Hybrid Music Mulatu Astatkes Yekatit Eth

Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz
by
Chris Frangou
Supervised by Dr Barry Hill

Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 2
Acknowledgements
Firstly I would like to thank Dr Barry Hill for his supervision and continual support over the
past year during the writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank my friend and musical
collaborator Mulatu Astatke for his help in providing invaluable insight to his music and the
history of contemporary Ethiopian music. This research would not have been possible without
them.
Abstract
All musical styles are hybrids. They can be seen as a product of the confluence of cultural groups
and historical events. Recently, there has been a rise in the popularity of Ethiopian music in the
Western world, particularly of the contemporary style known as Ethio-jazz. Ethio-jazz emerged in
in Addis Ababa in the 1960s and ‘70s and is a hybrid of traditional Ethiopian musical elements
fused with African American jazz, soul and funk. One of the important works of Ethio-jazz is
Mulatu Astatke’s 1974 LP entitled Yekatit Ethio Jazz. As Ethio-jazz is a hybrid style, this thesis
aims to identify the cultural origins of individual musical elements that are found on the record
Yekatit Ethio Jazz. In addition to this it will discuss how specific historical and cultural aspects
made an impact on the music composition process and the subsequent commercial success of
this particular album release. This research will be conducted by employing specific
methodologies across the chapters of this thesis. The first method employed is the reviewing of
literature and musical sources that are currently available on this topic and related subject matter.
This is followed by a historical and cultural study and an analysis of Yekatit Ethio Jazz through
transcription of the recorded material and analysing musical elements found within the music.
Finally an interview with Mulatu Astatke is conducted and analysed in order to address, confirm
and elaborate on previous finding in the thesis.
Key words: Ethnomusicology, musical analysis, hybridity, music theory, Ethio-jazz, Mulatu
Astatke.
Acknowledgements 2
Abstract 3
Chapter 1: Introduction. 6
1.1 Addressing a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian Music. 7
1.2 Examining a Hybridised Style; a Hybridised Musician. 7
1.3 The Impact of Politics and Industry on Music Making in Ethiopia. 8
1.4 Notion of Author Being a Participant Observer. 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review. 10

2.1 Notions of World Music 10
2.2 Musical Analysis & Transcription 11
2.3 Qualitative Research Methodologies 11
2.4 Issues Identifying Musical Elements. 13
2.5 Ethiopian Music and Ethio-jazz. 13
2.6 Hybrid Music: Yekatit Ethio Jazz as an Example of Transculturation. 14
2.7 Mulatu Astatke. 15
2.8 Commercial Success in the West. 15
Chapter 3: Methodology. 15
3.1 Musical Analysis and Transcription. 16
3.2 From Observations to Conclusions Using a Qualitative Framework. 16
3.3 Ethnography: The Importance of Social Context in Music Making. 16
3.4 The Semi-structured Interview. 17
3.5 The Participant Observer 17
Chapter 4: Historical and Cultural Study. 18

4.1 Mulatu Astatke: a brief biography. 18
4.2 The Cultural Origins of Ethio-jazz. 19
4.3 A Brief History of Ethiopian Music. 19
Qenet (ቅኝት), Melody, and Harmony. 20
Rhythm and Time Signatures. 21
4.4 A Brief Definition of Jazz 22
4.5 Historical Connections Between the Musical Cultures of Ethiopia and the U.S. 22
4.6 Music Business in 1960s & ‘70s Ethiopia. 23
Chapter 5: Musical Analysis. 24

5.1 Instrumentation. 25
5.2 Track by Track Analysis 25
ደወል (Dewol) 25
የከርሞ ሰው (Yekermo Sew) 26
ጉብልዬ (Gubelye) 29
አስማሪና (Asmarina) 29
የካቲት (Yekatit) 31
ነፃነት (Netsanet) 32
ትዝታዬ አንቺ ልጅ (Tezetaye Anchie Lidge) 34
ሳብዬ (Sabye) 35
አኔ አንቺ እልኖርም (Ene Alanchie Alnorem) 38
5.3 Post Analysis Conclusions. 39
Chapter 6: Interview with Mulatu Astatke. 39
Chapter 7: Conclusion 43
Discography 46
References 46
Appendix A: Glossary of terms 51
Appendix B: Audio Recordings 52
Appendix C: LP Artwork & associated images. 53
Appendix D: Transcription of Semi-structured Interview with Mulatu Astatke. 54

Chapter 1: Introduction.
Over the past 20 years, there has been a notable rise in the popularity of Ethiopian music in the
Western world, particularly of the contemporary style known as ‘Ethio-jazz’. Ethio-jazz as a style
first emerged in Addis Ababa in the 1960s and ‘70s and is a combination of traditional Ethiopian
musical elements fused with African American jazz, soul and funk. One of the important works
of Ethio-jazz is Mulatu Astatke’s 1974 LP entitled Yekatit Ethio Jazz.
Globally, it is possible to identify two important factors in rise in popularity of Ethio-jazz with
non-Ethiopian audiences. Firstly, the release of the Jim Jarmusch directed film entitled Broken
Flowers (2005) starring Bill Murray; a film whose soundtrack focuses strongly on the music of
Astatke and secondly, the re-release of multiple volumes of Ethiopian music under the title
Ethiopiques by the French record label Buda Musique. It is important to note that the creation of
the style itself and these two factors of popularity are outcomes derived from the quickening
pace of globalisation in relation to the deterritorialization of musical styles; a phenomena that has
been well documented by ethnographers, musicologists and cultural researchers. This research
project responds to this background and develops the following research questions:
Can we identify the cultural origin of individual musical elements that are found on the
record Yekatit Ethio Jazz?
How did specific historical and cultural aspects impact on the music composition
process and the subsequent commercial success of this particular album release?
These questions will be addressed by employing specific research methodologies which will be
discussed in the following chapters. Chapter 2 will present a review of literature and musical
sources that are currently available on this topic and related subject matter. Chapter 3 outlines
my research methodology, one that foregrounds qualitative techniques. Chapter 4 presents a
historical and cultural study which follows a framework based on the ideas of Blacking who
states that music cannot be analysed in it’s own right, but instead must be accompanied by the
analysis of the composer or artist’s cognitive processes and the broader social and cultural
context (1995, p.55). The fifth chapter adopts a musicological approach to the analysis of Yekatit
Ethio Jazz through transcription of the recorded material and analysing musical elements found
within the music. Finally, Chapter 6 analyses a semi-structured interview that I conducted with
Mulatu Astatke himself in order to address, confirm and elaborate on previous findings. This
interview process was reviewed and approved by SCU HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS
COMMITTEE (Approval No ECN-16-225).
1.1 Addressing a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian Music.
This thesis addresses a perceived a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian
Music. Teffera (2008) states there is a lack of in-depth theoretical analysis of traditional and
contemporary Ethiopian music, especially in regards to aspects such as harmony,
instrumentation and arrangement. Analysis of these musical elements in isolation of the cultural
context can defined as a ‘musicological’ analytical framework. By embarking on a musicological
analysis of selected aspects of the music recordings included in the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz, and
then contextualising this analysis with a discussion of a specific cultural context, this research
project aims to fill a gap within the body of knowledge regarding Ethio-jazz and link the cultural
context surrounding the development of Ethio-jazz to the way the music actually sounds.
1.2 Examining a Hybridised Style; a Hybridised Musician.
Ethio-jazz and contemporary Ethiopian music can be defined as a hybridised musical style. The
name Ethio-jazz itself alludes to a musical style that combines more ancient Ethiopian music
such as zema (music of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church), bahalawi (traditional secular styles) and
zemenawi (modern, contemporary music) with African American Jazz styles (Shelemay, 2006,
p.305). A discussion of these musics is beyond the scope of this paper.
It is worth noting, that when examining a hybrid musical style such as Ethio-jazz, it is arguable
that all musical styles are hybridised (Dilanchian, 1993). There is no such thing as ‘pure music’.
Genre specifications tend to create definitions of music that do not reflect history and often
shroud the true cultural origins of particular musical elements found within the music.
The feature film Broken Flowers was released in 2005 and features the music of Mulatu Astatke,
an Ethiopian musician and a pioneer of the Ethio-jazz style. The release of this critically
acclaimed film reactivated interest in Ethio-jazz and specifically the music career of Mulatu
Astatke. Mulatu Astatke was born in Jimma, Ethiopia in 1943 (Diarra, 2014). Astatke left
Ethiopia to study as a 16 year old in 1959, only to arrive in North Wales and finally London,
where he decided to study music. He later became the first African to enrol and study at Berklee
College of Music (then named Berklee School of Music), after which he moved to New York
City and finally back to Ethiopia in 1969 (Williams, 2014). In interviews conducted for this
project it is clear that Mulatu’s experiences living abroad had a profound effect on the creative
development of his musical ideas. A more detailed biography is included in Chapter 4.1 of this
thesis.
This research project develops the notion that specific musical ideas and creative works are
developed in relation to an artist’s personal experiences sited within a specific cultural context; a
combination of specific and historical and cultural factors. The complex interactions between an
artist’s experiences and this cultural context have enabled Mulatu Astatke to be an instigator of a
hybridised style. This thesis aims to examine these interactions and reflect on how they have
made an impact on Astatke’s composition process and the subsequent commercial success of
this album release.
A musical analysis of Yekatit Ethio-jazz will be covered in Chapter 5 in which I aim to identify
the cultural origins of specific musical elements.
1.3 The Impact of Politics and Industry on Music Making in Ethiopia.
Politics and industry have played a major role in creating the trajectory of music and music
making in Ethiopia. From approximately 1137 until 1974, Ethiopia was an empire. It’s final ruler
Emperor Haile Selassie I was the last of the Solomonic Dynasty who claim they are descendants
of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Crummey, Marcus & Mehretu, 2016).
In the late 1960s and early ‘70s, an Ethiopian music industry emerged. Despite strict censorship
laws and government controls on music releases, Ethiopian record companies began releasing
records for commercial distribution in 1969 (Teffera, 2008). The first record company was Amha
Records, created by Amha Eshete in Addis Ababa in 1969 (ibid). This historical period from
1969 prior to the military coup in 1974 was a prolific one for original music releases in Ethiopia.
A pivotal point in Ethiopian history, 1974 marked the end of imperial rule in Ethiopia, the
beginning of the socialist Derg regime (ibid) and also the release of Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit
Ethio Jazz. This change in political climate would ultimately lead to a decline in creativity and
musical output in Ethiopia. Many musicians left the country and went into exile, ending what
Teffera (2008) calls ‘The Golden Years’ of Ethiopian music. These political and historical events
will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 4, the historical and cultural study.
1.4 Notion of Author Being a Participant Observer.
This project is developed from my position as both a early career music researcher and a
participant observer. A participant observer, when ‘in a study of a group, community or society,
[is] an observer who is simultaneously a full participant in the group. Often this role is taken by a
psychologist, anthropologist or sociologist in order to examine processes in situ.’ (Reber, Reber &
Allen, 2009). Despite my background as an Australian musician with European heritage, and my
lack of personal identification with the culture of Ethiopia, I have an ongoing professional and
personal relationship with both Mulatu Astatke and contemporary Ethiopian music which has
developed over the past four years. During these years I have extensively studied the music of
Mulatu Astatke and other contemporary Ethiopian composers and musicians and have had the
opportunity to tour Ethiopia and Australia and perform with Astatke himself. This relationship
has enabled me to have insight into Astatke’s music, his creative process and develop a
relationship that can facilitate the outcomes of this project. In addition to this, our collaboration
(as a Western musician and an Ethiopian musician) has further contributed to the evolving
musical hybrid that is Ethio-jazz and has helped inform my own musical identity. This close
correspondence however can have it’s own disadvantages, as the willingness to retain a amicable
relationship between the author and the participant can dictate the outcome of the research and
possible lines of questioning when conducting research interviews. These ideas surrounding
participant observation and its concerns and considerations will be elaborated on in Chapter 2 of
this thesis.
Chapter 2: Literature Review.
In this review I aim to discuss texts that specifically focus on an analysis of African music styles,
qualitative research methodologies, Ethiopian history, musical analysis, and the impact of
historical and cultural aspects on the development of musical styles. I also aim to connect these
broad topic areas by discovering themes within these texts that relate specifically to my research
questions.
2.1 Notions of World Music
Much like other styles of music with their origins outside of the West, Ethio-jazz is often
marketed under the genre world music in Western countries. According to Feld (2000), the term
world music first emerged in the 1960s. It’s origins began as an optimistic and inclusive academic
term for music found outside of the Western sphere, it eventually proved divisive. Feld (2011,
p.147) describes the creation of a binary existence of music definition; music of Western origin
and music of the non-Western origin and ‘the relationship of the colonizing and the colonized
thus remained generally intact in distinguishing music from world music’. World music can be seen
as a companion term to ethnomusicology. Where musicology surrounds the study of Western
classical music, primarily focusing on the abstracted musical score, ethnomusicology is often
understood as a term for the study of non-Western music. The notions of world music are
further discussed in the book, Music and Globalization: Critical Encounters (White, 2011). This book
follows the phenomenon of globalisation through the medium of music, outlining factors that
help and obstruct cross pollination of cultures and their respective music. In the introduction of
the book the origin of the term world music is discussed. White mentions that it is a modern
term for music originating from cultures beyond the West and in which its primary function was
for labelling in the marketing of records. There is a particularly engaging chapter authored by
Timothy D. Taylor in which he discusses the status of world music in the present day. Despite
the marketing of Ethiopian music and Ethio-jazz as World music, it is safe to argue that the term
World music has little or no value within this research project or within ethnomusicology in
general. The term harbours a culture of limited understanding and knowledge of the complexity
of music beyond the West as well as promoting a Western-centric and divisive view of music and
musicology.
2.2 Musical Analysis & Transcription
Regarding the topic of musical analysis, Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (1987) by
Jean-Jacques Nattiez is a book with a very large reach. The book is divided into two sections, the
first being the Semiology of Musical Fact. Within this Nattiez discusses the concept of both music
itself and ‘the musical work’ and the way music and music production is perceived based on
differing cultures from around the world. The second part is called the Semiology of Discourse on
Music and focuses primarily on musical analysis. This book gives this research a solid platform in
musical analysis and its link to psychology surrounding music and even anthropology.
Another text concerning musical analysis in which I have utilised to throughout this research
project is Nicholas Cook’s A Guide to Musical Analysis (1987). This text covers common methods
of musical analysis, most of which are associated with Western music and Western art music in
particular. The text is sectioned into two parts, the first concerning analytical methods and in the
second Cook applies these analytical methods in his own analysis of certain Western art music
pieces. Due to the strong Western classic music association, the text is somewhat limiting in its
practicality for my specific area of enquiry. However, due to the work of Mulatu Astatke being a
hybrid of traditional Western music and Ethiopian music, I have the ability to utilise elements of
this style of Western classical analysis.
As this research focuses on music that is a hybrid of Western and non-Western music, and
considering most theoretical framework is based on music of the West, we must consider this
concept when conducting musical analysis.
2.3 Qualitative Research Methodologies
This research project employs qualitative research methodologies including a semi-structured

