MECHANICS OF METAL

CUTTING
What is Machining ?

Machining is a process designed to change the size, shape, and surface of a

material through removal of materials that could be achieved by straining the
material to fracture.
MECHANISM: Metal ahead of the cutting tool is compressed. This results in
the deformation or elongation of the crystal structure — resulting in a shearing
of the metal.

Why Machining ?
Benefits Limitations
 Excellent dimensional tolerances Material waste
 External and internal geometrical Time consuming
features Energy, capital and labor
 Surface finish intensive
 Removal of heat treat distortion
 Economical for small quantities
Introduction: History of Metal Cutting

 Early research in metal cutting

 Cocquilhat (1851)
measured the work required to remove a given volume of material in drilling

 Time (1870) and Tresca (1873)

the first attempts to explain how chips are formed

 Hartig (1873)
tabulated the work required in cutting metals

 Mallock (1881)
suggested correctly that the cutting process was basically one of shearing the work material to
form the chip and emphasized the importance of the effect of friction occurring on the cutting-tool
face as the chip was removed.
Introduction: History of Metal Cutting

 Taylor (1906)
reported the results of 26 years of research investigations
and experience in his paper
“On the Art of Cutting Metals” (ASME)
• optimum cutting conditions (the effect of tool material
and cutting conditions on tool life) tool-life equation
n
v.t = c
• HSS tools (Taylor-White tools for high speed steel
cutting)
• tool-life / tool-wear
• cutting fluids
Theory: Rake Angle

Rake angle: It is the angle that the tool makes with the workpiece normal.

Positive Rake Neutral Rake Negative Rake

Cutter Cutter Cutter

Velocity Velocity Velocity
+γne
-γne

Workpiece Workpiece Workpiece

Theory: Rake Angle

► Positive rake angles ► Negative rake angles

 Reduced cutting forces  Initial shock of work to tool is
 Smaller deflection of work, tool on the face of the tool and not
holder, and machine on the point or edge. This
 Considered by some to be the most prolongs the life of the tool.
efficient way to cut metal  Higher cutting speeds/feeds
 Creates large shear angle, reduced can be employed
friction and heat
 Allows chip to move freely up the
chip-tool zone
 Generally used for continuous cuts on
ductile materials which are not too hard or
brittle
Cutting process: Removal of the material from the surface of the workpiece (by
producing chips)

► Orthogonal cutting: (2D case)

The cutting edge of the wedge-shaped
tool is perpendicular to the line of tool
travel, and only a single, straight cutting
edge is active.
tool

chip

workpiece
Terms and Definitions: Orthogonal Cutting

 Cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of relative work-tool motion

 2 – D problem
Orthogonal Cutting

FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional

cutting process, or orthogonal cutting. (a) Orthogonal
cutting with a well-defined shear plane, also known as
the Merchant model; (b) Orthogonal cutting without a
well-defined shear plane.
Introduction: Terms and Definitions

► Oblique cutting: (general case)

A single, straight cutting edge of the
wedge shaped tool is inclined in the
direction of tool travel.
chip flow angle

tool
cutting edge
inclination
chip

workpiece
Terms and Definitions: Oblique Cutting

 General case
 There is an angle between cutting edge and direction of workpiece motion
 Oblique Cutting

FIGURE 8.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view, showing
the inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination angles.
Turning operation: The workpiece is rotated and a cutting tool removes a layer of
material as it moves to the left
ac

WORKPIECE
Motion of chip

ao
Motion of
ac : undeformed chip thickness workpiece γne
chip (cutting) ratio
ao : (deformed) chip thickness rc= ac / ao
γne : working normal rake angle
TOOL
αne : working normal clearance

αne
Chip: Removed material that is separated from the parent material by fracture.

Half turn or “Perfect”

chip
Cutting tool:
There are 3 important parameters in turning operation:

 Cutting speed
 Depth of cut
 Feed rate

Cutting Speed: Cutting speed refers to the relative surface speed

between tool and work,

Depth of Cut: The depth of cut relates to the depth the tool
cutting edge engages the work.

Feed Rate: The feed rate for turning is the axial advance of the
tool along the work for each revolution of the work.
The choice of these cutting conditions will affect
• the productivity of the machining operation;
• the life of the cutting tool;
• the surface finish of the workpiece;
• the heat generated in the cutting operation (which in turn
affects the life of the tool and the surface integrity of the
machined parts);
• the power consumption.
In general, 2 subsequent cutting operations take place

Roughing Cuts:
GOAL: maximum stock removal in minimum time with
minor consideration given to tool life and surface
finish.

Finishing Cuts:
GOAL: achievement of the desired shape with required
surface finish
 Tool Material Properties

Work Material Properties Machine Tool

Cutting Conditions CHIP FORMATION Chip Control Devices

Cutting Fluids Tool Geometry

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHIP FORMATION PROCESS

Theory: Chip Formation

The chip forming process occurs by a mechanism called plastic deformation.

