The two types of membranous organelles
GROUP 4
MEMBERS:
Aera Faith Depetillo
Rosever Rio Demaisip
Myra Amethyst Opina
Gabrielle Nicole Benedicto
Daves Alido
Kurt Ydan Gerada
Nahj Christian Dalde
Vinz IIisan
BIOENERGETICS AND THE PROCESS OF
EVOLUTION
THE CELL AND ITS ENERGY
How do cells obtain energy? Energy and
Metabolism: Bioenergetics is the study of
energy flow in living systems, particularly in
cells. Cells perform chemical reactions,
some of which release energy while others
require energy. Like how living organisms
need food to maintain their energy, cells
must produce energy to support their various
chemical reactions. The collective term for
all these cellular reactions, whether they
consume or produce energy, is referred to as
cell metabolism.
PARTS OF THE CELL
The cell membrane, which encloses the cell
and regulates the passage of substances in
and out of the cell. The nucleus, which
contains the genetic material (DNA) and
controls the cell's activities. The cytoplasm,
which is the fluid-filled space between the
cell membrane and the nucleus, where
various organelles are located. The
organelles, which are specialized structures
that perform specific functions for the cell,
such as energy production, protein synthesis,
and waste disposal.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE OF
PLANT SELL AND ANIMAL CELLS
Plant cells have a cell wall that provides
structure and support, while animal cells do
not
Plant cells have a large central vacuole that
stores nutrients and waste, while animal
cells have smaller or no vacuoles
SPECIALIZED CELL ORGANELLES
Organelle, any of the specialized structures
within a cell that perform a specific function
(e.g., mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum). Organelles in unicellular
organisms are the equivalent of organs in
multicellular organisms.
that specialize in energy conversion are1:
Chloroplasts: use solar energy to make
carbohydrates by using photosynthesis.
Mitochondria: break down carbohydrates to
produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP
supplies the energy the cell needs to do
work.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
photo meaning ''light'' and synthesis
meaning "to make" Photosynthesis is the
process by which plants use sunlight, water,
and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and
energy in the form of sugar.
PHOTOSYNYHRSIS SONG
https://youtu.be/m2XzeJQOY4g
AUTOTROPH
An autotroph is an organism that can
produce its own food using light, water,
carbon dioxide, or other chemicals. Because
autotrophs produce their own food, they are
sometimes called producers.
Photosynthesis takes place in...
CHLOROPLAST
A chloroplast is an organelle within the cells
of plants and certain algae that is the site of
photosynthesis, which is the process by
which energy from the Sun is converted into
chemical energy for growth also contain the
pigment chlophyll that absorve light.
THYLAKOID
Thylakoids are interconnected disc-like sacs
of the internal membrane system of the
chloroplast. They are found suspended in the
stroma the thylakoids are arranged in tight
stacks called grana (singular granum)
STROMA
The stroma is the part of the chloroplast
where the ingredients for photosynthesis
(carbon dioxide, light, water) are mixed
together. This mixture is turned into oxygen
and sugar (food) for the plant.
GRANUM
the thylakoids are arranged in tight stacks
called grana (singular granum)
Photosynthesis involves carbon dioxide and
water reacting with light energy to produce
glucose and oxygen.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS STAGES
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION
•requires photons from light
•takes place in between thylakoids
•uses light and water to produce oxygen and 2
energy carrying molecules:
a. ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) - energy
currency of the coll
b. NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate hydrogen)
LIGHT-IDEPENDENT REACTIONS
•also known as the calvin cycle
•does not require light
•takes place in the stroma
•uses carbon dioxide and NADPH to produce
sugar
Cellular Respiration
What is cellular respiration? Cellular
respiration is a metabolic pathway that uses
glucose to produce adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), an organic compound the body can
use for energy.
*One molecule of glucose can produce a net
of 30-32 ATP.
What is the purpose of cellular
respiration?
Cellular respiration is used to generate
usable ATP energy in order to support many
other reactions in the body. ATP is
particularly important for energetically
unfavorable reactions that would otherwise
not occur without an energy input.
What are the main steps of cellular
respiration?
There are three main steps of cellular
respiration:
Glycolysis;
The citric acid (TCA) or the Krebs cycle;
And the electron transport chain, where
oxidative phosphorylation occurs.
The TCA cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation require oxygen, while
glycolysis can occur in anaerobic conditions.
Where does cellular respiration take
place?
Cellular respiration takes place in the
cytoplasm and mitochondria of each cell of
the body.
Glycolysis occurs inside the cytoplasm,
while the TCA cycle occurs inside the
matrix of the mitochondria.
Meanwhile, oxidative phosphorylation
occurs on the inner mitochondrial
membrane, with protons diffusing across
into the membrane and later pumped back
into the matrix.
What are the reactants of cellular
respiration?
The reactants of cellular respiration are
oxygen and sugar, which are the products of
photosynthesis. Cellular respiration occurs
in plant and animal cells. Plants use sunlight
during photosynthesis to convert energy
from the sun in order to manufacture sugar
and the chemical energy ATP and to release
oxygen.
What are the products of cellular
respiration?
Energy (or ATP)
Carbon dioxide
Water