interview with Mulatu Astatke. I begun my research into semi-structured interview techniques by
reading two texts. The first being a book entitled Mastering the Semi-Structured Interview and Beyond:
From Research Design to Analysis and Publication (Galletta & Cross, 2013). This has been a very
useful reference for me in my planning of the interview and achieving a strong foundation in
which to build this type of method. Galletta and Cross (2013) state that ‘the semi-structured
interview provides a repertoire of possibilities. It is sufficiently structured to address specific
topics related to the phenomenon of study, while leaving space for participants to offer new
meanings to the study focus.’ The second text, Grindsted (2005) discusses the idea of
committing to a ‘ordinary, conversation-like’ interactive format for the semi-structured interview,
as it will aid the interviewee in producing more accurate responses. By far the most detailed and
useful resource I have utilised in throughout this project has been Qualitative Research Methods
(Liamputtong, 2009). This text outlines many procedures and also clearly states the pros and
cons of certains methods. Particularly useful is the chapter focusing on in-depth interviewing
methods, another term for a semi-structured interview. This chapter discusses the approach you
should undertake when completing an in-depth interview as well as identifying advantages and
disadvantages to this research method. Liamputtong argues that conversation is the primary
course of human interaction and provides us the opportunity to know others on a deeper more
personal level. Due to this, in-depth interviewing gives us ‘a means of collecting empirical data
about the social world of individuals by inviting them to talk about their lives in great depth’
(Liamputtong, 2009). Other advantages discussed within this text include the ability to retrieve
non-binary answers, repressed information, and see the world through the eyes of the participant
(Liamputtong, 2009). Galletta and Cross (2013) state an advantage of this type of qualitative
research is in ‘its attention to lived experience while also addressing theoretically driven variables
of interest.’ Despite all the advantages of a semi-structured or in-depth interview, certain
processes must be considered and navigated in order to achieve a successful and academic
outcome. If not, this type of qualitative research becomes a disadvantage to any researcher. Some
of these considerations include the way of asking questions; including and not limited to
avoiding dichotomies such as yes or no answers and also leading questions that may force the
participant to respond in a predefined way (Liamputtong, 2009).
As discussed in the introduction, my close personal and professional working connection to

Mulatu Astatke and contemporary Ethiopian music over the past four years has solidified my
position as a participant observer within this research. According to Vinten (1987) by becoming
a participant observer you are immersed in the field of research. In doing so, you hope to attain
‘more information and a greater depth of knowledge than would be possible from the outside
looking in’. However, Vinten continues by arguing that it is not always possible to be academic
and follow strictness in protocol when being a participant observer. The difficulty of continually
taking notes and documenting the experience when being directly involved in the process is an
inherent shortcoming. In addition to this, results may vary in the presence of the researcher, as
the researcher themselves can unintentionally alter and influence the research field and subjects.
Vinten uses the example of the Heisenberg principle in physics as an example of this, he states
that ‘according to this [principle] it is impossible to determine both the mass and velocity of a
moving particle. The mere act of observation means that the measurement of either mass or
velocity will be distorted.’ These issues can be overcome in various ways, including becoming a
‘covert participant observer’ by, according to Vinten, not disclosing your true identity as a
researcher. Reflecting back on my own relationship to the field of research over the past four
years, I can conclude my intentions to formally research this field were not fully fledged until a
year ago. My position as a researcher only has only come to fruition over the past year and not
disclosed prior to this. This mitigates the Heisenberg-esque impact of me being a participant
observer in this research.
2.4 Issues Identifying Musical Elements.
John Blacking’s paper The Problem of Musical Description (1995) discusses the automatic process a
listener undergoes in order to distinguish the works from one composer or artist to another and
what elements are subconsciously identified by the listener. Blacking promotes the view that you
cannot strictly analyse musical patterns or formulas without considering the cognitive processes
of the composer or artist; processes that can be related to specific social, cultural, personal and
physical behaviour and interactions.
2.5 Ethiopian Music and Ethio-jazz.
In a detailed conference paper, Teffera (2008) writes about what she, and others including
Francis Falceto, call the Golden Years of Ethiopian popular music from 1955 to 1974. The paper
focuses on a historic overview of Ethiopian music; particularly in the lead up to, and during, the
Golden Years. It discusses how this music developed into a unique hybrid of traditional
Ethiopian and American music. Teffera is a very useful source of journal articles related to this
subject matter and often refers to other literary works in this topic area. It is worth noting
Teffera is an Ethiopian currently living in Europe, and in being so, has an innate connection to
the culture and music itself. Other articles that Teffera has produced and are valuable resources
include The Dilemma of the Uprooted: A Case Study of the Impact of Music on the Ethiopian Diaspora
(2011) and Canvassing Past Memories through Tezeta (2013); the later of which is an in-depth
discussion on the traditional Ethiopian musical scale tezeta (referred to as tizita within this thesis),
which is commonly found in the works of Mulatu Astatke. Another text with a focus on
traditional Ethiopian scales is Stephanie Weisser and Francis Falceto’s paper entitled Investigating
Qenet in Amhara Secular Music: an acoustic and historical study (2013). The paper is a very thorough
discussion on the four main types of traditional Ethiopian scales: ambassel, anchi hoye, bati and
tizita. The main purpose of this paper is to critically analyse these scale types and their history,
whilst attempting to discern whether they altered, simplified or tempered over time. The primary
methodology of the paper is the process of analysing two types of sources, historical texts from
previous researchers, and old Ethiopian recordings. The authors mention the earliest academic
reference to these scales is in a paper written by Michael Powne in 1968, a source many
academics subsequently refer to. It is worth noting that the co-author of this paper Francis
Falceto is also the producer of the Ethiopiques series of 28 (and growing) CDs released by French
label Buda Musique. These discs are compilations of Ethiopian traditional and popular music
from the 1950s to present day. This series is arguably one of the main contributing factors to the
growing popularisation of Ethiopian music in the west since the mid-‘90s.
2.6 Hybrid Music: Yekatit Ethio Jazz as an Example of Transculturation.
There are texts that can be found specifically dedicated to Ethiopian history surrounding and
leading up to what became Ethio-jazz and in turn Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz album.
Dilanchian (1993) covers both historical material and the idea of cultural hybridity in his paper
Musical Cousins: Armenia, Ethiopia & Jamaica . Dilanchian argues ‘Cultures are hybrids, intricately
related and influential upon each other. Music is particularly porous to influences so it provides
interesting examples of cross-pollination.’. He demonstrates this by outlining the relationship
between the music and culture of Armenia, Ethiopia & Jamaica. An example of which is the
immigration of a band of Armenian horn players; these musicians later instructed many
musicians in Ethiopia who would become influential figures in the 1960s and ‘70s Ethio-jazz
scene. The historic content as well as the way cultural hybridity is illustrated in this text is of
great use to this thesis.
2.7 Mulatu Astatke.
Shelemay (2006) and Williams (2014) provide their readers with detailed, chronological profiles
of Mulatu Astatke’s life and work, including informative quotes from interviews with him.
Shelemay’s text is in the form of an academic journal article and Williams as a newspaper article
in The Guardian, which also features important historical elements that contextualises Astatke’s
life and his music. Both these articles supply a level of biographical insight that has been utilised
in personalising questions for the semi-structured interview I will be conducting with Astatke.
2.8 Commercial Success in the West.
Mekonnen’s (2010) article moves beyond examining the 1960s and ‘70s period by discussing the
contemporary spread of Ethio-groove to Western audiences and the adoption of this music by
Western musicians and bands. Mekonnen describes Ethio-groove as the popular music found in
1960s and ‘70s Ethiopia. In many ways this can be seen as another term for the musical style
Ethio-jazz. Mekonnen explores the spread of Ethio-groove through the examination of various
processes that occurred, such as Francis Falceto’s role in the re-release of decades of Ethiopian
recordings to a Western audience. These recordings date from roughly the mid-1950s until
present, with a heavy focus on music from the 1960s and ‘70s. Another process that is examined
it that intercultural collaboration has aided the spread of Ethio-groove; such as Getatchew
Mekurya playing with the American band Either/Orchestra or Mulatu Astatke with the UK
group The Heliocentrics.
Chapter 3: Methodology.
As stated in Chapter 1, this thesis will be addressing the research questions by engaging in
various methods. These methods include conducting a historical and cultural study, musical
analysis and transcriptions of the recorded music, and an interview with Mulatu Astatke subject
to an ethics approval. This chapter will discusses these methods and process in which I apply
them within this thesis.
3.1 Musical Analysis and Transcription.
By embarking on a musicological analysis of selected elements found in the music recordings