This deformation can be visualized as shearing. The crystals of the metal
elongate through an action of slipping or shearing, which takes place within the
crystals and between adjacent crystals.
Chip formation affects

 the surface finish,

 cutting forces,

 temperature,

 tool life, and

 dimensional tolerance.
A chip consists of two sides :
1. the side in contact with the tool called shiny side (flat, uniform) due to
frictional effects,
2. the other side is the free workpiece surface that has a jagged appearance
due to shear.

Types of chips:

1) Continuous Chip
2) Continuous with Build-up Edge (BUE)
3) Discontinuous (Segmented) Chip
Theory: Chip Formation

Continuous Chip:
• Continuous chips are usually formed at high rake
angles and/or high cutting speeds in ductile
materials e.g low carbon steel

• A good surface finish is generally produced.

• Continuous chips are not always desirable,

particularly in automated machine tools, as they
tend to get tangled around the tool and the
operation has to be stopped to clear away the
chips.

• Remedy: Use Chip-breakers

Theory: Chip Formation
Continuous with Build-up Edge (BUE):
• BUE forms when there is a chemical affinity between
workpiece and the tool. Favorable growth conditions such as
high strain-hardening, low speed, large depth of cut, low
rake angle, and high temperature

• BUE consists of layers of material from the workpiece that

are gradually deposited on the tool. BUE then becomes
unstable and eventually breaks up, but forms again. The
process is repeated continuously. BUE material is carried
away on the tool side of the chip the rest is deposited
randomly on the workpiece surface.

• Thin BUE helps to improve the tool life but results in poor
surface finish
• Remedy: 1) Increase the rake angle but decrease the depth of cut.
2) Use Cutting fluids to reduce friction
Discontinuous (Segmented) Chip:
• Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be firmly or loosely
attached to each other

• These chips occur when machining hard brittle materials such as cast
iron at low rake angles (large depths of cut).

• Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane before any tangible
plastic flow occurs

• Because of the discontinuous nature of the chips, forces vary

continually leading to vibrations and chatter in the machine tool with
the end results of poor surface finish and loose tolerances.

• Remedy: 1) Increase the rake angle but decrease the depth

of cut.
2) Use moderate cutting speeds
3) Use Cutting fluids to reduce friction
 Chip Formation

FIGURE 8.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. (b)
Velocity diagram in the cutting zone.

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan 2006

Theory: Forces

FORCES in
TURNING

Tangential This acts in a direction tangential to the

(Cutting) Force revolving workpiece and represents the
resistance to the rotation of the workpiece.

Longitudinal Longitudinal force acts in the direction parallel

(Thrust-Feed) to the axis of the work and represents the
Force resistance to the longitudinal feed of the tool.

Radial force acts in a radial direction from the

Radial (Passive) center line of the workpiece.
Force

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan 2006

Theory: Forces

Ft
β Fns
Fn
Fr Fc
Fs
Fr : resultant tool force Ff
Fc : cutting force
Ft : thrust force
Fs : shear force on shear WORKPIECE TOOL
plane
Fns: normal force on shear
plane
Ff : frictional force on tool
face
Fn : normal force on tool β: mean angle of
face friction
Theory: Forces

TOOL

Fs
Fr : resultant tool force
Fc : cutting force Fns Fc
Ft : thrust force Ft
Fr Ff WORKPIECE
Fs : shear force on shear
plane β
Fns: normal force on shear
plane
Fn
Ff : frictional force on tool
face
F : normal force on tool
n β: mean angle of
face friction
Theory: Forces

INFLUENCE OF CUTTING PARAMETERS ON THE

CUTTING FORCES
 SPECIFIC CUTTING ENERGY
The rate of energy consumption during machining is:
𝑃𝑚 = 𝐹𝑐 𝑉
Specific cutting energy (energy consumed per unit volume of
material removed), ps is
𝑃𝑚 𝐹𝑐
𝑝𝑠 = =
𝑍𝑤 𝐴𝑐
where:
Pm = Power consumed
Fc = Cutting force
V = Cutting speed
Zw = Material removal rate
Ac = Undeformed chip cross section area
Specific Cutting Energy: A parameter giving an indication of the efficiency of the
process, independent of cutting speed, defined as the energy consumed per unit
volume of removed metal

Specific energy
Material W-s/mm3
Aluminum alloys 0.4–1.1
Cast irons 1.6–5.5
Copper alloys 1.4–3.3
High-temperature alloys 3.3–8.5
Magnesium alloys 0.4–0.6
Nickel alloys 4.9–6.8
Refractory alloys 3.8–9.6
Stainless steels 3.0–5.2
Steels 2.7–9.3
Titanium alloys 3.0–4.1

APPROXIMATE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS IN CUTTING OPERATIONS

 PLOWING FORCE AND THE “SIZE EFFECT”
Plowing force (Fp) is force acting on the tool edge and work-tool
interface region due to the deformation of tool edge. Fp is almost
independent of ac.
Fr= Fp + F’r
The existence of Fp results important effect called “Size Effect” which
refers to increase Ps in at low values of ac.

