Introduction to Signals

Dr. Waqas Ahmed Imtiaz

January 24, 2018

2
Contents

1 Signals 5
1.1 Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Classification of Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Classification w.r.t Time t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Classification w.r.t Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Even Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Odd Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.5 Periodic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Signal Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.1 Mathematical Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Signals

1.1 Signal
Signal can be defined in number of ways based on the the type of application it
is used to perform. For example
“Something that carries information about the behavior or attributes of some
phenomenon”
“signal is a function of independent variables that can carry some informa-
tion”
Signal is sometimes referred to a means for carrying information (meaning
full data or a stimuli that has some meaning for a particular receiver) between
the source (where the information is generated) and destination (where it is
meant to receive).
Now the parameters that are used to generate and transmit information
between the source and receiver translates signal as
“Description of how one parameter is related to another”
“Pattern of variation of a physical quantity that can be generated, manipu-
lated, stored, or transmitted by different physical process”
Signal itself is formed the combination of dependent variables (voltage, cur-
rent, etc.) along Y axis, and independent (time, frequency, etc.) variables along
X axis shown in Fig. 1.1(a). Consequently, the variation of voltage with respect
to time can result in a particular signal, shown in Fig. 1.1(b) that will carry
some meaningful data between two parties.
The physical parameters along X and Y-axis can be linked mathematically,
which translates the signal as
“Function of one or more variables”
Mathematically, signal can be represented as a function e.g. (x(t), v(t), etc.)

5
6 CHAPTER 1. SIGNALS

Y axis V
1
Dependent Variable
t
O π/2 π 3π/2 2π

X axis
-1
Independent variable
(a) (b)

Figure 1.1: (a) Two dimensional space with X- and Y-axis (b) Sine wave as a
function of voltage (V) and time (t)

that describes behavior of the dependent variable with variations in the indepen-
dent parameter. For example x(t) = cos(t) describes the behavior of a cosine
function with respect to time as shown in Fig. 1.2, were x(t) represents the
value of cosine function at time t.
t = 0 : cos(0) = 1
π
t= 2 : cos( π2 ) = 0
t = π : cos(π) = −1
3π
t= 2 : cos( 3π
2 )=0

t = 2π : cos(2π) = 1

x(t)

-π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π t

-1

Figure 1.2: Cosine wave as a function of time

1.2 Classification of Signals

Signals can be classified on the basis on multiple parameters and applications.
However, the basic classification of signals is done w.r.t time t and function x(t).
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS 7

1.2.1 Classification w.r.t Time t

This type of classification consider the t along X-axis to determine the type of
signal. There are two basic types in this family

1. Continuous Time (CT) Signals

2. Discrete Time (DT) Signals

Continuous Time Signals

A CT signal is a varying function (signal) of dependent and in-dependent vari-
ables whose domain, which is often time, is a continuum (e.g., a continuous set
of values). That is, the function’s domain t is an uncountable set. The function
x(t) itself need not be continuous. For further elaboration a CT signal is one in
which
“The independent variable changes continuously with t”
“The dependent variable t is defined for each and every value of the inde-
pendent variable x(t) and vice versa”
“Has infinite number of points (and each point has a distinct value) between
any two intervals”
That is, the function’s independent domain t is an uncountable set of values.
For example if two instants are considered along the t axis, there lies infinite
number of values between these two intervals. Figure 1.3 shows continuous time
signals where the t consists of an uncountable set of values. For example if an
instant between t = 1 and t = 2 contains infinite number of values i.e. 1.0,
1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001, . . . and so on. Furthermore, each and every instant on t
axis will have a definite function x(t) along with y-axis.

t t
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3: Continuous time signals

Discrete Time Signals

Unlike CT, DT signals are represented for a given number of defined value (pure
integer, no fraction) over a period of time n. Furthermore, values of the signal
8 CHAPTER 1. SIGNALS

exists at equally spaced portion/intervals of time. It is evident from the fact

that discrete intervals are created due to sampling, which yields equidistant
points along the X-axis. For further elaboration a DT signal is one in which

“The intensity levels of the signal are defined at discrete (discontinuous)

intervals of time n”

n n
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4

(a) (b)

Figure 1.4: Discrete time signals

Figure 1.4 shows DT signals where the time n consists of a discontinuous

set of values i.e. the function/signal x[n] is defined at specific (usually integer)
values of time. For example Fig. 1.4(a) shows DT signal with x[n] defined at
[1234] only and no other points/instants are used to express the signal. Same
phenomenon can be observed in Fig. 1.4(b), which represents the output of a
natural sampling process, where the signal is defined for discrete (discontinuous)
set intervals only.

1.2.2 Classification w.r.t Function

This type of classification considers value of the function along Y-axis to deter-
mine if the signal is

1. Analog Signal

2. Digital Signal

Analog Signal

This type of signal uses a continuous set of function x(t) values to represent the
information for a given signal.
“Analog signal corresponds to the continuous set of possible function values
between given intervals”

“An Analog signal has infinite number of possible values with in a range or
any given intervals”
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS 9

That is, the function’s x(t) contains an uncountable set of values between
given intervals. For example if two instants are considered along the t axis, there
will be infinite number of possible values of x(t) between these two intervals.
“The change of function values between any two instant is gradual, or the
values increases or deceases gradually between given instants”

t n
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4

(a) (b)

Figure 1.5: Analog Signals

Digital Signal
Digital signal is the one which
“Uses a discrete set of values to represent the function”
“Digital signal have finite set of possible values along Y-axis”
The change is signal is abrupt while moving from one interval to
another unlike analog

t
0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.6: Digital Signal

1.2.3 Even Signal

If x(t) represent an analog signal along time t, then the signal is said to be even
if

x(t) = x(−t) (1.1)

10 CHAPTER 1. SIGNALS

Equation 1.1 shows that for a signal to be even the value of the function along
with positive t must be equal to the value of the function along the negative t
axis. For example if x(t) = 1 at t = 2, then x(−t) = 1 at t = −2 for a signal
to be even. In order words the signal is a mirror image of itself between the
negative and positive t axis.

2
1 1

x
-t t-x-3π/2
-2 -1 0 1 2 -π -π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2
-1
(a) (b)

Figure 1.7: Even signals

1.2.4 Odd Signal

The signal x(t) is said to be odd if

x(t) = −x(−t) (1.2)

Equation 1.2 shows that an odd signal contains equal and opposite values
along positive and negative t axis. For example if x(t) = 1 at t = 2, then
x(−t) = −1 at t = −2 for a signal to be even as shown in Fig. 1.8.

2
1
V
1
-t t
-2 -1 0 1 2
-x x
-1 -π -π/2 0 π/2 π

-2 -1

(a) (b)

Figure 1.8: Odd signals

1.2.5 Periodic Signal

A signal is said to be periodic if
1.3. SIGNAL REPRESENTATION 11

“It repeats itself over regular interval of time”

Mathematically, if x(t) represent a signal and T0 is the, then a periodic signal
can be written as

x(t) = x(t + T0 ) (1.3)

1.3 Signal Representation

Three techniques can be used to represent a signal namely
1. Graphical
2. Mathematical
3. Vector space
Graphical and mathematical representations can be linked together as both
are used simultaneously to represent a particular signal.

1.3.1 Mathematical Representation

Mathematically any signal x(t) is given by

x(t) = Acos(2πf t + φ) (1.4)

where
A = Amplitude
f = F requency
φ = Phase or Phase shift

Amplitude
Amplitude of any signal can be defined in a number of ways for example:
“The largest possible value at a given instant that a signal can take”
“The peak value of a signal at any instant”
“The height of a signal from the center line (x-axis) to the peak ”
“The maximum height, force or power of the wave/ signal ”
“Maximum displacement of a particular wave/ signal from its equilibrium
position”
It is evident from the above-mentioned definitions that Amplitude of any
given signal simply represents the maximum value (height) that the signal can
attain at any given instant. For example Fig. 1.9 shows a simple signal with
numerous intensity level, but amplitude A = 2, which represents the highest or
peak value that the signal can achieve.
12 CHAPTER 1. SIGNALS

X(t)
2

1
t
0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.9: Amplitude of signal x(t)

Frequency
Frequency of any signal x(t) can be defined as:
“Number of cycles per second ”
“How often a signal goes through a cycle”

X(t)
1 1 1

t t
1 1 1

-1 T -1 T -1 T

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.10: Signal x(t) with different frequencies

Figure 1.10 shows three signals with different frequency (number of cycles
per second). T represent the time period, which is the time required to complete
one cycle. Signal (a) completes one cycle in one complete second therefore f = 1
for the signal in Fig. 1.10(a). Similarly signals in Fig. 1.10(b) and (c) completes
2 and 4 cycles in one complete second, therefore they have f = 2 and f = 4
respectively.
Frequency can also be termed as
“Rate of change of voltage w.r.t time”
This definition can be used to distinguish between AC and DC signals, for
example a signal with varying voltage w.r.t time can be termed as an AC signal.
While DC has f = 0, which clearly states that their is no change in voltage w.r.t
in DC signals. It can also be observed from fig. 1.11
1.3. SIGNAL REPRESENTATION 13

1 1

t
1

-1 T T
(a) (b)

Figure 1.11: (a)AC and (b)DC signals

Phase or Phase Shift

Phase shift for any given signal x(t) can be defined as:
“Starting point of a signal w.r.t to zero”
“How far the signal is horizontally to the right of original position at zero”
In order to demonstrate the concept of phase, refer to Fig.
Figure 1.12 shows a simple sine wave with different phases given by a dotted
point representing the starting point of a sine wave. For further elaboration of
the phase/ phase-shift concept consider the Figure which shows a simple co-
sine wave with different phase shifts. Fig. 1.13(a) represents a simple cosine
wave with no phase shift or φ = 0, thus x(t) = cos(2πf t) with A = 1. Figure
1.13(b) represents a cosine wave with different phase (represented by dot, start-
ing point). It is evident from the fact that a change in phase has introduce a
shift in the signal along x-axis, and due to this π/2 shift x(t) = cos(2πf t − π2 ).
Same phenomenon is observed in Fig. 1.13(c) where cosine wave is shift to right
of the references resulting in x(t) = cos(2πf t + π2 ).
It is observed from Fig. 1.12, and 1.13 that a change in phase slides the
signal along x-axis. This sliding or time shift Ts operation can be related to
phase shift as

−φ = w × Ts (1.5)
14 CHAPTER 1. SIGNALS

X(t) X(t)
1 1

t t
1 1

-1
-1
(a) (b)

1 X(t)

t
1

-1
(c)

Figure 1.12: Sine wave with different phases

1.3. SIGNAL REPRESENTATION 15

X(t) X(t)
1 1

t t
-π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π -π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2 2π
-1 -1
(a) (b)

X(t)

1
t
-π/2 O π/2 π 3π/2
-1
(c)

Figure 1.13: Cosine wave with different phases

Examples
Following examples cover the topic of signal representation through mathe-
matical and graphical analysis. Plotting is done in MATLAB to facilitate the
implementation and elaboration of the process.

Example 1.3.1

Plot the signal x(t) = cos(2πt).

Solution
Before plotting the signal, it
is necessary to determine the
required parameters including
A, f, φ. So compare the given sig-
nal with the basic equation
x(t) = Acos(2πf t + φ)
comparison elaborates that
A=1
2πf = 2π , which yields f = 1 af-
ter simplification. Now the time
period T = f1 becomes equal to
T =1
φ=0
16 CHAPTER 1. SIGNALS

Example 1.3.2 Plot the signal x(t) = cos(2πt).

Before plotting the signal, it is necessary to determine the required parame-
ters including A, f, φ. So compare the given signal with the basic equation
x(t) = Acos(2πf t + φ)
comparison elaborates that
A=1
2πf = 2π , which yields f = 1 after simplification. Now the time period
T = f1 becomes equal to T = 1
φ=0

Example 1.3.3 Plot the signal x(t) = cos(4πt).

Solution
Before plotting the signal, it is necessary to determine the required parame-
ters including A, f, φ. So compare the given signal with the basic equation
x(t) = Acos(2πf t + φ)
comparison elaborates that
A=1
2πf = 4π , which yields f = 2 after simplification. Now the time period
T = f1 becomes equal to T = 21
φ=0

Example 1.3.4 Plot the signal x(t) = cos(0.2πt).

Solution
Before plotting the signal, it is necessary to determine the required parame-
ters including A, f, φ. So compare the given signal with the basic equation
x(t) = Acos(2πf t + φ)
comparison elaborates that
A=1
1
2πf = 0.2π , which yields f = 10 after simplification. Now the time period
1
T = f becomes equal to T = 10
φ=0
1.3. SIGNAL REPRESENTATION 17

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
x(t)

−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

−0.8

−1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time