included in the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz In order to supplement our historical and cultural study
we must take musicological approach and analyse the music itself. This process will include
detailed transcriptions of musical elements including melody, harmony and rhythm found within
the compositions. According to Cook (1987) ‘There is no fixed way of starting a musical analysis.
It depends on the music, as well as on the analyst and the reason the analysis is being done. But
there is a prerequisite to any sensible analysis, and this is familiarity with the music.’ Listening to
the music in it's entirety is the best possibly way to gain this familiarity. Cook further states it is
important to write down initial impressions to when beginning an analysis and when you are still
in the first listening stages of your analysis. These initial impressions can then be referred back to
further down the line and according to Cook enable you to respond to the initial experience of
the music and not lose sight of this once you start to know the composition better and begin
more in-depth analysis and transcription. Some of these initial impression I am to notate include
the rhythmic feel, overall quality of the harmony (whether it sounds like it has a major or
minor-like sound) and form.
3.2 From Observations to Conclusions Using a Qualitative Framework.
According to Liamputtong (2009) ‘It is crucial that qualitative research should be situated within
a methodological framework.’ It is important that the methods employed within this research
project are clearly defined in order to understand the nature and scope of application of the
conclusions.
3.3 Ethnography: The Importance of Social Context in Music Making.

As previously discussed in the literature review, John Blacking’s paper The Problem of Musical
Description (1995) argues that you cannot rely solely on the analysis of musical patterns or
formulas created by a composer or artist, but you must also analyse and discover their cognitive
processeses. These cognitive processes including what the mind goes through when the person is
participating in activities that relate to their social, cultural and personal interactions. This means
the composers social context is of great importance to the music making process. In response,
this project includes an examination of the broader historical and cultural context in which this
music was created and subsequently released. This historical and cultural study in Chapter 4 will
be followed by the musicological analysis in Chapter 5. Blacking’s concept of understanding the
cognitive processes of an artist will be further pursued in Chapter 6 through the process of a
semi-structured interview with Astatke.
3.4 The Semi-structured Interview.
Liamputtong (2009) states that ‘In-depth interviews aim to elicit rich information from the
perspective of a particular individual and on a selected topic under investigation’. In the case of
this thesis, the individual I aim to engage in an interview with is Mulatu Astatke and the topic
under investigation is his album Yekatit Ethio Jazz and the associated research questions. An
in-depth interview is described as a one-on-one interview, generally conducted face-to-face,
between the researcher and participant or research subject (Liamputtong, 2009). Liamputtong
(2009) stresses the point of transcribing your own interviews and in doing so ensure the
interview is transcribed word for word including every expression and sound both the
interviewee and interviewer verbalise. This process illustrates the interview in a more organic,
natural way which is a more accurate representation of the original verbal communication that
took place.
3.5 The Participant Observer
By engaging in fieldwork over an extended period of time you are able to garner a strong and
trusting relationship with your research participant (Liamputtong, 2009). As discussed in the
introduction chapter, I have developed an ongoing professional and personal relationship with
Mulatu Astatke which has significantly aided the research process and has further informed my
own creative practice. Through my involvement in the performance of traditional and

contemporary Ethiopian music with and without Astatke, it has enabled me to gain a strong
understanding of this music and witness Astatke’s creative and musical processes first-hand.
Chapter 4: Historical and Cultural Study.
This chapter presents a discussion of some of the important historical and cultural aspects of
surrounding the emergence of Ethio Jazz and identifies the impacts of these on Astake’s Music
compositional process and the subsequent commercial success of the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz.
Firstly I will present a brief biography of Astatke and contextualise this with a broader discussion
of relevant Ethiopian historical aspects.
4.1 Mulatu Astatke: a brief biography.
Mulatu Astatke was born in Jimma (a town found in the Oromia Region of Western Ethiopia) in
1943 just two years after the Italian occupation. Due to his family's wealth, Astatke was able to
move abroad to study (Shelemay, 2006). As a 16 year old in 1959, Astatke arrived in North Wales
to study aeronautical engineering (Diarra, 2014). He eventually moved to London, where he
began studying music at the Trinity College of Music. Here he learned piano, clarinet and music
harmony; fundamentals that would help him significantly in his later musical career. In 1963 he
became the first African to enrol and study at Berklee College of Music and later moved to New
York City where he recorded his first two LP records Afro-Latin Soul 1 & 2 in 1966 on Worthy
Records (Diarra, 2014; Spencer, 2010; Williams, 2014). By 1969 Astatke was back in Ethiopia,
had aligned himself with Amha Eshete’s label Amha Records and was beginning to establish
himself as one of the busiest musicians, composers and arrangers in the country (Freerix, 2010).
In 1972 Astatke released his third LP, Mulatu of Ethiopia, once again on Worthy Records
(Diarra 2014; Freerix, 2010). Over these years Astatke made a name for himself composing and
arranging for many of Amha’s releases, including for singers such as Tilahun Gessesse. Astatke’s
Yekatit Ethio Jazz was released at turning point in Ethiopian history.
Ethiopia has a strong cultural identity and a documented cultural history spanning thousands of
years. Despite a brief period of occupation by Italy from 1936 to 1941, Ethiopia has remained
largely independent from Western colonization throughout this time (Crummey, Marcus &
Mehretu, 2016). Due to this, Ethiopia is seen as a shining light of African independence within
the continent. Many countries throughout Africa have adopted the colours of the Ethiopian flag
and Addis Ababa is home to the headquarters of the African Union. (ibid)
4.2 The Cultural Origins of Ethio-jazz.
Often marketed in the West under the broader genre label ‘world music’, Ethio-jazz is it’s own
style with specific cultural origins which we aim to identify within this thesis. In order to discuss
the cultural origins of Ethio-jazz, we must first define the term Ethio-jazz itself. The term
Ethio-jazz itself is a combination of the prefix Ethio, a prefix which is commonly used to identify
something as Ethiopian, and jazz, the style of African American origin with heavy focus on
improvisation which itself is a confluence musical cultures. To gain a stronger understanding of
Ethio-jazz we must identify its origins and in doing so we must investigate the origins of both
Ethiopian music and jazz. This will enable us to identify the musical elements found on the
record Yekatit Ethio Jazz.
4.3 A Brief History of Ethiopian Music.
Ethiopian music has a long and complex history intricately entwined with the culture of the
countless tribes that call Ethiopia home. Like many cultures around the world, traditional
Ethiopian music has its origins in religion. This is commonly attributed to the historical figure St.
Yared who lived between 505 and 571 AD and was instrumental in developing early forms
Ethiopian of musical notation and zema, the sacred music still utilised in the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church today (Teffera, 2008; Weisser, 2011). Some traditional instruments include the masinko
(a violin-like instrument with one string), krar (lyre), washint (flute) and the bagana (large
lyre)(Sarosi, 1967; Weisser, 2011). What is now considered to be contemporary Ethiopian music
began to take shape in the early 20th century. This begun with Ras Tafari Makonnen (who later
became Emperor Haile Selassie I) watching a marching band of forty young Armenian musicians
perform in Jerusalem. The Armenians were orphans from the Armenian genocide that took
place between 1915 and 1917 (Dilanchian, 1993; Kifner, 2014). Ras Tafari Makonnen granted the
forty orphans asylum in Ethiopia along with their bandleader and music teacher Kevork
Nalbandian (Dilanchian, 1993; Teffera, 2008). They became what was later known as the
Bodyguard Band, a group known for later contributing heavily to contemporary Ethiopian music
by backing singers such as Tilahun Gessesse and Mahmoud Ahmed. The Body Guard band
introduced their marching band instruments such as saxophones and trumpets into
contemporary Ethiopian music and broader consciousness of Ethiopia (Dilanchian, 1993;
Teffera, 2008).
Qenet (ቅኝት), Melody, and Harmony.
In order to successfully analyse Astatke’s music in Chapter 5, we must first outline some of the
non-Western musical idioms, in particular the unique pentatonic scales found in traditional
Ethiopian music. These traditional scales are called qenet (ቅኝት) in amharic (Weisser & Falcetto,
2013). Traditional Ethiopian music utilises four main types of qenet in its composition. They are
known in amharic as anchi hoye, bati, tizita and ambassel (Abate 2009). Depending on musical
context the compositions may focus on modes of each of these scales. In Western notation,
these four scales types and some common variations can be written as follows and are found
from tracks 01 to 07 in the audio file accompaniment to this thesis:
Anchi hoye
Anchi hoye (5th mode)
Bati major
Bati minor
Tizita major
Tizita minor
Ambassel
Rhythm and Time Signatures.
Just like many other cultures, many different rhythms can be found in traditional Ethiopian
music. However, one of the most common and identifiable in modern times is called the chik
chikka (ቸክቸክካ) and it employs a time signature of 6/8. This time-feel relies on two
simultaneous pulses with equal emphasis. This is commonly referred to in Western music as the
3:2 polyrhythm, as notated below in 6/8 time (refer to audio track 08).
A common interpretation of the chik chikka rhythm on the modern drum kit can be notated as
follows (refer to audio track 09):
4.4 A Brief Definition of Jazz
There are many scholarly texts surrounding the history of jazz, and to write about this topic in
any depth would be beyond the scope of this thesis. However certain aspects can be discussed in
order to give context and broaden our understanding of the jazz elements found in Ethio-jazz.
The origins of jazz can be found deeply rooted in the African diaspora within the United States.
In his book At the Jazz Band Ball: sixty years on the jazz scene (2010), Jazz critic and author Nat
Hentoff declares ‘it’s indisputable that jazz began as black music’. Schuller (2005) describes jazz
as being improvisational and a combination of Western harmony and African rhythms. He also
states a definitive definition of jazz is difficult and misleading as it has constantly evolved as a
style since its creation as a musical style in the early 20th century (ibid). Despite the conciseness
of this definition of jazz, we are able to use this basic understanding to inform us and enable us
to have a better understanding of how this music fits within the hybrid Ethio-jazz.
4.5 Historical Connections Between the Musical Cultures of Ethiopia and the U.S.
The hybrid style of Ethio-jazz has borrowed many of its elements from the music of the United
States. There have been many historical connections between the musical cultures of Ethiopia
and America, many of which have directly influenced the course of contemporary Ethiopian
music. Teffera (2008) argues that it is ‘absolutely doubtless that the broadcasting of foreign
(American) music via radio has been an inspiration for Ethiopian musicians at the time to create
new tunes with accordingly new musical styles’.
*a level of acceptance to Ethiopian audiences.
4.6 Music Business in 1960s & ‘70s Ethiopia.
Although Emperor Haile Selassie I was instrumental in the development and evolution of
contemporary Ethiopian music (Teffera, 2008), Selassie granted sole music publishing and
distribution business rights to the Hager Fikir Theatre in 1948 (Alehegn, 2012; Fantahun, 2016).
His sanctioned restrictions resulted in limited enterprise activity in relation to music until the
1960s. However, Western music was becoming more readily available to the general public. As
Ethiopia entered 1960s, music was being imported and distributed within Ethiopia through a
small group of record shops owned by foreigners and broadcast on radio stations such as the
Voice of America (Fantahun, 2016). The popularity of Western music like jazz, soul and funk
grew and it was at this time three main record companies gained significant traction within
Ethiopia. Philips Ethiopia, Kaifa Records and Amha Eshete’s label Amha Records were
instrumental in releasing the vast majority of domestic recordings on LP and cassette up until the
mid-seventies. These releases were printed and pressed in production plants in both Greece and
India. Amha Records begun with Amha Eshete opening a shop selling records in Addis Ababa
called Harambee. It was at this shop Eshete begun importing music he liked from the United
States to sell to the Ethiopian public. His success grew and his focus turned to recording and
releasing modern Ethiopian music. His first artist was singer Alemayehu Eshete, and Amha
Records was born (Fantahun, 2016). According to Teffera (2008), Amha Records along with
Philips Ethiopia and Kaifa Records ‘released more than 450 singles (45s) and 30 LPs from
1969-1978.’
1974 marked the beginning of the end of a long line of Ethiopian Emperors who claim to be
descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba following a military coup d’etat
overthrowing Emperor Haile Selassie I. What came next was a dictatorial regime called the Derg
which restricted all kinds of music and cultural activities. Music and cultural activities that were
permitted, were used as propaganda tools to push pro-Derg political messages (Teffera, 2008).
During this time many musicians left Ethiopia and went into exile (ibid).
Chapter 5: Musical Analysis.
The following chapter aims to analyse various musical elements found in Yekatit Ethio Jazz. This
analysis will include a discussion of the instrumentation, rhythmic and arrangement concepts
and a transcription of the melodies used within his music. This transcription process exposes the
various scales and harmonies used by Astatke within the various musical works that make up the
album Yekatit. It is important to acknowledge that due to Astatke’s music training in Western
music, he understands both Western classical music harmony and traditional Ethiopian music.
In this instance a musicological analysis is useful as it relates both to Astake’s creative process
/context and to understanding the sonic qualities of his music.
Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio-jazz LP features nine compositions in total. On the record sleeve they
are written in amharic with an english translation in parenthesis; they are as follows:
A Side:
1. ደወል (Dewol)
2. የከርሞ ሰው (Yekermo Sew)
3. ጉብልዬ (Gubelye)
4. አስማሪና (Asmarina)
5. የካቲት (Yekatit)
B Side:
1. ነፃነት (Netsanet)
2. ትዝታዬ አንቺ ልጅ (Tezetaye Anchie Lidge)
3. ሳብዬ (Sabye)
4. አኔ አንቺ እልኖርም (Ene Alanchie Alnorem)
5.1 Instrumentation.
The instrumentation found on Yekatit Ethio Jazz is typical of Western popular music,
particularly in the styles of African American jazz, soul, and funk during the time of this record’s
release in 1974. It comprises of a drum kit, electric bass, electric guitar, saxophone, flute and
trumpet and the personnel are as follows:
Mulatu Astatke - Keyboards, arranging & composition