The products of respiration or breathing,
come from the reactions of cellular
respiration. In animals, carbon dioxide is
transported back to the lungs through the
blood and exhaled through exhalation.
What goes in the TCA or Krebs Cycle
The Krebs Cycle Memory Aid
Anaerobic respiration
 With no oxygen oxidative
phosphorylation and Krebs cycle
cannot take place. (Cells without
mitochondria cannot respire
aerobically - e.g. red blood cells)
 In anaerobic respiration glycolysis
takes place as usual yielding
pyruvate and a small amount of
ATP.
 If pyruvate levels were allowed to
build up it stop glycolysis and inhibit
ATP production, also the reduced
NAD produced must be oxidised
back or else the cell would run out of
it again stopping - ATP production.
Anaerobic respiration
Two solutions to this problem: Alcoholic
fermentation - used by fungi and plants
Lactic fermentation - used by animals
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
FOSSIL RECORD`S
By studying the fossil record,experts found
out the existence of animals that lived over
millons of years.fossil are the remains of
living things that were mineralized over a
long priod of time this remains could
bones,imprints on rock,and a burrow or
tunnel of ancient worms.Most of the fossil
excavated are bones,seeds,imprints of plants
and shells,and pollen grains.scientists use
radioactive dating to measure the age of the
fossil or the age of the rock where the fossils
are found .
Geographic Distribution
the Geographic distribution is the natural
arrangement of various species or taxa of
living organisms in thier appropriate habitats
on the Earth . the mainly of three types of
geographic distribution are cosmopolitan
,endemic and disjunct distribution.
Comparative Anatomy
the comparative study of the body structures
of different species of animals in order to
understand the adaptive changes they have
undergone in the course of evolution from
common ancestors.what seems to be entirely
different organisms like man,whale,bat,and
dog, actually have similar anatomical
features.the arm of man,the lateral fin of the
whale ,the wing of bat and the leeg of dog
are similar in structure although their
functions.
The Common traits in embaryo
the early developmental stage of an animal
while it is in the egg or within the uterus of
the mother. In humans the term is applied to
the unborn child until the end of the seventh
week following conception; from the eighth
week the unborn child is called a fetus.
GENETIC CHANGES
mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid
sequence of the genome of an organism,
virus, or extrachromosomal DNA. Viral
genomes contain either DNA or RNA.
Mutations result from errors during DNA or
viral replication, mitosis, or meiosis or other
types of damage to DNA (such as
pyrimidine dimers caused by exposure to
ultraviolet radiation), which then may
undergo error-prone repair (especially
microhomology- mediated end joining) cause
an error during other forms of repair, or
cause an error during replication (translesion
synthesis). Mutations may also result from
insertion or deletion of segments of DNA
due to mobile genetic elements.
Adaptive Evolution
What is Adaptive Evolution?
Adaptive evolution is the process by which a
population of organisms undergoes genetic
changes over generations, leading to the
development and proliferation of traits that
enhance the individuals' ability to survive
and reproduce in their specific environment.
These advantageous traits, which are often a
result of natural selection, become more
common in the population, while less
beneficial traits may decrease in frequency.
Adaptive evolution is a fundamental
mechanism of evolution that enables species
to better adapt to their changing
surroundings and is essential for the
diversity and adaptation of life on Earth.
Importance of adaptive evolution in
biology
Adaptive evolution is a cornerstone of
biology, as it represents the mechanism
through which species evolve and adapt to
their changing environments over time. It's a
fundamental process for the survival and
diversification of life on Earth. This
continual adaptation allows organisms to
exploit new ecological niches, resist
diseases, and respond to environmental
challenges, ultimately driving the
remarkable diversity and complexity of life
we observe today.
What is evolution?
Evolution is the process by which species of
organisms change over time through the
gradual accumulation of genetic variations.
This change is driven by mechanisms like
natural selection, genetic mutation, and
genetic drift. Charles Darwin was a British
naturalist who is famously known for his
theory of evolution by natural selection. In
his seminal work, "On the Origin of
Species" published in 1859, Darwin
proposed that species evolve over
generations due to the differential survival
and reproduction of individuals with
advantageous traits. This theory
revolutionized our understanding of the
diversity of life on Earth and is a
fundamental concept in biology.
Here are some key facts about adaptive
evolution:
•Natural Selection: Adaptive evolution is
primarily driven by natural selection, a
process proposed by Charles Darwin. In
natural selection, organisms with traits that
provide an advantage in a particular
environment are more likely to survive,
reproduce, and pass on their advantageous
traits to the next generation.
•Genetic Variation: For adaptive evolution
to occur, there must be genetic variation
within a population. This variation arises
from mutations, genetic recombination, and
other sources.
•Environmental Pressure: Environmental
factors, such as changes in climate, habitat,
or the presence of predators, create selective
pressures. Organisms with traits that enable
them to better adapt to these pressures have
a higher chance of survival and
reproduction.
•Differential Reproduction: Organismswith
advantageous traits are more likely to