Effect of maximum undeformed chip thickness acmax on specific cutting energy Ps during slab milling
where the material is steel, 57 ton/in2.
THE APPARENT MEAN SHEAR STRENGTH
OF THE WORK MATERIAL
Theory: Shear Plane

φ
Shear
plane

workpiece
1 chip 1: Primary zone
structure
structure 2: Secondary
3 2 zone
3: Tertiary zone

φ : shear angle
TOOL
The length of the shear plane is given by
𝑎𝑐 𝑎0
𝑙𝑠 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ cos(∅ − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )

𝑎𝑐
cos ∅ − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑎0
𝑎𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾𝑛𝑒
𝑎0
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 𝑎𝑐
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾𝑛𝑒
𝑎0

Φ : Shear angle
ac : Undeformed Chip Thickness
ao : Chip Thickness
ne: Working Normal Rake Angle

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan 2006

Type equation here.THE APPARENT MEAN SHEAR STRENGTH
OF THE WORK MATERIAL

𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾𝑛𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ =
1 − 𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾𝑛𝑒

Φ : Shear angle
rc : Cutting Ratio(given by ac / ao)
ne: Working Normal Rake Angle
 THE APPARENT MEAN SHEAR STRENGTH OF THE WORK MATERIAL

The force Fs required to shear the work material may be expressed in terms
of cutting ( Fc ) and thrust( Ft ) force

𝐹𝑠 =𝐹𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − 𝐹𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

The area of shear As is given by

𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑠 =
∅

and thus the apparent shear strength of the material s on the shear
plane may be obtained:

𝐹𝑆 𝐹𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − 𝐹𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

𝜏𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑐

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan 2006

s is constant over a wide range of cutting condition for a given work
material. However, at small feeds (f), s increases with a decrease in feed
(or ac). This is due to the effect of plowing force. Therefore, the force
required to remove the chip and acting on the tool face (F’r) is obtained;

F’r= Fr – Fp

𝐹′𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − 𝐹′𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

𝜏′𝑠 =
𝐴𝑐

F’c= Cutting component of F’r

F’t= Thrust component of F’r
’s = Constant property of the work material

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan 2006

 PLOWING FORCE AND THE “SIZE EFFECT”
Plowing force (Fp) is force acting on the tool edge and work-tool
interface region due to the deformation of tool edge. Fp is almost
independent of ac.
Fr= Fp + F’r

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan 2006

s tend to be constant because
metals deform under constant stress
at high strain rates. In metal cutting
strain rate is high (103 to 105 s-1). s
is constant if calculated by
considering Fr
 CHIP THICKNESS

ao (mean friction high cutting inefficient)

bad

ao (mean friction low cutting efficient)

good
THEORY OF ERNST AND MERCHANT
Ernst and Merchant's theory
suggests that  is formed up in
such a way that the energy
required to shear the material
will be minimum.
 Fs = Fr cos ( +  - ne)

𝜏𝑠 𝐴𝑐
𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏𝑠 𝐴𝑠 =
sin ∅

where
s = shear strength of the material on the shear plane
As = Area of the shear plane
Ac = Area of the uncut chip
= Mean angle of the friction between chip and tool(given by arctan (Ft
/ Fn ))
ne = Working Normal Rake Angle
 𝜏𝑠 𝐴𝑐 1
𝐹𝑟 =
sin ∅ cos(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )

𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑟 cos(𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )

𝜏𝑠 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )
𝐹𝑐 =
sin ∅ cos(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )
Equation may now be differentiated with respect to  and equated to zero to
find the value of  for which Fc is a minimum. The required value is given by
 𝜋
2∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 =
2
The results did not agree with experimental results. When
differentiating Fc it is assumed that s independent of .
Merchant reconsidered the assumption and he included his new
assumption in his analysis:

s = so + k ss
𝐹𝑛𝑠 = 𝐹𝑟 sin(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )

𝜎𝑠 𝐴𝑐
𝐹𝑛𝑠 = 𝜎𝑠 𝐴𝑠 =
sin ∅

𝜎𝑠 sin ∅
𝜎𝑠 = 𝐹𝑟 sin(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )
𝐴𝑐

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan

Combination of these equations:

𝜏𝑠 = 𝜎𝑠 cot(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan

 𝜏𝑠𝑜
𝜏𝑠 =
1 − tan(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )
This equation shows that s =f(, , ne). Finally, a new equation for Fc in terms of .