Giovanni Rico - Electric bass
Temare Haregu - Drums
Andrew Wilson - Electric guitar
Moges Habte - Tenor saxophone
Fekade Amdemaskal - Tenor saxophone & flute
Yohannes Tekolla - Trumpet
We can look to other albums within Western jazz, soul and funk for comparison, similar
instrumentation can be found in albums such as Weather Report’s Mysterious Traveller (1974),
Stevie Wonder’s Talking Book (1972), Herbie Hancock’s Head Hunters (1973) and Fresh (1973) by
Sly and the Family Stone; all released in the U.S. during the early 1970s.
5.2 Track by Track Analysis
ደወል (Dewol)
Dewol begins with an atmospheric intro that involves simultaneous free improvisation from the
entire ensemble utilising the C anchi hoye mode. Just like free improvisation in American jazz
music, there is no fixed rhythm or tempo at this stage. This improvisation is then interrupted by
the drums outlining jazz waltz groove with the Wurlitzer piano at 0:57 (a common 3/4 time
signature with a swing feel). This is then followed by the main melody of the composition at
1:11. The overall form of this composition is as follows:
Free improvisation
Jazz waltz groove
Melody
Free improvisation
Vibraphone solo over groove
Melody
For the majority of the jazz waltz parts of the composition, the bass is outlining a walking bass
line typical of jazz. However instead of outlining chord tones of a chord progression or a
Western scale as is commonly found, the walking bass outlines the notes of the C anchi hoye
pentatonic scale.
The most distinctly Ethiopian element within this piece is the use of the C anchi hoye scale
melodically and harmonically. The ornamentation style the horns employ during the free
improvisation sections are also Ethiopian of origin, mirroring the ornamentation style of
traditional Ethiopian instruments such as the maskino. In regards to Western elements, the jazz
waltz feel and the quasi-walking bass line are very strong representations of Western musical
elements, mostly derived from American jazz music.
የከርሞ ሰው (Yekermo Sew)
Yekermo Sew utilises a G minor tizita scale. As is true with most of the music on this LP, the
bass strongly outlines the tonic centre and the harmony of the piece. In Yekermo Sew, the bass
plays an octave pattern ostinato which is extrapolated upon in an improvisational manner as the
piece progresses and increases in intensity. The following transcription illustrates the bass part
and the main melody of the composition which is performed by the horns.
As you can see in the transcription, the composition follows a 21 bar AAB form. This is a similar
AAB form to the Horace Silver composition turned jazz standard ‘Song for my Father’ (1964),
however instead of a 21 bar form, Silver’s composition follows a more common 24 bar AAB
form (Jazz in America, 2016). In the B section the bass outlines new tonic centres. This gives the
B section the sense of moving harmony or chord progression, alternating between an Eb major
and the tonic G minor chord.
The drums alternate between two main 4/4 feels in Yekermo Sew, the first being in the A
section and the second in the B section. The A section feel is a lower dynamic and features a
cross-stick rhythm where the snare cross-stick is felt on each of the 4 beats of the bar. In the B
section, the feel changes to more of a traditional soul or funk back-beat groove with a higher
dynamic. During the solo sections the drums extrapolate the back-beat feel of the B section and
there is interplay with the the soloist and other members of the rhythm section. Despite the solo
sections utilising the feel of the B section, the solos improvise on the static G bass ostinato from
the A section which slowly develops and changes as the solos develop and increase in intensity.
Each of the solos finish with the B section. The overall form of this composition is as follows:
Intro
A
A
B
A
A
B
Wurlitzer solo
B
Electric guitar solo
B
A
A
B
Following this analysis of Yekermo Sew, we are able to identify the main Ethiopian musical
element in the piece is the employment of the tizita minor scale for the construction of both the
melody and harmony of the piece. In contrast, many Western elements can be identified. This
includes the implied chord progression outlined in the B section, the two main drum grooves,
and also the classic jazz AAB form with the B section acting as a bookend to the solos.
ጉብልዬ (Gubelye)
Gubelye is composed utilising the G anchi hoye scale. The composition begins with two lead-in
notes played on the Wurlitzer electric piano by Astatke. It is then followed by free improvisation
in a similar style to which occurs on the track Dewel. In this case however, the saxophone takes
the focus of the improvisation with the Wurlitzer piano improvising a chordal accompaniment.
During this, the bass plays tonic notes and the guitar tremolo picks atmospherically. The drums
enter at 0:28, outlining a slow 6/8 time feel. This occurs after the bass plays the same two lead-in
notes the Wurlitzer played at the beginning of the piece. The saxophone then performs the main
melody of the piece over this groove. The melodies throughout this composition, both
improvised and written, apply intricate ornamentation. The overall form of the composition is
simple, and is as follows:
Free intro
Melody with groove
Wurlitzer Solo
Melody
Fade out
Distinct Ethiopian elements within Gubelye include the use of the G anchi hoye scale and
employing intricate ornamentation in the written and improvised melodies. Despite 6/8 time
signatures being a feature of traditional Ethiopian music, the type of 6/8 drum groove
performed by Haregu can be seen as a primarily Western musical element within this
composition. Other strong Western musical elements include Wilson’s use of the wah pedal as
an effect on the electric guitar. This effect is idiomatically linked to many musical styles of
American origin, including funk, soul and rock music.
አስማሪና (Asmarina)
Amarina features a similar 3/4 jazz waltz groove to the what is featured in Dewol, however is
composed in D bati minor, a scale with identical notes to the D minor pentatonic scale of
Western music (D, F, G, A and C). When it comes to Astatke’s Wurlitzer piano solo he takes the
liberty of soloing not exclusively in the scale but using all the 12 tones of Western music
imposed over the top of the pentatonic scale. This can be seen in the transcription below.
This transcription illustrates Astatke’s use of notes that not only belong to the bati minor mode,
but also Western scales such as the D dorian mode and the blues scale which can be observed by
the extensive use of a G♯ note. This process is very similar to how a jazz musician improvises.
Melodically, there are two main parts. The first melody is performed by the flute, then follows
the second melody performed by the saxophone and trumpet. The second melody outlines the
end of each solo. With this in mind, the form of Amarina is as follows:
Intro ostinato
Flute melody
Main melody
Wurlitzer Solo
Main melody (Wurlitzer solo continues)
Guitar Solo
Main melody (Guitar solo continues)
Fade out
The main musical element of Ethiopian origin within Asmarina is the D bati minor scale.
However, as mentioned earlier, this scale is not exclusive to Ethiopian music as it is identical to
the Western D minor pentatonic scale, a scale used in many American musical styles such as
blues, funk and soul to name a few. The 3/4 jazz waltz groove outlined by the drums is in the
style of many classic American jazz compositions. Finally, Astatke’s use of notes outside of the
D bati minor scale when improvising is conducive to the style and approach to improvising by
American jazz musicians.
የካቲት (Yekatit)
Yekatit is based on the A anchi hoye scale. All of the notes of the scale are spelt out by the
repetitive main bassline which ascends the scale beginning on an A note (see figure below).
The main melody is divided into two sections of 8 bars each. This can be seen as an A section
and a B section. This simple AB form continues throughout the piece as can be seen in the
overall form of the composition below:
Intro hits
A
B
A
B
Wurlitzer Solo
B (Wurlitzer solo continues)
A
Flute solo with fade out.
The A anchi hoye scale is a distinctive Ethiopian element within this composition. Aside from
this, most of the other musical elements in this piece are Western in origin. This can be seen in
the 4/4 drum groove with hi-hats on the 8th notes and a strong backbeat similar to grooves
found in soul and funk music. Once again Wilson utilises the wah pedal as a timbral effect on the
electric guitar; another Western element. Finally the AB form is a common form found in many
compositions of Western origin, including many jazz pieces, and is similar to binary form which
originates in Western classical music (White, 1976, p.50).
ነፃነት (Netsanet)
Netsanet is composed using the D bati minor scale and offers a unique rhythmic concept quite
different to the other compositions on the record. The tune is composed in 4/4 time, however
the bassline is phrased in 6/4 across the bar. As the bassline continues to play it phases against
the horn lines and drum groove and it resolves to beat 1 after every 3 bars of 4/4 as can be seen
in the transcription of the bass line below:
In the form of the composition, each section is bookended by the horns playing a phrase and
either finishing with a hits played by the band or a break. The latter being performed at the end
of the main melody, and the former being performed between each of the solos. This is outlined
in the following form:
Main melody
Horn phrase with hits
Main melody
Saxophone solo
Horn phrase with break
Guitar solo
Horn phrase
Guitar solo continues
Wurlitzer solo
Horn phrase
Wurlitzer solo continues
Main Melody
Main Melody
Fade out with guitar solo
Similarly to the composition Asmarina, Netsanet utilises the D bati minor scale and as previously
discussed it is an identical scale to the Western D minor pentatonic scale. This means the scale
can be identified as not only an Ethiopian musical element but also a musical element of Western
origin. Significant Western musical elements found in Netsanet include the 4/4 drum groove
performed by Haregu. Although polyrhythmic concepts owe their origin to African music, the
way Astatke composes the layered time signatures found in Netsanet can also be seen as a
Western musical element. This phasing effect created by the bass playing in 6/4 whilst the rest of
the band is in 4/4 can found in compositions by Steve Reich and many other Western
composers of the time. It is also worth noting composers such as Reich have admitted being
strongly influenced by music from Africa (Reich, 2002), a concept in which we agree all styles of
music are a form of hybrid music. A final Western element found in this composition is the use
of horn phrases followed by unison band hits. These elements are idiomatic to American soul
and funk in particular, and can be seen utilised heavily in the music of artists such as James
Brown.
ትዝታዬ አንቺ ልጅ (Tezetaye Anchie Lidge)
Tezetaye Anchie Lidge is composed using the E♭ tizita major scale. The composition begins in
a jazz waltz 3/4 swing time feel under the main melody, until there is a musical break at the 1:44
mark of the piece when it modulates into a swing 4/4 time feel. The piece continues to alternate
between these two time feels, returning to the 3/4 feel as the melody returns toward the end of
the recording. Tezetaye Anchie Lidge is the longest composition on the album at 6:04. Not only
is it the longest, but features an intricate form in comparison to some of the other tracks. Due to
the composition alternating between 3/4 and 4/4, I have indicated the time signature of each
section in the following layout of the form:
Main melody in 3/4

