists are people, their pronouncements
should be regarded with the same skepticism as any other
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data. Every scientific theory can be viewed from an alternate

angle, and
every competent scientist should be open to changing his or fragmentation corollary states that people's behavior can be inconsistent because their construct systems can readily admit
her theory. incompatible elements. (10) the commonality corollary
C. Constructive Alternativism
Kelly believed that our interpretations of the world
are subject to revision or replacement, an assumption he
called constructive alternativism. He further stressed that,
because people can construe their world from different
angles, observations that are valid at one time may be false at a
later time.

4. Personal Constructs
Kelly believed that people look at their world through
templates that they create and then attempt to fit over the realities
of the world. He called these templates personal
constructs, which he believed shape behavior.
A. Basic Postulate
Kelly expressed his theory in one basic postulate
and 11 supporting corollaries. The basic postulate
assumes that human behavior is shaped by the way people
anticipate the future.
B. Supporting Corollaries
The 11 supporting corollaries can all be inferred from
this basic postulate. (1) Although no two events are exactly
alike, we construe similar events as if they were the same,
and this is Kelly's construction corollary. (2) The individuality
corollary states that because people have different
experiences, they can interpret the same event in different ways.
(3) The organizational corollary assumes that people organize
their personal constructs in a hierarchical system, with some
constructs in a superordinate position and other subordinate
to them. (4) The dichotomy corollary assumes that people
construe events in an either/or manner, e.g., good or bad. (5)
Kelly's choice corollary assumes that people tend to choose
the alternative in a dichotomized construct that they see as
extending the range of their futur e choices. (6) The range
corollary states that constructs are limited to a particular
range of convenience; that is, they are not relevant to all
situations. (7) Kelly's experience corollary suggests that
people continually revise their personal constructs as the result
of their experiences. (8) The modulation corollary assumes that
only permeable constructs lead to change; concrete constructs
resist modification through experience. (9) The
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s imilar to the construction systems of other people to the extent

u that we share experiences with them. (11) The sociality
g corollary states that people are able to communicate with
g other people because they can construe those people's
e constructions. With the sociality corollary, Kelly introduced
s the concept of role, which refers to a pattern of behavior that
t stems from people's understanding of the constructs of others.
s Each of us has a core role and numerous peripheral roles. A
core role gives us a sense of identity whereas peripheral roles
t are less central to our self-concept.
h
a
t
5. Critique of Kelly
o Kelly's theory probably is most applicable to relatively
u normal, intelligent people. Unfortunately, it pays scant attention
r to problems of motivation, development, and cultural
influences. On the six criteria of a useful theory, it rates very
p high on parsimony and internal consistency and about
e average on its ability to generate research. However it rates
r low on its ability to be falsified, to guide the practitioner, and to
s organize knowledge.
o
n 6. Concept of Humanity
a Kelly saw people as anticipating the future and
l living their lives in accordance with those anticipations. His
concept of elaborative choice suggests that people increase
c their range of future choices by the present choices they
o freely make. Thus, Kelly's theory rates very high in teleology
n and high in choice and optimism. In addition, it receives
s high ratings for conscious influences and for its emphasis
t on the uniqueness of the individual. Finally, personal construct
r theory is about average on social influences.
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