Chapter 21:

Theory of Metal Machining

Rizwan M. Gul
NWFP UET

Page 1
 THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

• Overview of Machining Technology

• Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
• Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
• Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
• Cutting Temperature

Page 2
 Material Removal Processes

• A family of shaping operations, the common feature

of which is removal of material from a starting
workpart so the remaining part has the desired shape
• Categories:
 Machining – mechanical material removal by a
sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
 Abrasive processes – mechanical material
removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
 Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material

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 Machining
• A sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to
leave the desired part shape
• Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
• As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed

Figure 21.2 - (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)

tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a)
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 Why Machining is Important?

The industrial revolution and the growth of the manufacturing

based economies of the world can be traced to the
development of various machining operations
• Variety of work materials can be machined
 Most frequently applied to metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometry features
possible, such as:
 Screw threads
 Accurate round holes
 Very straight edges and surfaces
• Good dimensional accuracy (Tolerances 0.025 mm)
• Excellent surface finish (Roughness less than 0.4 microns)
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 Disadvantages with Machining

• Wasteful of material
 Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
• Time consuming
 A machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming

Page 6
Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence

• Generally performed after other manufacturing

processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing
 Other processes create the general shape of the
starting workpart
 Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create

Page 7
 Machining Technology
• Machining is not just one process; it is group of
processes
• All the processes use a cutting tool to form a chip that
is removed from the workpart
• Relative motion is required between the tool and
work
• This relative motion is achieved by means of a
primary motion called the speed and a secondary
motion called the feed
• The shape of the tool and its penetration into the
work surface, combined with these motions,
produces the desired shape of the resulting work
surface

Page 8
 Machining Operations
• There are many kinds of machining operations, each
of which is capable of generating a certain part
geometry and surface texture
• Most important machining operations:
 Turning
 Drilling
 Milling
• Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planing
 Broaching
 Sawing
Page 9
 Turning
• Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
• The speed motion is provided by the rotating work
part and feed motion is given to the tool

Figure 21.3 (a) turning

Page 10
 Drilling
• Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) that has two cutting edges

(b) drilling

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 Milling
• Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly relative to
work to generate plane or straight surface
• The speed motion is provided by the rotating cutter while the
direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool axis of
rotation
• Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

Figure 21.3 - (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling

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 Cutting Tool Classification
A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges with
many angles e.g. rake angle, relief angle etc.
The two basic types of cutting tools are:
1. Single-Point Tools
 One cutting edge
 Turning uses single point tools
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work usually achieved by
rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting
edge tools.

Page 13
Figure 21.4 - (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges

Page 14
 Cutting Conditions in Machining

• Relative motion is required between tool and work to

perform a machining operation
• The three dimensions of a machining process:
 Cutting speed v – primary motion
 Feed f – secondary motion
 Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below original
work surface
• V, f & d are collectively called as cutting conditions
• For certain operations, material removal rate can be
found as
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut

Page 15
 Cutting Conditions for Turning

Figure 21.5 - Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning
operation

Page 16
 Roughing vs. Finishing in Machining
Machining operations usually divide in two categories,
distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions
• In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two finishing
cuts
• Roughing - removes large amounts of material from
the starting workpart
 Creates shape close to desired geometry, but
leaves some material for finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds
• Finishing - completes part geometry
 Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
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 Machine Tools
• A power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding
• Functions in machining:
 Holds workpart
 Positions tool relative to work
 Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that
have been set
• The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming operations
• Machine tools are operated by human operators or
numerical controls

Page 18
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
• A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately
• Although an actual machining process is three-dimensional,
the orthogonal model has only two dimensions that play
active role in the analysis

Page 19
 Orthogonal Cutting Model (Contd.)

• Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the

cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of the cutting
speed
• As tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by
shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane,
which is oriented at an angle  with the surface of the
work
• Along the shear plane the material is plastically deformed,
and at the sharp cutting edge of the tool failure of the
material occur, resulting in separation of the chip from the
parent material
• The tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of
geometry, rake angle () and clearance angle

Page 20
 Chip Thickness Ratio
• The position of the cutting tool below the original work
surface corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior
to the chip formation to
• As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its
thickness is increased to tc
t
r o
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio or chip ratio;
to = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
and tc = chip thickness after separation
• Chip thickness after cut is always greater than before,
so chip ratio is always less than 1.0

Page 21
 Determining Shear Plane Angle

• Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal

model, the shear plane angle  can be determined
as:
ls sin 
r
ls cos(   )

r cos 
tan  
1  r sin

where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

Page 22
Figure 21.7 - Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation
depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear
strain triangle used to derive strain equation

Page 23
 Shear Strain

• Shear strain in machining can be computed from the

following equation, based on the preceding parallel
plate model:
AC AD  DC
 
BD BD

 = tan( - ) + cot 
where  = shear strain,  = shear plane angle, and 
= rake angle of cutting tool

Page 24
 Actual Chip Formation

Figure 21.8 - More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone
rather than shear plane (the thickness is few thousands of an inch). Also
shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction
Page 25
 Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

The formation of the chip depends on the type of

material being machined and the cutting conditions
of the operation. Four basic types of chip can be
distinguished:
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

Page 26
 Discontinuous Chip
• Brittle work materials
(e.g., cast irons)
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of
cut
• High tool-chip friction
and large feed and depth
of cut promote its
formation

Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip

formation in metal cutting:
(a) segmented

Page 27
 Continuous Chip
• Ductile work materials
(e.g., low carbon steel)
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths
• Sharp cutting edge on
the tool
• Low tool-chip friction

Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip

formation in metal cutting:
(b) continuous

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Continuous with BUE
• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
• BUE formation is cyclical; it
forms, then breaks off
• Reduces tool life and causes
rough surfaces
Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip
formation in metal cutting: (c)
continuous with built-up edge
Page 29
 Serrated Chip
• Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
• Cyclical chip formation
of alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
• Most closely associated
with difficult-to-machine
metals (titanium alloys
and nickel based super
alloys etc.) at high
cutting speeds

Figure 21.9 - Four types of chip

formation in metal cutting: (d)
serrated
Page 30
 Forces in Metal Cutting
• The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be
separated into two mutually perpendicular
components:
 The friction force F resisting the flow of the chip
along the rake face, and normal force to friction N
 The resultant of forces F & N is R and is oriented
at an angle  called the friction angle
• In addition, there are two force components applied
by the workpiece on the chip:
 The shear force Fs is the force that causes shear
deformation to occur in the shear plane and
normal force to shear Fn
 The resultant of Fs and Fn is R
Page 31
 Forces Acting on Chip
• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Figure 21.10 -
Forces in metal
cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip
in orthogonal
cutting

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 Resultant Forces

• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
 R' must be equal in magnitude to R
 R' must be opposite in direction to R
 R' must be collinear with R

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 Coefficient of Friction

Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

F

N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as

follows:
  tan 

Page 34
 Shear Stress

Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting

Page 35
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
• Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
• Forces acting on the tool that can be measured by a
dynamometer:
 Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
 The resultant is R

Figure 21.10 - Forces

in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
Page 36
 Forces in Metal Cutting

• Equations can be derived to relate the forces that

cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined

Page 37
 The Merchant Equation

• Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation

could occur, the work material will select a shear
plane angle  which minimizes energy, given by
 
  45  
2 2
• Derived by Eugene Merchant
• Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to
3-D machining
• Based on several assumptions so only provides an
approximate of the shear plane angle

Page 38
 What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

• The real value of the Merchant equation is that it

defines the general relationship between rake angle,
tool-chip friction, and shear plane angle

 
  45  
2 2

• To increase shear plane angle

 Increase the rake angle
 Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)

Page 39
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
• Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all
of which mean easier machining

Figure 21.12 - Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a

resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding
larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which
tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation

Page 40
 Power and Energy Relationships
• A machining operation requires power
• The power to perform machining can be computed
from:
P c = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and v =
cutting speed
• In U.S. customary units, power is traditional
expressed as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by
33,000)
Fcv
HPc 
33,000

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

Page 41
 Power and Energy Relationships

• The gross power required to operate the machine

tool is greater than the power delivered to the cutting
process because of mechanical losses in the motor
and drive train in the machine
• Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is
given by

Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

• Typical E for machine tools =  90%
Page 42
Unit Power and specific Energy in Machining
• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume
rate of metal cut
• Called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc HPc
Pu  or HPu 
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate

• Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fcv Fc
U  Pu   
MRR vt ow t ow
Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3
(in-lb/in3) Page 43
 Specific Energy in Machining

• Unit power and specific energy provides a useful

measure of how much power (or energy) is required
to remove one cubic inch of metal during machining
• Table in the next slide presents listing of unit
horsepower and specific energy values for selected
work materials based on two assumptions:
 The cutting tool is sharp (dullness increases
required energy)
 The chip thickness before the cut is 0.25 mm
(smaller chip thickness increases required energy)

Page 44
Unit Horsepower and specific energy for selected work materials

Page 45
EXAMPLE 21.1:
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting
tool has a rake angle =10o. The chip thickness before the cut to=0.50 mm
and the chip thickness after the cut tc=1.125 mm. Calculate the shear plane
angle and the shear strain in the operation
EXAMPLE 21.2:
Suppose in Ex 21.1that cutting force and thrust force are measured during
an orthogonal cutting operation with values: Fc =1559 N and Ft =1271 N.
The width of the orthogonal cutting operation w=3.0 mm. Based on these
data, determine the shear strength of the work material.
EXAMPLE 21.3:
Using the data and results from our previous examples, compute (a) the
friction angle using the Merchant equation, and (b) the coefficient of friction.
EXAMPLE 21.4:
Continuing with our previous examples, let us determine cutting power and
specific energy required to perform the machining process if the cutting
speed =100 m/min. Summarizing data and results from previous examples,
to=0.50 mm, w=3.0 mm, Fc=1557 N.
Page 46
 Cutting Temperature

• Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is

converted into heat
• This can cause temperatures to be very high at the
tool-chip (over 600oC)
• The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip

Page 47
 Cutting Temperature
• Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
• Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional
analysis using experimental data for various work
materials
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T   
C  K 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U =
specific energy; v = cutting speed; to = chip thickness
before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work
material; K = thermal diffusivity of the work material

Page 48
 Cutting Temperature

• Experimental methods can be used to measure

temperatures in machining
• Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip
thermocouple
• Using this method, K. Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature
The parameters K and m depend on cutting
conditions (other than v) and work material

Page 49
Cutting Temperature

Page 50