Saxophone melody in 3/4
Saxophone melody (with horn melodies over the top) in 3/4
Main Melody in 3/4
Saxophone solo in 3/4
Break
Saxophone solo in 4/4 (with horn melodies)
Hits
Guitar solo in 3/4
Break
Guitar solo in 4/4 (with horn melodies)
Hits
Wurlitzer solo in 3/4
Break
Wurlitzer solo in 4/4 (with horn melodies)
Hits
Main melody in 3/4
Saxophone melody 3/4
Main melody in 3/4
Guitar solo in fade out
In Tezetaye Anchie Lidge, like many other compositions on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, the main
Ethiopian element found in the piece is the use of a traditional Ethiopian scale. In the case of
this composition it is the E♭ tizita major scale. However, just like the bati minor is the same
scale as the minor pentatonic in Western music, the tizita major scale is the same scale as a major
pentatonic scale in Western music. Due to this, the intention would have been to write the
composition utilising a traditional Ethiopian scale (and Ethiopian musical element) but it can
also be considered a Western element as well. In regards to other Western musical elements, a
distinctive element is the utilisation of the 3/4 jazz waltz groove, as was also mentioned when
analyzing both the compositions Dewol and Asmarina. Not only is this a Western musical
element, but so is the 4/4 swing feel found in this piece and also the compositional technique of
modulating between the two time signatures. Similar time signature modulation can be found in
many American jazz pieces, notably in Dave Brubeck’s composition ‘Blue Rondo à la Turk’
recorded in 1959. Brubeck’s composition is known for alternating between 9/8 and 4/4 time
signatures.
ሳብዬ (Sabye)
The composition Sabye is once again an example of a tune written in the anchi hoye scale and it
features a 6/8 time signature conducive to traditional Ethiopian song. The composition is mainly
in they key of G, however in the B section the bass continually resolves onto a C# which gives
the listener the impression of a different tonic centre and a different mode of the anchi hoye
scale. This can be seen in bars 22 onwards in the transcription below:
As you can see in this transcription the bass outlines the Ethiopian scale by performing two
repetitive ostinatos. There are also some odd meters observable throughout the composition,
such as the 4/8 bar after the unison melody at the beginning of the piece. This motif is revisited
throughout the composition. Overall the form of Sabye cycles through a simple AB form
beginning with the unison riff played by the entire band (of which you can see notated at the
beginning of the transcription). The following is the outline of the form:
Unison riff
A
B
Unison riff
A
B
Unison riff
Saxophone Solo
B (saxophone solo continues)
Unison riff
Wurlitzer solo
Unison riff
A
B
Quick fade out
Sabye consists of some strong Ethiopian elements in it’s composition. These include the G anchi
hoye scale found in the piece, as well as 6/8 drum groove and to employment of intricate
ornamentation in the solos. This 6/8 drum groove utilises the common 3:2 polyrhythm found in
traditional Ethiopian music and can be seen as a modern interpretation adapted to the Western
drum kit. Although no one is formally credited as performing congas on this record, you can
clearly hear congas layered in amongst the drum kit groove in this recording. This is likely to be
performed by Astatke, as it is one of his main instruments and he has had experience performing
on congas prior to this recording. The use of congas, and the layering of the conga rhythm on
the drum kit part further enhances the traditional 6/8 feel. The most obvious Western elements
found in this composition is the AB form, or binary form. This type of form was previously
discussed as being common in Western compositions.
አኔ አንቺ እልኖርም (Ene Alanchie Alnorem)
The final composition on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Ene Alanchie Alnorem, begins with the
pre-recorded sound of the wind, slowly joined by improvisation on the Wurlitzer electric piano
by Astatke. The piece is dynamically soft overall and has the characteristics of a ballad using the
E♭ tizita major scale. The drums enter at 0:20 outlining a simple 4/4 groove with a cross-stick
on the backbeat. In a similar way to some of the other tunes on this album, the melody is divided
into two sections, an A section and a B section. In the A section the flute takes the melody and
in the B section the guitar takes the melody. Following the B section, there is a break and drums
stop with an absence of time. The Wurlitzer then begins a solo when the drums return and once
again outline the groove. The following is the outline of the overall form:
Intro (free time - Wurlitzer piano improvisation over wind sound)

A
B
Break (free time - no drums)
Wurlitzer solo
Guitar solo
Break (free time - no drums)
A
B
Break (free time & fade out)
The most distinctive Ethiopian element found within this piece is E♭ tizita major scale.
However the tizita major is the same scale as the Western major pentatonic scale. As we
discussed in the analysis of Tezetaye Anchie Lidge, this element is considered Ethiopian in
origin, but can also be associated coincidentally as a Western element as well. The drum grooves
in 4/4 performed by Haregu are another Western musical element. The final identifiable Western
musical element is Astatke’s occasional use of notes outside of the tizita major scale when
improvising, both during his solos and when playing accompanying chord voicings. This is the
same method Astatke employs when soloing on Asmarina, as discussed previously.
5.3 Post Analysis Conclusions.
After the detailed musical analysis we have undertaken on each of the tracks from Mulatu
Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz, we can come to some strong conclusions about the cultural origins
of many of the musical elements found on this album. A constant feature of each piece is the
utilisation of a traditional Ethiopian scale as the basis of each of the composition’s melodic and
harmonic structure. On many of the pieces these traditional scales are then embellished and
given a traditional flavour with the use of intricate ornamentation on the melodic phrases, either
written or improvised. It is also worth noting there are only a limited amount of these traditional
Ethiopian scales are explored. These are the anchi hoye, bati minor, tizita major and tizita minor
scales. Some of the scales discussed earlier in Chapter 4 of this thesis were not utilised by Astatke
in the composition process, such as the bati major and ambassel scales. Yekatit Ethio Jazz
employs rather common Western jazz arrangements. The compositions often begin with a
melody (or head) and are followed by improvised solos and the melody is revisited throughout
the composition. It is also worth noting much of the music on this record is composed utilising
vamps, ostinatos and/or static harmony. A comparison can be drawn to modal jazz of the late
1950s and ‘60s, or the single chord vamps found in the vast majority of funk music of the time.
Astatke utilises common Western musical forms in the compositions including an AAB form in
Yekermo Sew and two AB binary forms. It can also be seen that in all of the pieces (perhaps
with the exception of Sabye) Astatke utilises drum grooves, time signatures and feels that have
origins in Western music, particularly American soul, funk and jazz. This is especially true in
regard to the tracks with either 3/4 or 4/4 swing feel, a primary element of American jazz music.
In contrast, Sabye features a traditional Ethiopian 6/8 feel that has been adapted for the Western
drum kit.
Chapter 6: Interview with Mulatu Astatke.
The following chapter will include a discussion and analysis of excerpts from a semi-structured
interview I conducted with Mulatu Astatke in order to address, confirm and elaborate on
previous findings within this thesis. As discussed earlier in this thesis, a close connection to the
subject Astatke can have it’s own disadvantages, especially in regards to a semi-structured
interview, as the willingness to retain a amicable relationship between the author and the
participant can have an influence on possible lines of questioning when conducting this research
interview. Due to this, certain questions surrounding the topic of politics and music business
details where touched on, but not pursued in an insistent manner as to retain trust and comfort
between friends during the interview process. The full transcription of this interview can be
found in Appendix D.
According to Astatke, the first album recorded in the style of Ethio-jazz was his two volume LP
Afro-latin Soul released in 1966, followed by his 1972 LP Mulatu of Ethiopia (Astatke, 2016).
Both these releases were recorded in the US, Yekatit Ethio Jazz was the first LP of his own
music recorded in Ethiopia (ibid).
On the topic of influences and what music he was listening to at the time he was recording
Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Astatke (2016) said, ‘Well, I was in America before, so I was looking to all
types of music. Listening to all types of music’. In later conversation during the semi-structured
interview, Astatke reflects on other musicians and other music that had an influence on him,
‘I really enjoyed Miles, I enjoyed Coltrane, I used to listen to a lot of different people,
then I worked really hard to find myself and be myself. (Astatke, 2016)
This American influence had a profound impact on Astatke’s approach to the composition and
recording process of Yekatit Ethio Jazz as can be seen in the Western musical elements that were
found in the track by track analysis in Chapter 5.2.
One of Astatke’s preceding works to Yekatit Ethio Jazz, and as stated by Astatke earlier, one of
the first records in the style of Ethio-jazz was his 1966 two volume LP Afro-latin Soul. The
name alone summons the question of whether latin American music was an influence in his early
works. When questioned on this, Astatke claims latin music has it’s roots in Africa, and in turn
the two musics are one and the same (2016). He elaborates by saying all the rhythms come ‘from
West Africa, to latin America, they went to Cuba. This feel, this rhythm and it was developed in
New York as latin jazz.’ (Astatke, 2016). During the 1980s Astatke travelled to Cuba by boat
where he met musicians and researched Cuban music, he describes similarities between Cuba
and Africa saying, ‘some parts of Cuba, it’s just like back in Africa. Only the language would be
different. The feel, the playing, the dance, everything is like West Africa brother. Back to Africa
again.’ (Astatke, 2016). This line of questioning within the semi-structured interview prompted
the discussion of hybridity, globalisation, musical analysis, and the impact music from Africa has
had on the world, especially in relation to jazz and latin music.
‘The whole world is connected, we are all connected. It’s a great contribution of Africa to
the world. So if you go to Ethio-jazz, not only latin; how do you analyse music? That’s
the question. You don’t analyse by only listening to the rhythms. If you want to analyse
something, you have to analyse the structures, the rhythms, the harmonic structures, the
bass lines and the arrangement. So when you go to Afro-latin soul, the first thing they
listen to is the rhythm. They have to listen to the combination, they have to do
everything.’ (Astatke, 2016)
As Astatke is a proficient musician on many instruments, it is difficult to pin down Astatke as

being associated with one specific instrument. On Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Astatke is featured
primarily on the Wurlitzer electric piano, however he often plays various percussion instruments
and vibraphone in other musical contexts. When questioned about whether he would consider
himself having a primary instrument, Astatke explained,
‘I started with percussion, I used to play timbales and congas in London. A lot of congas,
bongos I used to play quite a lot. I had a chance to play with Edmundo Ros big band in
London, it has like four trumpets, five saxophones, a whole rhythm section and I was
playing congas. I had other friends called Frank Holder, a fantastic percussionist in
London, and also Niaaza Alsherif from Paris, another great percussionist. So we used to
play, we used to jam a lot around London areas, that’s how I started on rhythms, I
started on vibes after I left England and moved to America. I started vibes at Berklee
College. I met great guys like Gary Burton, at the same time we were at Berklee together,
and some other great musicians. You know, that’s how I started the vibraphone.’
(Astatke, 2016)
Despite not playing the vibraphone on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, vibraphone is one of Astatke’s feature
instruments across many of his other recordings and informs his approach to many other
instruments including electric piano. In regards to his favourite vibraphone player Astatke claims,
‘Milt Jackson. I love Milt Jackson. So Milt is my favourite, Gary [Burton] was good on
four mallets, which i’m pretty much interested with playing with two mallets. I used to
listen to Milt Jackson a lot.’ (Astatke, 2016)
Upon questioning the definition of Ethio-jazz, Astatke describes the style as the process of
imposing the 12 notes of Western music against a composition that utilises traditional Ethiopian
pentatonic scales. He says,
‘So this music is based on these modes, so those modes are Ethiopian, and what I was
trying was the five Ethiopian notes against the twelve European music, so I decided I
should call it Ethio-jazz, and finally, I got the right name for this music. That’s how it
happened.’ (Astatke, 2016)
A musical technique Astatke utilises when applying the 12 notes of Western music to the
Ethiopian scales is imposing chords and voicings over the top. He explains,
‘So the music would be on five notes, the melodies composed on five notes, and if you
listen to the back, what I have been doing, you can hear 13th chords, flat 5s, beautiful
substitutions that i’ll be using, beautiful examples of five against twelve.’ (Astatke, 2016)
During the composition process for the music on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Astatke describes how he
utilises one traditional Ethiopian scale as the basis for harmony on each composition. Presently
he writes utilising many Ethiopian scales in once piece of music, a development from his earlier
compositional approach (Astatke, 2016) Astatke further adds to this comment by stating that
‘Ethio-jazz is a combination of all sounds, of all rhythms, of all musical elements, which makes it
so interesting.’ (2016); a concept which allows Ethio-jazz to be all encompassing and
non-obstructionary to any potential external musical influence present at the time of
performance and composition.
As discussed earlier in this thesis, Yekatit Ethio Jazz was released in 1974 at a time of political
change. The imperial government lead by Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown and replaced
by a the socialist Derg regime. When questioned on his relationship to domestic politics and
whether his music actively reflects any political standpoint, Astatke is quick to make it clear he
does not make any political affiliations in his music making process. Although making music
within a politically complex and turbulent environment means there will always be a connection,
often made outside of the musician or composer's own control. This can be seen in the name of
the LP and its title track Yekatit. Yekatit in Astatke’s native Amharic is the month in which
revolutionaries began to take control of the country in 1974. This action can be seen as a rather
pro-revolutionary move, however Astatke strongly denounces any personal association and
claims the naming was a decision made by his record label Amha Records (Astatke, 2016).
Chapter 7: Conclusion
This thesis has addressed the perceived a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary
Ethiopian music stated in the introduction. This has been achieved by focusing on the music of
Mulatu Astatke, specifically his 1974 LP Yekatit Ethio Jazz. I have identified the cultural origin
of individual music elements found within the music and discussed how specific historical and
cultural aspects had an impact on the music composition process and subsequent commercial
success of the album. This was undertaken through various qualitative research methodologies
including by embarking on both a musicological analysis of the music itself coupled with a
broader analysis of the historical and cultural context the music belongs to. The interview
conducted with Mulatu Astatke enabled us to confirm and elaborate on previous findings within
this research.
In regards to the question of identifying the cultural origin of individual musical elements that
are found on the record Yekatit Ethio Jazz, I placed elements into two categories, originating
from either Western or Ethiopian musical styles.
I came to the conclusion that the instrumentation found on the record is of Western origin.
Astatke utilises the drum kit, bass guitar, keyboards (in the form of the Wurlitzer electric piano),
electric guitar, tenor saxophone, flute and trumpet. These are all instruments commonly found
together on American jazz, funk and soul releases of the time. The 4/4 and 3/4 (6/8) swing
grooves found on the record are all Western in origin and are typical of American jazz. In
addition, the straight 4/4 grooves are also Western in origin, and are from the American styles
funk, soul and jazz. These grooves are found in the compositions Yekermo Sew, Yekatit,
Netsanet and Ene Alantchi Alnorem. Astatke’s solo on Asmarina (discussed and transcribed in
Chapter 5.2) illustrates a non-pentatonic approach to improvisation, despite the composition
being based on a D bati minor pentatonic Ethiopian scale. His 12-tonal approach to
improvisation is in the style of a Western jazz musician and he confirms and discusses this
approach in the semi-structured interview in Chapter 6.
The scales used as the foundation for melody and harmony on all the compositions found on
Yekatit Ethio Jazz are traditional Ethiopian pentatonic scales. I have concluded that although
there are other musical elements of Ethiopian origin in these compositions, including the 6/8
chik chikka feel on Sabye and the melodic phrasing and use of intricate ornamentation, the
primary Ethiopian element throughout this record is the utilisation of the traditional pentatonic
scales.
The second question in this thesis involved how specific historical and cultural aspects had an
impact on the music composition process and the subsequent commercial success of Yekatit
Ethio Jazz. Some of the main aspects included Astatke’s study in Western musical institutions
such as Trinity College of Music in London UK, and Berklee College of Music in Boston USA.
Both of these institutions provided Astatke with the fundamentals of Western musical theory
and composition which had a profound impact on Astatke’s approach to composition and
performance on the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz. As Astatke discusses in the semi-structured
interview in Chapter 6, his time living and performing with musicians in both the UK and USA
exposed him music that was popular in the respective countries at the time. This included
American jazz, soul, R&B and pop music, all which influenced Astatke’s stylistic approach as
well as the instrumentation and timbre of his ensemble. In Ethiopia, the emergence of a thriving
music scene in the late 1960s and early ‘70s provided a solid platform for Astatke to record and
release music within the country. From 1969 he not only released his own music, but worked as
a musician, composer and arranger for well known Ethiopian singers such as Tilahun Gessesse
on Ethiopia’s first record label Amha Records, which was launched in the same year by Amha
Eshete. This gave Astatke a strong industry backing within Ethiopia and provided him the
creative freedom to compose and record the music on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, also released on Amha
Records. In 1974, Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown and the socialist Derg regime took
control of Ethiopia, an event which influenced the naming of Astatke’s LP. Yekatit, the month
on the Ethiopian calendar, corresponds to the date of the socialist revolution.
There are cultural and historical aspects that had an impact on the success of Yekatit Ethio Jazz
and Astatke’s music in the West. These include the inclusion of Astatke’s music on Jim
Jamusch’s 2005 film Broken Flowers and the re-release of multiple volumes of Ethiopian music
on Buda Musique’s Ethiopiques series. Some of these cultural and historical aspects can be
attributed to the globalisation of the music industry. As with most musical styles, Ethio-jazz is a
hybrid. It is a confluence of cultural groups and historical events. Globalisation allowed Astatke
to travel around the world for study and in turn exposed himself to a variety of non-Ethiopian
musical influences. It was this same phenomenon that procured the later success of this music in
the West. The marketing of non-Western music under the genre ‘world music’ and the West’s
desire for music that is exotic and different. Not to mention global marketing and industrial
processes enabled Astatke’s music to become widely known. In-depth details of globalisation
and its effect on music and the global music industry are beyond the scope of this thesis,
however we can still acknowledge it is an aspect with an undoubtable effect on the the
composition process and commercial success of Yekatit Ethio Jazz.
There is still much to be written about in regards to such a broad topic like contemporary
Ethiopian music, particularly in relation to music of the 1960s and ‘70s and Mulatu Astatke.
Related topics such as scales, harmonic and melodic concepts in traditional Ethiopian music, the
influence of Western, particularly American, culture and music on 20th century Ethiopia and
politics and music industry in 1960s and ‘70s Ethiopia could all be explored in much more detail.
I hope to see this thesis utilized as a springboard for further study and research into this field of
study; research conducted either by myself or others.
Discography
Astatke, M 1966, Afro-latin Soul Vol. 1 & 2, Worthy Records, New York.
Astatke, M 1972, Mulatu of Ethiopia, Worthy Records, New York.
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Hancock, H 1973, Head Hunters, Columbia, United States.
Silver, H 1964, Song For My Father, Capitol Records, United States.
Sly & The Family Stone 1973, Fresh, Epic, United States.
Various 1973, Wedding Songs, Mitmitta Musika, Addis Ababa.
Weather Report 1974, Mysterious Traveller, Columbia, United States.
Wonder, S 1972, Talking Book, Tamla, United States.
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Appendix A: Glossary of terms
Addis Ababa - the capital of Ethiopia.

Amharic - the official language of Ethiopia.
Arrangement (musical) - the adaptation of a composition in regards to form and
instrumentation.
Bahalawi - traditional secular music of Ethiopia.
Ethio-jazz - a hybrid musical style that is a combination of traditional Ethiopian music and
American jazz, soul and funk.
Form (musical) - the structure or design of a composition.
Globalisation - the process of international integration arising from the exchange of world
views, products, and other cultural aspects.
Harmony - the combination of simultaneously sounded musical notes.
Instrumentation - the writing of music for particular instruments.
LP - a long-playing record, also known as an album and typically referring to vinyl.
Melody - a series of single musical notes performed in a tuneful way.
Meter (musical) - the regular succession of pulses. Also used as a term for ‘time signature’.
Pentatonic scale - a musical scale comprising of 5 notes per octave.
Rhythm - a regular pattern or systematic arrangement of sound.
Scale (musical) - a defined series of musical notes within an octave of music and used as the
basis of composition.
Time signature - the meter of the music (see ‘meter’). The regular succession of pulse.
Voicing - the way a composer or arranger organises notes within a chord on an individual
instrument or between various instruments playing simultaneously.
Walking bass - a style of bass accompaniment which outlines chord tones and chromatic
passing tones with regular quarter-note rhythm. Typically found in jazz music.
Zema - the music of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
Zemenawi - contemporary music or popular music of Ethiopia.
Appendix B: Audio Recordings
01 - Anchi Hoye
02 - Anchi Hoye (5th Mode)
03 - Bati Major
04 - Bati Minor
05 - Tizita Major
06 - Tizita Minor
07 - Ambassel
08 - 3-2 Polyrhythm
09 - Chik Chikka
10 - Dewol
11 - Yekermo Sew
12 - Yekermo Sew - Transcription
13 - Gubelye
14 - Asmarina
15 - Asmarina - Wurlitzer solo
16 - Yekatit
17 - Yekatit - Bass line
18 - Netsanet
19 - Netsanet - Bass line
20 - Tezetaye Anchie Lidge
21 - Sabye
22 - Sabye - Transcription
23 - Ene Alanchie Alnorem
Appendix C: LP Artwork & associated images.
LP front cover of Yekatit Ethio Jazz (top) and back cover with personnel, liner notes in amharic
and track listing (bottom).
Appendix D: Transcription of Semi-structured Interview with Mulatu Astatke.
Chris: Where did Ethio-jazz come from?
Mulatu: Well now it’s almost, 52 years. Now we are almost celebrating 52 years of Ethio-jazz. So
this has been created a long, long, time ago my friend, and it’s been great challenge, so beautiful.
Well, now after all these years, now Ethio-jazz has really becoming big in the world. So we have
groups playing from all over the world, like from Japan, into Europe, all over Europe, I should
say America, Brazil, Colombia. All these are fantastic Ethio-jazz groups playing, you know,
playing this music. I’m so happy, so glad, because some people have a chance to create things,
but sometimes they pass away before they see the result of their work, their experimental things,
but I think i’m very, very lucky to see how this music got all over the world while I have my life
and I really thank Berklee College, like to really thank all those places I have studied, like
Harvard, MIT and Berklee and all the great musicians I have played with in the world. I really
thank you, thank you for that.
Chris: Who came up with the name Ethio-jazz?
Mulatu: Well what it is, at first it was like afro-latin soul, because when I say afro-latin soul I was
just trying to express the African contribution to the world of music.
Chris: To latin?
Mulatu: Yeah. Whatever we call these latin rhythms, are rhythms which are found in Africa, all
over. So our latin American brothers are so connected through the cultures of Africa. This is
what I was trying to prove, talking about latin music but of course Ethio-jazz is a combination of
all sounds, of all rhythms, of all musical elements, which makes it so interesting. Now, why I use
montunos, maybe that might make it latin because of the montunos, but there is this kikriki
from Ghana, sorry, from Congo, that use these montunos. Long time ago.
Chris: What instrument would they play it on, guitars or?

Mulatu: Yeah guitars, they use all the guitars, and that actually had the feel of the montunos. So if
you go to latin music arrangements, they have the melody going, they have mambo 1, mambo 2
to make it faster, soloing and whatever, but if you go to the Congolese, instead of going faster
they start fast and go really cool and slow, which they call kikiriki. So in latin instead it’s reverse.
Anyway, afro-latin soul was as the name expresses, African and latin connection between African
and latin. Then that was just concentrating on the rhythm side and its combinations, but I was
researching and working on it and I said, ok, latin doesn’t use so much anchi-hoye, tizita,
ambessal. So this music is based on these modes, so those modes are Ethiopian, and what I was
trying was the five Ethiopian notes against the twelve European music, so I decided I should call
it Ethio-jazz, and finally, I got the right name for this music. That’s how it happened.
Chris: What the Yekatit LP the first time you worked on Ethio-jazz? Or was it around before
that album?
Mulatu: Well, Yekatit was not the first one. Yekatit was after Ethio-jazz had been created for a
long time. I did Yekatit when I arrived back in Ethiopia. The first was Afro-latin Soul, volume 1
and volume 2, and Mulatu of Ethiopia. These are the three LPs done in New York about 52
years ago. So Yekatit is a piece i’ve done after arrival in Ethiopia.
Chris: What were you listening to at the time you did the Yekatit LP?
Mulatu: Well, I was in America before, so I was looking to all types of music. Listening to all
types of music. But as I say always, I had this great professor from Berklee, who always told us,
“Be yourself.”. So I was listening to most of these great musicians in America, I was thinking
how did these people become themselves, how do they create, how do they make their own
sound, how do they become great in the world? So, it took me time, I was working hard on how
to be myself, and I had been doing a lot of experimental work, a lot of writing, a lot of listening,
but finally I came up with this sound called Ethio-jazz. Then, I became myself. Ethio-jazz is my
baby, now 52 years and people know me as the father of Ethio-jazz.
Chris: What would you say is your primary instrument?

Mulatu: I started with percussion, I used to play timbales and congas in London. A lot of congas,
bongos I used to play quite a lot. I had a chance to play with Edmundo Ros big band in London,
it has like four trumpets, five saxophones, a whole rhythm section and I was playing congas. I
had other friends called Frank Holder, a fantastic percussionist in London, and also Niaaza
Alsherif from Paris, another great percussionist. So we used to play, we used to jam a lot around
London areas, that’s how I started on rhythms, I started on vibes after I left England and moved
to America. I started vibes at Berklee College. I met great guys like Gary Burton, at the same
time we were at Berklee together, and some other great musicians. You know, that’s how I
started the vibraphone.
Chris: Who is your favourite vibraphone player?
Mulatu: Milt Jackson. I love Milt Jackson. So Milt is my favourite, Gary was good on four
mallets, which i’m pretty much interested with playing with two mallets. I used to listen to Milt
Jackson a lot, an album called, Master Sounds or something, or had a group called Master
Sounds, beautiful sound. I really enjoyed Miles, I enjoyed Coltrane, I used to listen to a lot of
different people, then I worked really hard to find myself and be myself. In the beginning I used
to listen to them, but I never wanted to me like them. I just wanted to be myself, because you
can never be somebody else. The best way to be is yourself. It comes into your nerve system,
through your bloodstream and everything to want to be sounding like somebody else, which is
so impossible. You never sound like anybody. So the best thing is, be yourself and try to sound
like yourself.
Chris: That’s true.
Mulatu: That’s the best!
Chris: For the album Yekatit, you used Wurlitzer piano and the guitar has wah-wah and
distortion on one of the solos. Was it a decision you made to use all those instruments with
those sounds, or did the musicians bring a lot of that?
Mulatu: I always look for new sounds. I always come up with new sounds. That’s what I really
love to do and I want whatever I do to sound different. So I use these systems to record the
Yekatit album. I had a trumpet player, saxophone player and I enjoyed it. It was good, beautiful
experimental work, I enjoyed working on it.
Chris: When you apply the Ethiopian scales in the music, you say that it is the twelve notes
against the five notes. Does each piece you compose start with the five notes and then you apply
the twelve notes?
Mulatu: Yeah, you can listen to Mulatu of Ethiopia, probably to Dewol. That would be a
beautiful example of this combination. Other stuff would be, Kulun, the way I solo on Kulun
Mankwaleshi and another would would be Mascaram Setaba which uses a beautiful jazz bass line,
beautiful chord changes and everything. Those are five against twelve.
Chris: By making the chords, is that using twelve against the five? What is the method?
Mulatu: Well it’s the musical voicings and the harmonic progressions which you use twelve
against five. So the music would be on five notes, the melodies composed on five notes, and if
you listen to the back, what I have been doing, you can hear 13th chords, flat 5s, beautiful
substitutions that i’ll be using, beautiful examples of five against twelve. All these 13s, flat 5s, are
all chords outside of the five notes. It is so difficult, you have to be careful of how to use them,
if you don’t know how to use those things, they can easily lose the beauty, the touch and the
colour of the scale. So that took me really quite a while to fuse the two together. Maybe you’ve
see it on Afro-latin Soul, we used some crazy, beautiful harmonic structures, 13s, flat 5, all these
were used like 52 years ago. Yeah, where some people now think it is new stuff. Well we used it!
So it is a great contribution to music. I remember when I received my PhD from Berklee, they
said, which I will never forget, “for your contribution to the music industry in the world.” so 52
years ago we used these 13s and flat 5 against these five notes, which makes it so interesting and
beautiful. It’s great man!
Chris: So when you’re soloing, are there any ideas or methods to apply the twelve to the five?
Mulatu: I mean you can use vi, ii, V, I. You can use IV, I. Use ii, V, I. You know, those things. I
use different ways so they can fit.
Chris: So with the five you create chords over the top?
Mulatu: Exactly. You know, find ways how it can fit beautifully to the five notes.
Chris: So Yekatit Ethio-jazz was released on Amha Eshete’s record label?
Mulatu: Yeah.
Chris: Did he release a lot of your stuff?
Mulatu: Well, actually I started with him. With Amha and also Philips Ethiopia. Yeah, but finally
then I was on a French label. I never did this for international release. I was doing it for *******
Ethio-jazz. Operating our modes, operating our music. I did it in America, a long time ago.
Finally, I don’t know, Amha makes connection with this French guy without us knowing
anything about our music or our contribution, I think he signed with the guy and they started
releasing it, in Europe. What happened was ****
Chris: The Ethiopiques series?
Mulatu: Yeah, Ethiopiques. At the beginning I knew nothing about it, it’s just Amha Eshete who
signed on behalf of us, on behalf of the other Ethiopian musicians, which is not correct at all! So
we are still discussing about it.
Chris: Still?
Mulatu: Yeah.
Chris: But it was 20 years ago.

Mulatu: It’s bad. I tell you, it’s bad.
Chris: So, you wouldn’t have seen any royalties from that? From the Ethiopiques stuff, you
wouldn’t have seen royalties from it at all?
Mulatu: Yeah well, we get royalties.
Chris: You do?
Mulatu: Yeah, yeah. Some. Most are registered and we see some.
Chris: So the Ethiopiques thing is fine? You see royalties?
Mulatu: No, no. Well. Anyway, that’s a different thing. I’m talking with my lawyers and talking to
different people about that. It’s bad. Using it for different films, he’s just making money left and
right with this thing. It’s so bad I tell you. Well anyway, we will get somewhere with it.
Chris: Hopefully.
Mulatu: It takes time.
Chris: Do you think the album Yekatit is important. How does it fit amongst your work? Is there
something important about it?
Mulatu: It is Ethio-jazz. Nothing else. It’s good!
Chris: Is it different from your other works?
Mulatu: Well, most of the stuff I do they have different approaches, you know, as you go along.
Now I am using different modes in pieces. In Ethio-jazz I used to concentrate on one mode, and
now I have pieces where I use all the modes in one piece.
Chris: So back then, you only used one mode a piece?
Mulatu: Yeah, so you could listen to Ethio Blues, could be a beautiful example, where I use all the
modes in there. So it’s like one step ahead.
Chris: Like the album name…
Mulatu: …Steps Ahead.
Chris: Yeah!
Mulatu: That’s it.
Chris: I know it’s a hard thing to ask but, Yekatit was released the year of the revolution…
Mulatu: Yeah, I know well… I never think politically. I just… Yekatit, the name, is the month
the revolutionaries took over. Before we had the emperor, then the revolution. So, somebody
just gave it a name.
Chris: You didn’t come up with the name?
Mulatu: No, no. It’s Amha. I wrote the music, composed Yekatit. Anyway, I’m never interested
in politics, I have nothing to do with it. I just play my music man. So, people who produce this,
give the names, whatever they want to use.
Chris: I know you already spoke a little about it, but how are you influenced by latin music?
Mulatu: It’s Africa man. I don’t say latin, I never say latin music, it all belongs to Africa.
Whenever I play or whenever I write I think Africa. I never think latin. Yeah, that’s what it is.
That’s what the Afro-latin soul means. African and then latin. So which one was the first one, is
what the question should be. Where do all these rhythms come from?
Chris: Africa.
Mulatu: From West Africa, going to latin America, they went to Cuba. This feel, this rhythm and
it was developed in New York as latin jazz.
Chris: It’s amazing. I love the idea of how everything moves around and comes back.
Mulatu: Yeah!
Chris: You said you went to Cuba as well?
Mulatu: Yeah. I went to Cuba. Very interesting, I did some research, I met some great musicians.
So beautiful. I love it. Especially with some parts of Cuba it’s just like back in Africa. Only the
language would be different. The feel, the playing, the dance, everything is like West Africa
brother. Back to Africa again.
Chris: Because even jazz, in the same way.
Mulatu: Yeah, the whole world is connected, we are all connected. It’s a great contribution of
Africa to the world. So if you go to Ethio-jazz, not only latin… how do you analyse music?
That’s the question. You don’t analyse by only listening to the rhythms. If you want to analyse
something, you have to analyse the structures, the rhythms, the harmonic structures, the bass
lines and the arrangement. So when you go to Afro-latin soul, the first thing they listen to is the
rhythm. They have to listen to the combination, they have to do everything.
Chris: So you said with your arrangement of the traditional song Kulun Mankwalesh, the bass line
was simpler?
Mulatu: Before? Yeah. You don’t have to listen to me! You listen to what the military band was
doing, you listen to the people at the nightclub what they were doing before, like 60 years ago
and then you listen to my Kulun Mankwalesh. It changed the whole atmosphere of the chik
chikka rhythm in Ethiopia.
Chris: Your arrangement of it?
Mulatu: Of course! It changed the whole sound, and I used Tilahun Gessesse to sing the song.
So it’s all changed, not only Ethio-jazz, the feels, the rhythms have changed. All you have to do it
just listen to the earlier music, and what’s happening after that. Now you see your vinyl of
wedding songs, all of that is from my Kulun Mankwalesh. Which one was first those recordings
or Kulun Mankwalesh? That’s how you have to make research. Now you go to guraginya, like
Mahmoud Ahmed’s stuff, I created that rhythm called Ebo Lala. Yeah. You make the research,
which was first, Ebo Lala first or the Roha playing Guraginya first? That’s how it should be. It’s
all from my things. It’s all Mulatu’s stuff.

Hybrid Music Mulatu Astatkes Yekatit Eth

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Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz

Supervised by Dr Barry Hill

Chapter 2: Literature Review. 10

Chapter 4: Historical and Cultural Study. 18

Chapter 5: Musical Analysis. 24

Chapter 6: Interview with Mulatu Astatke. 39

Appendix A: Glossary of terms 51

Appendix B: Audio Recordings 52

Appendix C: LP Artwork & associated images. 53

Appendix D: Transcription of Semi-structured Interview with Mulatu Astatke. 54

1.1 Addressing a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian Music.

1.2 Examining a Hybridised Style; a Hybridised Musician.

1.3 The Impact of Politics and Industry on Music Making in Ethiopia.

1.4 Notion of Author Being a Participant Observer.

Chapter 2: ​Literature Review.

2.1 Notions of World Music

2.2 Musical Analysis & Transcription

2.3 Qualitative Research Methodologies

This research project employs qualitative research methodologies including a semi-structured

As discussed in the introduction, my close personal and professional working connection to

2.4 Issues Identifying Musical Elements.

2.5 Ethiopian Music and Ethio-jazz.

2.6 Hybrid Music: Yekatit Ethio Jazz as an Example of Transculturation.

2.7 Mulatu Astatke.

2.8 Commercial Success in the West.

3.1 Musical Analysis and Transcription.

By embarking on a musicological analysis of selected elements found in the music recordings

3.2 From Observations to Conclusions Using a Qualitative Framework.

3.3 Ethnography: The Importance of Social Context in Music Making.

3.4 The Semi-structured Interview.

3.5 The Participant Observer

own creative practice. Through my involvement in the performance of traditional and

Chapter 4: ​Historical and Cultural Study.

4.1 Mulatu Astatke: a brief biography.

4.2 The Cultural Origins of Ethio-jazz.

4.3 A Brief History of Ethiopian Music.

Qenet (ቅኝት), Melody, and Harmony.

Anchi hoye (5th mode)

Rhythm and Time Signatures.

4.4 A Brief Definition of Jazz

*a level of acceptance to Ethiopian audiences.

4.6 Music Business in 1960s & ‘70s Ethiopia.

Chapter 5: ​Musical Analysis.

Mulatu Astatke ​- Keyboards, arranging & composition

5.2 Track by Track Analysis

የከርሞ ሰው (Yekermo Sew)

ትዝታዬ አንቺ ልጅ (Tezetaye Anchie Lidge)

Main melody in 3/4

አኔ አንቺ እልኖርም (Ene Alanchie Alnorem)

Intro (free time - Wurlitzer piano improvisation over wind sound)

5.3 Post Analysis Conclusions.

Chapter 6: ​Interview with Mulatu Astatke.

As Astatke is a proficient musician on many instruments, it is difficult to pin down Astatke as

Jazz in America, Thelonious Monk Institute of Jazz, viewed 15 September 2016,

Astatke, M 2016, ​Mulatu Astatke Interview.

Becker, HS 1958, 'Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation', ​American

Bendrups, D 2006, 'Researchers, Musicians or Record Producers? Negotiating Roles and

Blaikie, N 2004, ​Interpretivism, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA,

Cook, N 1987, ​A Guide to Musical Analysis, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Crummey, DE, Marcus, HG & Mehretu, A 2016, ​Ethiopia,

Francis, S 2014, ቸክቸክካ​ - chickchicka,

Freerix, M 2010, ​Swing from Abessinia, <http://www.furious.com/perfect/mulatuastatke.html>.

Grindsted, A 2005, 'Interactive resources used in semi-structured research interviewing', ​Journal of

Jamausch, J 2005, ​Broken Flowers.

Chapter 2: Literature Review.

Chapter 4: Historical and Cultural Study.

Chapter 5: Musical Analysis.

Mulatu Astatke - Keyboards, arranging & composition

Chapter 6: Interview with Mulatu Astatke.

Astatke, M 2016, Mulatu Astatke Interview.

Becker, HS 1958, 'Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation', American

Blaikie, N 2004, Interpretivism, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA,

Cook, N 1987, A Guide to Musical Analysis, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Crummey, DE, Marcus, HG & Mehretu, A 2016, Ethiopia,

Francis, S 2014, ቸክቸክካ - chickchicka,

Freerix, M 2010, Swing from Abessinia, <http://www.furious.com/perfect/mulatuastatke.html>.

Grindsted, A 2005, 'Interactive resources used in semi-structured research interviewing', Journal of

Jamausch, J 2005, Broken Flowers.

Music of Ethiopia 2016, viewed 3/8/16, <https://musicofethiopia.wordpress.com/>.

Schuller, G 2005, Jazz.

Slobin, M 1993, Subcultural Sounds: Micromusics of the West, 1 edn, Wesleyan.

Spencer, N 2008, 'Out of Africa', The Guardian,

White, JD 1976, The Analysis of Music, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.

Appendix A: Glossary of terms

Addis Ababa - the capital of Ethiopia.

Appendix B: Audio Recordings

Appendix C: LP Artwork & associated images.

Appendix D: Transcription of Semi-structured Interview with Mulatu Astatke.

Chris: Where did Ethio-jazz come from?

Chris: Who came up with the name Ethio-jazz?

Chris: What instrument would they play it on, guitars or?

Chris: What would you say is your primary instrument?

Chris: Who is your favourite vibraphone player?

Chris: That’s true.

Mulatu: That’s the best!

Chris: So Yekatit Ethio-jazz was released on Amha Eshete’s record label?

Chris: Did he release a lot of your stuff?

Chris: The Ethiopiques series?

Chris: But it was 20 years ago.

Mulatu: It’s bad. I tell you, it’s bad.

Mulatu: Yeah well, we get royalties.

Chris: You do?

Chris: So the Ethiopiques thing is fine? You see royalties?

Mulatu: It takes time.

Mulatu: It is Ethio-jazz. Nothing else. It’s good!

Chris: Is it different from your other works?

Chris: So back then, you only used one mode a piece?

Chris: Like the album name…

Mulatu: …Steps Ahead.

Mulatu: That’s it.

Chris: You didn’t come up with the name?

Chris: You said you went to Cuba as well?

Chris: Because even jazz, in the same way.

Chris: Your arrangement of it?