reproduce and pass on those traits to their
offspring. This leads to an increase in the
frequency of those traits within the
population.
Evidence of Adaptive Evolution
Fossil Records: Fossils show the gradual
changes in species' physical characteristics
over millions of years, reflecting adaptations
to changing conditions. Comparative
Anatomy: Similarities and differences in the
anatomy of different species reveal
adaptations to their respective environments
and lifestyles.
Molecular Biology: Genetic and molecular
studies reveal changes in DNA sequences
over time, indicating how organisms have
adapted to different ecological niches.
Convergent Evolution
Convergent evolution is the process by
which unrelated or distantly related
organisms evolve similar body forms,
coloration, organs, and adaptations.
DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
Divergent Evolution is when a species diverges
over time into two different species, resulting in
a species becoming less like the original one.
Live in different ways than the common
ancestor.
Classification based on evolutionary
history
What isclassification based on evolutionary
history?
Classification based on evolutionary history,
also known as phylogenetic classification, is
a method of organizing and categorizing
organisms based on their evolutionary
relationships. This approach utilizes the
principles of speciation and common
ancestry to determine the classification of
different species.
1. Phylogenetic Trees- classify organisms
based on their evolutionary history,
scientists construct phylogenetic trees,
which are diagrams that show the
relationships between different species.
These trees branching patterns represent the
divergence of species from common
ancestors.
2. Taxonomy- involves naming, defining,
and classifying organisms whether it is alive
or extinct. Classification based on
evolutionary history is an integral part of
taxonomy, and it helps to establish a
hierarchical system for organizing
organisms into groups, or taxonomic ranks.
3. Phylogenetic Inference- Scientists use
various methods to infer evolutionary
relationships between species. These
methods include analyzing morphological
traits, DNA sequences, and other genetic
information. By comparing these
characteristics across species, scientists can
determine the degree of relatedness.
4. Cladistics - is a method of classifying
organisms based on shared characteristics,
known as "clades." A clade is a group of
organisms that includes an ancestor and all
of its descendants. This approach focuses on
identifying and analyzing shared derived
characteristics, known as synapomorphies,
to establish evolutionary relationships.
5. Homology-Classification based on
evolutionary history relies heavily on the
concept of homology. Homologous
structures are similar in different species
because they are inherited from a common
ancestor, indicating a close evolutionary
relationship. These homologous
characteristics are used to establish
groupings and relationships between species
How did populations of organisms change
over time?
Evolution in the population is brought about
by different agents. These are the genetic
drift, gene flow, mutations, nonrandom
mating, and natural selection. Genetic drift
is a change in the gene pool of a population
due to chance. There is an unpredictable
fluctuation in frequency of alleles from one
generation to another. Examples of genetic
drift are the bottleneck effect and the founder
effect.
Bottleneck effect
The bottleneck effect occurs when there is a
great reduction in size of populations due to
environmental factors such as forest fires,
earthquakes, and floods. Reduction of
genetic variation also occurs after events
such as low genetic diversity of population
has passed on from generation to generation
with little or slow increase of variation due
to mutation. Low genetic variation reduces
the chance of a population to have a
representative that would adapt in a
changing environment. On the contrary,
depending on the kind of organisms in the
bottleneck, the survivor may have been the
most adaptive individual; thus, improving
the traits within the population gene pool.
continuously being added to the population
through the process of mutation. This
process increases the variety of organisms.
All individuals choose their own mates for a
specific reason. The choosing of a mate
eliminates the less fit individuals. Animal
breeders use nonrandom selection of mate
for the animals they want to breed. Mostly,
they choose animals with advantageous
traits and breed them to increase the
frequency of animal offspring having their
chosen desirable traits. Nonrandom mating
causes evolution because it disrupts the
natural pool of gene variations.
References:
https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/a
daptive-
evolution#:~:text=Adaptive%20evolution%
20pertains%20to%20evolutionary,to%20fit
%20to%20an%20environment.
https://animaldiversity.org/animal_names/ph
ylogeny_ranks/
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/re
ading-a-phylogenetic-tree-the- meaning-of-
41956#:~:text=A%20phylogenetic%20tree
%2C%20also%20known,genes%20from%2
0a%20common%20ancestor.
https://www.cbd.int/gti/taxonomy.shtml

Founder effect

The founder effect happens when a small

population of organisms breaks away from
the larger group to colonize a new area. As a
result, the population may not always
represent the diversity of their species. The
loss of genetic variations in the small
population happens.

Gene flow is defined as the movement of

alleles into or out of a population. It occurs
when there is migration of fertile individuals
between populations. This tends to increase
the gene diversity in the populations.
Mutation occurs when there is a change in
genetic makeup, during the DNA replication
caused by radiation or other environmental
stressors. New variants of genes are