Cemical Energy and ATP

1.    ATP is a molecule with three 

     phosphate groups attached 
     to the end 

2.    When ATP loses one of the 

     phosphates it releases energy for 
    cell functions

3.     Now it is ADP which is a molecule 

      with only two phosphates groups    
     attached

4.     Then energy is added 

    from the breakdown of glucose 

5.    The energy helps add a phosphate group back on making it

become an ATP again and the process starts over 
 
Synthesis of ATP

 occurs in mitochondria by cellular

respiration
 occurs in chloroplasts by photosynthesis

Consumption of ATP
ATP powers most energy-consuming
activities of cells, such as:
A. anabolic (synthesis) reactions, such as:
B. joining transfer RNAs to amino acids
for assembly into proteins

Ribonucleic acid, or RNA is one of the three

major biological macromolecules that are
essential for all known forms of life (along
with DNA and proteins). A central tenet of
molecular biology states that the flow of
genetic information in a cell is from DNA
through RNA to proteins: “DNA makes RNA
makes protein”
 C. synthesis of nucleotide triphosphates for
assembly into DNA and RNA

Nucleotide - the basic building block of

nucleic acids.

D. synthesis of polysaccharides
Polysaccharide- a polymer made of many
saccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds.
Cellulose, starches, and complex
carbohydrates, such as glycogen, are
common polysaccharides

Monosaccharides with the formula include

glucose, galactose and fructose, which are
sugars used by organisms for energy..

E. synthesis of fats

F. active transport of molecules and ions

 G. conduction of nerve impulses

H. maintenance of cell volume by osmosis

Osmosis - a process by which molecules of a

solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable
membrane from a less concentrated solution
into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing
the concentrations on each side of the
membrane

I. addition of phosphate groups

(phosphorylation) to different proteins
(e.g., to alter their activity in cell
signaling)

Phosphorylation is the addition of a

phosphate group (PO43−) to a
molecule.Phosphorylation and its
counterpart, dephosphorylation, turn many
protein enzymes on and off, thereby altering
their function and activity.
 J. muscle contraction

K. beating of cilia and flagella (including

sperm)
L. bioluminescence

Bioluminescence is the production and

emission of light by a living organism.
It occurs widely in marine vertebrates and
invertebrates, as well as in some fungi,
microorganisms including some
bioluminescent bacteria and terrestrial
invertebrates such as fireflies.

Extracellular ATP

In mammals, ATP also functions outside of

cells. ATP is released in the following
examples:
• from damaged cells to elicit inflammation
and pain
• from the carotid body to signal a shortage
of oxygen in the blood
• from taste receptor cells to trigger action
potentials in the sensory nerves leading back
to the brain.

• from the stretched wall of the urinary

bladder to signal when the bladder needs
emptying.

NOTE: In eukaryotic cells, the mitochondria

and chloroplasts are the organelles that
convert energy to other forms which cells can
use for their functions.

Function and Structure of the Mitochondria.

Mitochondria - are the sites of cellular

respiration, the metabolic process that uses
oxygen to drive the generation of ATP by
extracting energy from sugars,fats, and other
fuels.
Note: ATP fuels cellular processes by
breaking its high-energy chemical bonds.
Mitochondria are most plentiful in cells that
require significant amounts of energy to
function, such as liver and muscle cells.

The mitochondria has two membranes that

are similar in composition to the cell
membrane:
• Outer membrane—is a selectively
permeable membrane that surrounds the
mitochondria. It is the site of attachment for
the respiratory assembly of the electron
transport chain and ATP Synthase.

• Inner membrane—folds inward (called

cristae) to increase surfaces for cellular
metabolism. It contains ribosomes and the
DNA of the mitochondria. The inner
membrane creates two enclosed spaces within
the mitochondria:
• intermembrane space between the outer
membrane and the inner membrane; and
• matrix that is enclosed within the inner
membrane.

Structure and Functions of the Chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts - are found in plants and algae;

the sites of photosynthesis. This
process converts solar energy to chemical
energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to
drive the synthesis of organic compounds
such as sugars from carbon dioxide and
water.

The word chloroplast is derived from the

Greek word chloros which means ‘green’ and
plastes which means ‘the one who forms’.

These organelles conduct photosynthesis.

They absorb sunlight and convert it into
sugar molecules. They also produce free
energy stored in the form of ATP and
NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Phosphate) through photosynthesis.
Structure of the Chloroplast

• Outer membrane—This is a semi-porous

membrane and is permeable to small
molecules and ions which diffuse easily. The
outer membrane is not permeable to larger
proteins.

• Intermembrane Space—This is usually a

thin intermembrane space between the outer
and the inner membrane of the chloroplast.

• Inner membrane—The inner membrane of

the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma.
It regulates passage of materials in and out of
the chloroplast. In addition to the regulation
activity, fatty acids, lipids and carotenoids
are synthesized in the inner chloroplast
membrane.
• Stroma—This is an alkaline, aqueous fluid
that is protein-rich and is present within the
inner membrane of the chloroplast. It is the
space outside the thylakoid space. The
chloroplast DNA,
chloroplast ribosomes, thylakoid system,
starch granules, and other proteins are found
floating
around the stroma.

• Thylakoid System
The thylakoid system is suspended in the
stroma. It is a collection of membranous
sacks called
thylakoids. These are small sacks that are
interconnected. The membranes of these
thylakoids are the sites for the light reactions
of the photosynthesis to take place. The
chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids. The
thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as
grana. Each granum contains around 10-20
thylakoids.
The word thylakoid is derived from the
Greek word thylakos which means 'sack'.
Important protein complexes which carry out
the light reaction of photosynthesis are
embedded in themembranes of the
thylakoids.

EVALUATION (60 MINS)

Ask the learners to answer practice questions on the following electronic resources:
• http://www.mcqbiology.com/2013/03/multiple-choice-questions-on_25.html#.Vl7Uq3YrLrc
• http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/summer2004/samples02.htm
• http://www.tutorvista.com/content/science/science-i/fundamental-unit-life/question-answers-1.php
• http://www.buzzfeed.com/kellyoakes/the-mitochondria-is-the-powerhouse-of-the-cell#.fajAl0b6o
• http://global.oup.com/uk/orc/biosciences/cellbiology/wang/student/mcqs/ch10/
Possible responses to the homework (Source: Campbell et al, 10th Ed.):
• They have double membranes and are not part of the endomembrane system.
• Their shape is changeable.
• They are autonomous (somewhat independent) organelles that grow and occasionally pinch in two,
thereby reproducing themselves.
• They are mobile and move around the cell along tracks of the cytoskeleton, a structural network of the
cell.
• They contain ribosomes, as well as multiple circular DNA molecules associated with their inner
membranes. The DNA in these organelles programs the synthesis of some organelle proteins on
ribosomes that have been synthesized and assembled there as well.
2. Give out the homework for next meeting.
What are the characteristics shared by these two energy transforming organelles?
Instruct the learners to write an essay on probable reasons for these the shared characteristics of the
mitochondria and the chloroplast. Learners shall submit a handwritten essay on the Endosymbiotic
Theory
and how it explains the similarity between the mitochondria and chloroplast