𝜏𝑠𝑜 𝐴𝑐 cos(𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )

𝐹𝑐 =
sin ∅ cos( ∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 ) 1 − 𝑘 tan(∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 )

It is now assumed that k and so are constant for the particular work material and
that Ac and ne are constant for the cutting operation.

2∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶
Where C is given by arctan k and is a constant for the work material.

Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan

 THEORY OF LEE AND SHAFFER

The theory of Lee and Shaffer was

the result of an attempt to apply the
plasticity theory to the problem of
orthogonal metal cutting.
 THEORY OF LEE AND SHAFFER
In dealing with problems using the plasticity theory, it is necessary to
make certain assumptions regarding the behavior of the work material
under stress as follows:

1.The material is rigid plastic, which means that the elastic strain is
negligible during deformation and that once the yield point is exceeded;
deformation takes place at constant stress.

2.The behavior of the material is independent of the rate of deformation.

3.The effects of temperature increase during deformation are neglected.

4. The inertia effects resulting from acceleration of the material during

deformation are neglected
THEORY OF LEE AND SHAFFER

𝜋
∅ + 𝛽 − 𝛾𝑛𝑒 =
4
 Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Shear-Angle
Relationship for Orthogonal Metal Cutting

Fig.16 Comparison of theoretical and experimental shear-angle relationship for orthogonal metal
cutting, where Φ=Shear angle, ne=Working Normal Rake Angle, =Mean friction angle on tool face
Theory: Theories

Authors Proposed Geometry


Ernst&Merchant (USA 1941)
2     ne 
2
Merchant (USA 1945) 2     ne  C


Stabler (Scotland 1951)
2  2    ne 
2
Lee&Schaffer (USA 1951) 
     ne 
2

tan 1  2    2    ne 
Hucks (Germany 1951)
2

cot 1  K   tan 1  2    2    ne 
Hucks (Germany 1951)
2
Shaw&Cook&Finnie (USA 1953) 
     ne   ' 
4
FRICTION IN METAL CUTTING

Sliding Sticking
friction friction
The real area of contract Ar is only a small friction of the apparent contact area
Aa and is given by
𝐹𝑛
𝐴𝑟 =
𝜎𝑦
Where Fn is the normal force and σy is the yield pressure of the softer metal. The
total friction Ff is therefore given by

𝐹𝑓 = 𝜏𝑓 𝐴𝑟
Where τf is the shear strength of the softer metal.

𝐹𝑓 𝜏𝑓
𝜇= =
𝐹𝑛 𝜎𝑦
Theory: Friction in Metal Cutting
Model of Chip-Tool Friction in Orthogonal Cutting
Theory: Friction in Metal Cutting

Distribution of Normal and Shear Stress on the Toolface (Zorev, 1963)

TOOLFACE STRESS DISTRIBUTION (ZOREV’S MODEL)

It is assumed that the normal stress distribution on the tool
face could be represented by the expression
𝑦
𝑥
𝜏𝑓 = 𝜇 𝜎𝑓 = 𝜇 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑙𝑓
𝜎𝑓 = 𝑞 𝑥 𝑦
The maximum normal stress sfmax occurs when x equal lf,
and therefore

𝑦
𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑞𝑙𝑓

−𝑦
𝑞 = 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑙𝑓
Prof. Dr. Ömer Anlağan 2006
 Combining the last two equation:

𝑦
𝑥
𝜎𝑓 = 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑙𝑓
In the sliding region, the distribution of shear stress f from x = 0 to x = lf - lst
is given by

𝑦
𝑥
𝜏𝑓 = 𝜇 𝜎𝑓 = 𝜇 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑙𝑓
In the sticking region, the shear stress becomes a maximum, st, and therefore
from x = lf - lst to x = lf,

f =st
Integrating the previous expression to find the normal force Fn acting on the tool
face gives

𝑙𝑓 𝑦
𝑥
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑎𝑤 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑙𝑓
 𝑎𝑤 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑙𝑓
𝐹𝑛 =
1+𝑦

The friction force Ff on the tool face is give by

(1+𝑦)
𝜇 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑤 𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑠𝑡
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑤 𝑙𝑠𝑡 + 𝑦
𝑙𝑓 (1 + 𝑦)
 𝑦
𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑠𝑡
𝜇 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑠𝑡
𝑙𝑓

𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑤 𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑠𝑡
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑤 𝑙𝑠𝑡 +
(1 + 𝑦)

𝐹𝑓 𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑠𝑡

𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = = = 1+𝑦
𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑙𝑓
 𝐹𝑛 𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑣 = =
𝑎𝑤 𝑙𝑓 1 + 𝑦

𝜎𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 + 𝑦 𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑣