UNIT 1
[Link] BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND ARCHITECTURE?
Structures
● structures form parts of a work of architecture. Structures are closely related to
architecture, space and expression.
● Structures can form the envelope, may control the inflow of daylight, potentially
control the relation between the inside and the outside etc.
Architecture
● Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and constructing
space that reflects functional, social, and aesthetic considerations.
● Architecture most often involves the manipulation of space, volume, texture, light,
shadow, and abstract elements in order to achieve an aesthetic end.
Relationship between architecture and structure
● For classical Greek architecture, the architectural expression was strongly tied to the
beams and columns, and their proportions.
● With modernism, things changed e.g.: Perret and Le Corbusier separated
constructive from functional/expressive elements. Separation into purely structural
and abstractly aesthetic.
Problems raised by modernism-
● How to separate the structural elements from the aesthetical ones
● Where does the structure begin, and where does it end..
● While the answer might be easy when it comes, e.g. to skeleton structures, it is not
obvious for, e.g. a dome.
Structural form and its logic
● For civil engineers, structural form gravitates around central topics as Strength /
Stiffness / Stability / Durability in a broader sense.
● In engineering practice, these topics are, as much as possible, orthogonalized /
Strength is attributed to the material / Stiffness is a sectional quality / Stability relates
to static system / Durability is related to detailing
Two main principles
● Form inherently resides in the material, and is made precise by respecting the
qualities and properties of that material.
● Form is created irrespectively of the material, and is free to evolve without
preconditions for realization in a specific material.
[Link] THEORY OF EXPRESSION OF STRUCTURAL FUNCTION IN
ARCHITECTURAL FORM
● The principle is that the shape of a building or object should be primarily based upon
its intended function or purpose. Form follows function is a principle associated with
modern architecture and industrial design in the 20th century.
● Architecture is not merely a slavery to the past art, nor it is blind to originality. It has
to be a perfect blend of usability, beauty and economy.
Architecture has always been the result of the delicate balance Between art and
science… but it has been more of an Art than science.
An Architect is an artist who sets out to remodel the world to make it more perfect for
human habitation…
● The personality of an architect is reflected through his creations. We can gauge his
mood by looking at the way the structure is designed, both internally as well as
externally. An architect takes care of human needs, interests, sentiments & values of
his clients while designing the Structures.
Architecture is a design process which involves planning, designing, creating, erecting,
constructing and executing construction of various types of buildings that are functionally
efficient, economically viable and aesthetically pleasing.
The two most important factors in the design of a building are Form and Function.
Functionality is the most important aspect of building design. The other aspect is building
form or aesthetics.
Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature and expression of beauty.
Aesthetic Components of Architecture
Aesthetics, Architecture, balance, creativity, deconstructivism, design, pattern,
proportionality, rhythm, scale, symmetry, unity
[Link] OF FORM AND STRUCTURAL FUNCTION.
The structural form of buildings can be simply defined as the geometrical configuration of the
space involved by the structure. However, within a similar external visible geometry, different
structural actions could be responded by structure under the same kind of loads. Various
Capacities of different materials, internal detailing of cross-sections, the manner and
sequence of construction and the dimensions of the structure can cause different structural
actions in similar overall geometry of the structures. Therefore, the geometrical configuration
is only one aspect of the structural form.
Structures that give rise to unique building forms either come under the category of semi or
fully form active structures. These structures justify the use of structural elements for the
design complexities they are faced with, and these structural elements define a new
aesthetic style for the building.
Behavior of Structural Elements
Major forms of masonry structures are arches, vaults, domes and walls. They reflect certain
structural factors, through their characteristic thickness. Their thickness was directed by the
coarseness of their constituent materials: stone, brick and mortar joints. Their inability to
resist tensile stresses required widening of their cross-sections so that compression would
reduce the effect of potential bending.
UNIT 2
[Link] UNDER SIMPLE TENSION AND COMPRESSION
Equilibrium
1. Equilibrium is the condition of a system in which all competing influences are balanced.
A structure is in equilibrium when all forces or moments acting upon it are balanced.
Every structure that can be seen to remain standing on a daily basis is in equilibrium.
It is at rest and each of its members, combination of its members or any part of a member
that is supporting a load, are also at rest.
2. There is a net result of zero in all directions for all the applied loads and reactions.
Architectural structures are normally stationary. Most clients, building officials and designers
prefer that their structures remain static rather than move dynamically.
3. There are specific loading conditions which are dynamic loads, but in each and every
case a return to a stable and static state is desirable. Such a condition is known as
Equilibrium.
● Figure 2a shows A vertical member in direct tension.
● Under this load the members spanning between two endpoints lengthens elastically
● It stays straight under tensile force or becomes straight if it is slack.
● Its load capacity is determined by p= Af , where f is tension strength of material,
where a is area .
● The compression member of fig 2b in contrast has two ways of getting shorter
elastically along its axis and by bending sideways
● The later action can lead to bulking
● The capacity of thin members to support loads is determined by Euler's formula P =
π2 EI/L.
2. BEAMS AND SLABS
BEAMS:
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight, span and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but
smaller structures such as truck or automobile frames, machine frames, and other
mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed and analyzed in
a similar fashion.
Types of beams
1. Cantilever beam
2. Simply supported beam
3. Overhanging beam
4. Fixed beam
5. Continuous beam
SLABS:
A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of
steel reinforced concrete, typically between 10 and 50 centimetres thick, are most often
used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.
In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or
directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building.
In high rise buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between
the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.
Design:
For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio.
In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This
improves strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight.
The corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength in one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
A one way slab has structural strength in the shortest direction.
A two way slab has structural strength in two directions
[Link] AND CATENARIES
ARCH
1. An arch is a curved structure that spans a space and may or may not support weight
above it. Arch may be synonymous with vault, but a vault may be distinguished as a
continuous arch forming a roof.
2. It can span a large area by resolving forces into compressive stresses and, in turn
eliminating tensile stresses. As the forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will
push outward at the base, called thrust.
3. As the rise, or height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases. In order to
maintain arch action and prevent the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained,
either with internal ties or external bracing, such as abutments.
4. An arch is held in place by the weight of all of its members, making construction
problematic. And is solved by centring.
Voussoirs are laid on it until the arch is complete and self-supporting.
5. For an arch higher than head height, scaffolding would be required, so it could be
combined with the arch support.
Types of arches:
Arches are constructed in four basic shapes that frame and support doors, windows,
porches, and other wall openings:
[Link] arch
[Link] arch
[Link] arch
[Link] arch
CATENARY
In physics and geometry, a catenary is the curve that a hanging chain or cable assumes
under its own weight when supported only at its ends. The curve has a U‐like shape,
superficially similar in appearance to a parabola.
Catenaries and related curves are used in architecture and engineering, in the design of
bridges and arches, so that forces do not result in bending moments.
Catenary arches are often used in the construction of kilns. To create the desired curve, the
shape of a hanging chain of the desired dimensions is transferred to a form which is then
used as a guide for the placement of bricks or other building material.
[Link] AND DOMES
Vaults
The parts of a vault use a thrust that requires a counter resistance. When vaults are built
underground, the ground gives all the resistance required. However, when the vault is built
above ground, various replacements are employed for support resistance. An example are
the thicker walls used in the case of barrel or continuous vaults. Buttresses are used to
support resistance when intersecting v
Types of vaults:
Barrel Vault:The simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault (also called a wagon or tunnel vault)
It consists of an on-going series of semi-circular arches. One is directly behind another,
causing it to look like a half of a barrel, the length being greater than its diameter.
Groin Vault:A groin vault is created by two barrel vaults intersecting at right angles. The
arches of groin vaults are round or pointed. It is also known as a cross vault.
Rib Vault:A vault reinforced by masonry ribs is known as a rib vault. This type of vault has
two masonry ribs dividing it into four sections, it is called a quadripartite rib vault.
DOMES
Domes are curved architectonic structures with no angles or corners, similar to the upper
half of a sphere. Despite of their apparent fragility, domes are strong structures and have
been used in buildings since ancient times,
In Europe, the earliest domes were made of stone. The Roman Pantheon, built almost 2,000
years ago, is a good example of early dome engineering. Native peoples in Ethiopia and
other places have used curved bows to create their huts.
[Link], PORTAL FRAME TRUSS
Trusses
1. A truss is a structure consisting of one or more triangular units constructed with straight
members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and
reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the
members which are either tensile or compressive forces.
There are two basic types of truss:
1. The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most
often used for roof construction.
2. The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom
chords. It is often used for floor construction.
Portal structural frames
It resembles a door. Multi-story, multi-bay portal frames are commonly used for commercial
and industrial [Link] members are usually made up of rafters and are thickened in
the region of the knee or joint to allow for the large moment.
Advantages:
● Optimum use of floor space.
● Easy construction.
● Rapid construction.
● Economical for high rise buildings.
● Erected by steel / reinforced concrete
Disadvantages:
Generally, frames are flexible structures and lateral deflections control the design process
for buildings with greater than about 4 stories. The concrete frames are 8 times stiffer than
steel frames of the same strength.
Span lengths are limited when using normal reinforced concrete (generally less than about
13 m, but up to about 15 m).
[Link] CONCRETE
Pre-stressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in compressive stresses
during construction to oppose those found when in use.
” It is a combination of steel and concrete that takes advantage of the strengths of each
material.
PRINCIPLE – Using high tensile strength steel alloys producing permanent pre-compression
in areas subjected to Tension.
A portion of tensile stress is counteracted thereby reducing the cross-sectional area of the
steel reinforcement.
METHODS :-
a) Pre-tensioning
b) Post-tensioning
PRETENSIONING :- Placing of concrete around reinforcing tendons that have been
stressed to the desired degree.
POST-TENSIONING :- Reinforcing tendons are stretched by jacks whilst keeping them
inserted in voids left pre- hand during curing of concrete. These spaces are then pumped full
of grout to bond steel tightly to the concrete.
POST - TENSIONING
• It is a method of reinforcing (strengthening) concrete or other materials with high-strength
steel strands called tendons.
• Post-tensioning allows construction that would otherwise be impossible due to either site
constraints or architectural requirements.
• Requires specialized knowledge and expertise to fabricate, assemble and install.
• After adequate curing of concrete, reinforcing tendons(placed inside the voids of the
structure) are tensioned/stretched by jacks on the sides & grouts filled with appropriate mix.
APPLICATIONS –
Structural members beams, bridge-deck panels, Roof –Slabs, Concrete Silos Etc.
[Link] HARDENING CEMENT AND READY MIX CONCRETE
RAPID HARDENING CEMENT:
• Also known as early gain in strength of cement. This cement contains more %age of C3S
and less %age of C2S, high proportion of C3S will impart quicker hydration
• The high strength at early stage is due to finer grinding, as fineness of cement will expose
greater surface area for the action of water.
•The strength obtained by this cement in 03 days is the same as obtained by O.P.C in 7
days.
• Initial and final setting times are the same as [Link]. 30 mins and 10 [Link] soundness
test by Le-Chatielier is 10mm and Autoclave is 0.8%.
• Greater lime content than OPC
READY MIX CONCRETE:
Ready-mix concrete (RMC) is a ready-to-use material, with a predetermined mixture of
Cement, sand, aggregates and water.
“Ready mix concrete is concrete whose components are proportioned away from the
construction site for delivery to the construction site by the truck in a ready-to-use-condition.”
Transport of Concrete
• The purchaser should plan his arrangements so as to enable a full load of concrete to be
discharged within 30 min of arrival on site
Time in Transport
• The general requirement is that concrete shall be discharged from the truck-mixer within 2h
of the time loading.
• The time of loading shall start from adding the mixing water to the dry mix of cement and
aggregate or of adding the cement to the wet aggregate whichever is applicable
Raw Materials are:-
• 1. Water
• 2. Additives/Admixtures
• 3. Cement
• 4. Aggregates
• 5. Air
[Link] CONCRETE
Concrete which uses lightweight aggregates
May consist of lightweight aggregates are used in ordinary concrete of coarse aggregate and
sand, clay, foamed slag, clinker, crushed stone, aggregates of organic and inorganic.
Methods of preparation of lightweight concrete
[Link] of porous concrete
[Link] providing concrete smoother (rough concrete)
[Link] lightweight aggregate concrete
[Link] OF POROUS CONCRETE
a) Lightweight concrete obtained by inserting gas bubbles or air into the mixture of plastic
cement (mixed with fine sand)
b) Lightweight concrete did not contain stones included as porous mortar.
2. Preparation of concrete without the smooth (rough concrete)
Lightweight concrete such as is obtained when the fine aggregate (sand) is not used and the
concrete mix of cement, water and coarse aggregates.
Concrete can be used for structural purposes and not to bear burden to bear a load.
3. Preparation of lightweight aggregate concrete
• Concrete is often used in:
a) before pouring the concrete block feature of lightweight aggregate concrete.
b) the roof and walls cast in situ for use in insulation.
UNIT 3 AND UNIT 4
[Link] FRAMES
Space frames: A space frame is a structure system assembled of linear elements so
arranged that forces are transferred in three dimensional manner. In some cases, the
constituent element may be two-dimensional. Macroscopically a space frame often takes the
form of a flat or curved surface.
Basic Concepts
The space frame can be formed either in a flat or a curved surface. The earliest form of
space frame structures is a single layer grid. By adding intermediate grids and including
rigid connecting to the joist and girder framing system, the single layer grid is formed. The
major characteristic of grid construction is the Omni-directional spreading of the load as
opposed to the linear transfer of the load in an ordinary framing system. Since such load
transfer is mainly by bending, for larger spans, the bending stiffness is increased most
efficiently by going to a double layer system. The load transfer mechanism of curved surface
Space frame is essentially different from the grid system that is primarily membrane-like
action.
Types of Space frames:
They are broadly classified into three categories:
- Skeleton/ braced framework: e.g. domes, barrel vaults, double and multiplier grids, braced
plates. They are the most popular and innumerable combinations and variations are possible
following regular geometric forms
-Stressed skin systems: e.g. Skin folded plate and stressed skin domes and barrel vaults,
pneumatic structures
- Suspended/cable/membrane structures: e.g. cable roofs
Enormous spanning capability
Light weight
High aesthetics
High resale value
Higher safety factor
Extension with additional unit
Applications:
Space frame is used for commercial and industrial buildings, auditoriums, airport hangers,
sport stadium, sky lights, mosque, lighting towers, petrol pumps, canopies, exhibition hall
and atriums.
[Link] PLATES
Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly connected together along their edges in
such a way so as to make the structural system capable of carrying loads without the need
for additional supporting beams along mutual edges.
Types of folded plates:
1- Prismatic: if they consist of rectangular plates.
2- Pyramidal: when non-rectangular plates are used.
3- Prismoidal, triangular or trapezoidal.
On the other hand, folded plates can be classified as:
1- Single.
2- Multiple.
3- Symmetrical.
4- Unsymmetrical.
5- Simple.
6- Continuous.
7- Folded plates with simple joints.
8- Folded plates with multiple joints.
9- Folded plates with opened cross sectional.
10- Folded plates with closed cross sectional.
Folded plate forms: Folded plates may have many one-way, two or three-way spans. They
may be motivated by aesthetic or spatial objectives, or to add strength and stability to a
system. In areas with snow, flat folded plates are problematic since snow can accumulate in
the valleys.
[Link] AND HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID SHELLS
SHELLS
A shell is a type of structural element which is characterized by its geometry, being a three-
dimensional solid whose thickness is very small when compared with other dimensions, and
in structural terms, by the stress Resultants calculated in the middle plane displaying
components which are both coplanar and normal to the surface. Essentially, a shell can be
derived from a plate by two means: by initially forming the middle surface as a singly or
doubly curved surface and by applying loads which are coplanar to a plate's plane which
generate significant stresses.
The most popular types of thin-shell structures are:
1. Concrete shell structures, often cast as a monolithic dome or stressed ribbon bridge or
saddle roof
2. Lattice shell structures, also called grid shell structures, often in the form of a geodesic
dome or a hyperboloid structure
3. Membrane structures, which include fabric structures and other tensile structures, cable
domes, and pneumatic structures.
Types and Forms of Shell Structure
Folded Plates /Barrel Vaults/ Short Shells /Domes of Revolution/ Folded Plate
Domes /Intersection Shells/ Warped Surfaces /Combinations Shell Arches3
Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells
The hyperbolic paraboloid or hypar is a translational surface formed by sliding a concave
paraboloid called generatrix parallel to itself along a convex parabola called directrix, which
is perpendicular to the generatrix. By cutting the surface vertically, parabolas can be
obtained, and cutting horizontally will give hyperbolas.
1. The hyperbolic paraboloid takes the thinness of shell construction and applies it in a much
more complex way. A hypar is essentially two parabolas that sit reflected and rotated along a
common axis, or by a series of straight lines that are slid from one skew line to another.
2. The hypar through the use reinforcing steel is capable of resisting the tensile forces of the
edges of the parabola acting like a cable structure and transferring those into the
compressive forces of the bottom. The hyperbolic paraboloid is a series of parabolas strung
together.
3. This series however is a non-developable surface so the construction of it has to be
precise. The two axial parabolas generate a surface curve that is both in compression and in
tension.
4. The use of reinforcing steel in the upward curvature of the parabola allows for the tensile
forces to flow into first the neutral sag, or catenary then the thrust of the forces flow into the
compression on the downward parabola.
[Link] LAYER AND DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS
Single layer grid
A grid can be composed of two or more sets of parallel members intersecting each other at
an angle and loaded perpendicular to their planes. If all the members of a grid are in the
same plane, it is called a single-layer grid.
There are different types of single-layer grid used as the main structural systems for roofs
and floors. These interconnected patterns consist of two-way, three-way or four-way
configurations, with the most common pattern being a rectangular grid in which the
intersecting elements are perpendicular to each other. The diagonal grid, in which the
members are oriented in an oblique manner to the supporting structure along the edge, has
great rigidity (or stiffness), i.e., substantial reduction in deflection.
Double layer grid
Double layer grids (DLGs) are extensions of single-layer grid systems, which consist of two
sets of parallel beams connected to each other at right or oblique angles and loaded by
forces perpendicular to the plane of the grid.
Even though DLGs are customarily made of parallel planes, it is possible to create free-
forms by modifying the shape of the top and bottom layers independently.
There are generally two main types of DLGs:
Direct (Truss) Grids: In this type of system the members of the top and bottom layers are in
the same plane resulting in a series of intersecting planar trusses.
Space Grids: These are made of a series of polyhedral units with triangular, square,
pentagonal or hexagonal bases.
DLGs can be used for floors or roofs of multi-story buildings (though a majority of systems
are used for roofs). The roof system in most cases consists of purlins supported by joints,
however, in some cases the top layer directly supports the roof. In addition, DLGs have been
used for vertical or inclined walls.
[Link] OF DOMES
Domes are curved architectonic structures with no angles or corners, similar to the upper
half of a sphere. Despite of their apparent fragility, domes are strong structures and have
been used in buildings since ancient times,
In Europe, the earliest domes were made of stone. The Roman Pantheon, built almost 2,000
years ago, is a good example of early dome engineering. Native peoples in Ethiopia and
other places have used curved bows to create their huts.
The domes are classified into the following:
1. BRACED DOMES: They are composed either of members lying on a surface of
revolution, or of straight members with their connecting points lying on such a surface; an
arrangement which avoids any obstruction of the inner space. This arrangement generally
results in a dome of circular base, or in one truncated into a polygonal base, though domes
with elliptical or oval surface have also been used in rare cases.
2. RIBBED DOMES: They consist of a number of identical radial solid or trussed (latticed)
interconnected at the crown and supported in an adequate way at the foundation.
[Link] Rib domes:
This type of roof is not economical because it does not incorporate the advantages of
structural interaction of latitudinal intermediate rings. Depending on the base diameter of the
dome, there may be 8 to 72 intersecting braced ribs. They are usually of constant depth.
4. PLATE TYPE DOMES: This type of dome is also a type f Schwedler dome, with a small
number of sides. Their side panels are filled in by several bars, all of them in the same
plane, forming a triangular network bracing. The plate type dome has the advantage that it
can be used to cover rectangular areas.
[Link] DOMES:
They are another curvilinear system of ribbed domes, characterized by
a)only a few of the ribs running from the rim to the crown of the dome as meridional
spherical sector dividers,
b)all other ribs running as intra-sector parallel lines, curvilinear or straight, and
c)a diamond grid being thus formed. Lamella domes are structurally indeterminate. Usually
these types of domes are analysed using matrix methods of structural analysis.
[Link] DOMES: A geodesic dome is a spherical or partial-spherical shell structure or
lattice shell based on a network of great circles (geodesics) lying on the surface of a sphere.
The geodesics intersect to form triangular elements that have local triangular rigidity and
also distribute the stress across the entire structure. When completed to form a complete
sphere, it is known as a geodesic sphere.
UNIT 5 AND UNIT 6
[Link] WALLS
A curtain wall is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural,
but merely keep out the weather. As the curtain wall is non-structural it can be made of a
lightweight material reducing construction costs. When glass is used as the curtain wall, a
great advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building.
The curtain wall façade does not carry any dead load weight from the building other than its
own dead load weight.
The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon it to the main building
structure through connections at floors or columns of the building.
A curtain wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and
seismic forces acting on the building and its own dead load weight forces.
Curtain walls are typically designed with extruded aluminium members, although the first
curtain walls were made of steel. The aluminium frame is typically in filled with glass, which
provides an architecturally pleasing building, as well as benefits such as day lighting.
However, parameters related to solar gain control such as thermal comfort and visual
comfort are more difficult to control when using highly-glazed curtain walls. Other common in
fills include: stone veneer, metal panels, louvers, and operable windows or vents.
Curtain walls differ from store-front systems in that they are designed to span multiple floors,
and take into consideration design requirements such as: thermal expansion and
contraction; building sway and movement; water diversion; and thermal efficiency for cost-
effective heating, cooling, and lighting in the building.
Types of Curtain Walls Systems:
A wide variety of materials and designs are available to meet different requirements in
curtain wall construction. Curtain walls are classified by how they are built.
Five systems implemented most frequently:
1. Stick system
In the stick system, mullions (sticks) are fabricated in the shop and installed and glazed in
the field. Sticks are placed between floors vertically to support individual components, such
as horizontal mullions, glazing, and spandrels. Loads are transferred through connections at
floors or columns.
Components: The stick system is assembled in the field using various components, including
anchors, mullions, rails, vision glass, spandrel glass, insulation and metal back pans.
2. Unit Panel system/ Unitized system
For large or labour‐intensive projects, unit panel systems may be a cost‐effective alternative
to the stick system. Here panels are fabricated and assembled at the shop, and may be
glazed there as well. The panels are then taken to the field, where they are attached to a
building structure
It contains the same components as a stick‐built curtain wall system but factory -assembled.
3. Unit Mullion system
Similar to the stick system, mullions are the first tube to be installed, Spandrel and glazing,
however, are inserted into the stick system as a complete unit.
It is a compromise between the stick and unitized systems. Pre‐assembled units are
installed behind one‐ or two‐story individual mullions.
4. Column cover and Spandrel systems
While column cover and spandrel systems are similar to unit and mullion systems, they differ
in that the building frame is emphasized with column covers, which act as sticks.
Units can be pre-assembled or completed onsite and feature infill vision glass and spandrel
panels between columns.
5. Point‐loaded Structural glazing systems
In this system, the vertical framing member can be composed of a stick, cable, or another
custom structure behind the glass. Glass is supported by a system of four‐point brackets,
and joints are sealed with silicone.
Unlike the alternatives, this system eliminates any visible metal framework.
2. SHORT NOTES ON PVC, SYNTHETIC BOARDS, FIRE RESISTANT BOARDS
POLY VINYL CHLORIDE (PVC):
ADVANTAGES
• Durable
• Cheap material
• Easily available
• Easily recyclable
• Wide range of colours and patterns
• Water proof
• Flexibility
• Good electric shock proof
• Fire resistant(wide temperature)
DISADVANTAGES
• Its production causes pollution.
• They cannot be used at high temperatures.
• They do not have the same strength as cast-iron or galvanized iron pipes.
• Higher density than many plastics.
BENEFITS OF PVC OVER OTHER MATERIALS-
Strong and lightweight
Easy to install
Durable
Cost-effective
Safe material
Good insulator
SYNTHETIC BOARDS
◦ Manufacturers have introduced a wide range of synthetic decking products, most of which
promise wood like appearance and low or no maintenance.
◦ Most fall into a few categories discussed below, but each has unique characteristics and
installation requirements. In all cases, review the product specifications and, if possible,
look at an installation before purchasing
◦ In general, composite decking materials are dimensionally stable, impervious to the
elements, and can be worked more or less like wood. The solid products are installed like
wood decking. Special screws designed for composite decking leave a clean hole without
dimpling around the screw head.
◦ Although these deck surfaces are largely impervious to the elements and contain no food
source for mold or mildew, manufacturers do point out that a dirty deck can support mold
and mildew growth and recommend periodic cleaning with a deck cleaner to prevent this.
◦ Also synthetic decking is vulnerable to oil and grease stains, which can be difficult to
remove if not cleaned right away with a degreasing agent.
FIRE RESISTANT BOARDS
[Link]
◦ Gypsum board is an excellent fire-resistive building material.
◦ Its non combustible core contains nearly 21% chemically combined water, as described
earlier, which, under high heat, is slowly released as steam.
◦ Because steam will not exceed 100 degrees Celsius under normal atmospheric pressure, it
very effectively retards the transfer of heat and the spread of fire.
◦ Even after complete calcination, when all the water has been released from its core,
gypsum board continues to serve as a heat-insulating barrier.
◦ Moreover, tests conducted show that gypsum board has a low flame-spread index and a
low smoke-density index.
◦ When installed in combination with other materials in laboratory-tested wall and ceiling
assemblies, gypsum board serves to effectively protect building elements from fire
[Link] SILICATE BOARD
CalSica is an extra strong calcium silicate board with excellent fire and moisture resistant
properties. It has high abrasion resistance and is a termite proof board. When used with a
metal framing system in drywalls it is a good sound insulator.
IT IS USED IN PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION AND FIREPROOFING AS CALCIUM
SILICATE BRICK OR IN ROOF TILES.
