Final Lectures 421

Computer Aided Instrumentation
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Muhammad Ahmad Khan
 BE Aerospace Engineering CAE,NUST

 M Engg “Industrial & Manufacturing” NED UET
 Past Experience
 Maintenance Engineer
 Project Manager at Technology Deptt
 Small Parts Manufacturing Chinese Engines
 Surface Engineering Facilities
2
 Text Book “Mechanical Measurements” by Bechwith,
Marangoni & Lienhard
 Ref Book “Measurement & Instrumentation” by Moris
& Reza
 Assessment system
 Theory 50%
 Quiz-10 to 15%
 Assignment-10 to 15%
 OHT-30%
 End semester-50%
 Lab 50%
 Lab portion will be covered by Lab Engr Qazi Usman
3
Introduction to Computer Aided
Instrumentation
Lec 1-2
4
Learning Objective
To develop understanding of:-

 Significance of Measurement through discussing
its Applications
 Input Quantities…the “Measurands” and
Concept of Analog & Digital Signals
 A “Generalized Measuring System/ Instrument &
Its Elements”
 Classifications of Measurement Systems/
Instruments
5
Sequence
 Introduction to Computer Aided Instrumentation
 Significance of Measurement/Instrumentation
 Introduction
 Why measurement……Application
 Aircraft Applications
 Input quantities
 Static….Time Constant
 Dynamic….Time varying
 State varying….Independent of time
 Concept of Analog & Digital
 Fundamental Methods of Measurement
 A Generalized Measuring System
 Basic Elements of Measuring System
6  Classification of Measuring System
Generalized Measuring System
7
 What Instrumentation Refers here?
 What is Metrology & its link with this Subject?
 Why Computer Aided?
8
 Instrumentation…refers to measurement instrument

 The subject “Computer Aided Instrumentation” is
modern form of “Metrology”
 Metrology
 Science of Measurement is called “Metrology”
 With the advancement in Engineering technologies &

great flexibility associated with computers, use of
computers in almost all the fields has become a must
 Thus todays’ measuring instruments are no

exemption to this fact… “computer aided”.
9
Significance of Measurement
 Measurement Process
 Measurand
 Standard
 Why Measurement?
Monitoring, Analyzing, Controlling, Diagnosis,

Preventive Maintenance
10
 Measurement The process by which a number (with

a unit) is assigned to parameters/variables like
displacement or atmospheric conditions e.g
temperature, pressure etc.
 OR “Assigning a value to a characteristic/
parameter/ variable”.
 Measurand The word “Measurand” is used to
designate the particular parameter/ characteristic
/variable which is being quantified/measured.
 Standard The standard amount or quantity
which is used to quantify a measurand.
 Why Measurement?
11
 Why Measurement? …… Applications
 Monitoring Measured quantities serve as basis for
process conformance to required conditions e.g temp
in a room, aircraft altitude, patient pulse rate etc
 Analyzing Measured quantities are statistically
analyzed in various applications to serve the basis for
futuristic decisions or estimates e.g weather forecasts
 Controlling Measured quantities are used to control
various systems e.g thermostat to switch on/off an AC
 Diagnosis Measured quantities serve the basis for
diagnosis of system’s fault.
 Preventive Maintenance Conditioned Monitoring of
various measurand & their analysis help assist in
preventive maintenance ie Conditioned Base
Maintenance (CBM) e.g FDR in aircraft
12
 What all measurement systems/Instruments are

installed on an Aircraft?……………….Applications
13

 Temperature EGT indication
 ASI
 Altimeter
 AOA
 GPS
 Cabin Pressure Indicator
 Pitch/Side Slip Indicator
 Hydraulic, Pneumatic Pressure Indicator
 Engine Oil Pressure Indicator
Now What is Measurement Significance?

14  What we are proving here?
Measurement Importance System Elements
Systems
Temperature To avoid over temp conditions Thermocouple sensors,
(EGT) Indicator, signal
conditioner, FDR
recording
ASI Instrument flying, Landing & total & static pressures’
T/off speeds, flying in flight sensors (pito-static
envelop, weapon delivery boom), Indicator,
pressure (signal carrying)
hoses, transducer, signal
conditioner, FDR
recording, HUD interface
15
Systems
Altimeter Instrument flying, Landing & Static pressure sensors
T/off, flying in flight envelop, (pito-static boom),
weapon delivery Indicator, pressure
(signal carrying) hoses,
transducer, signal
conditioner, FDR
AOA -do- AOA transducer, Signal
conditioner, FDR
GPS Navigation, weapon delivery Satellite sensors, GPS
receiver, display unit,
FDR recording, HUD
interface
16
Systems
GPS Navigation, weapon delivery Satellite sensors, GPS
receiver, display unit,
FDR recording, HUD
interface
Cabin Pressure Cockpit ceiling and human Static & cockpit pressure
limitation sensors (pito-static
boom), Indicator,
pressure (signal carrying)
hoses
FDR/FDR CBM, monitoring & post mission Various sensors, signal
analysis conditioning hardware, A
to D Convertor, data
recording unit
17
Systems
Pitch/Side slip Instrument flying, Landing & Pitch & side slip sensors,
T/off, flying in flight envelop, signal conditioners, HUD
weapon delivery interface, FDR recording
Hydraulic An essential power source (flight Transducer, signal
Pressure controls, L/G Ext/Ret) required conditioner, indicator,
continuous monitoring for HUD interface, FDR
initiation of quick response by recording
the pilot in case of its failure.
Pneumatic -do- -do-
Pressure
Engine Oil Engine serviceability indicator; -do-
Pressure essential monitoring for initiation
of quick response by the pilot in
case of engine failure.
18
Input Quantities….The Measurands
 Input Quantities
The quantifiable engineering characteristics/ parameters
(e.g mass, length, displacement, velocity, temp,
vibrations, pressure, volts etc)
 Measurands’ Relation with Time
 Static Variables
 Dynamic Variables------varying in time
Periodic, Non-repetitive/ Transient, Random
 State Varying
19
 The quantifiable engineering characteristics/
parameters (e.g mass, length, displacement, velocity,
temp, vibrations, pressure, volts etc)
 In addition to their inherent properties, they also have
distinctive “time-amplitude” properties. Based on this
aspect, the measurands can be classified as:-
 Static Variables--------constant in time
 The parameters which remains constant over a period
of time or throughout their span. The variable which do
not change with time e.g mass & length (almost
throughout span), voltage, pressure & room temp (over
a time period).
 Dynamic Variables------varying in time
Periodic, Non-repetitive/ Transient

20
(a) Periodic
 Periodic: The periodic signal varies with time & repeats
after a constant interval. The input may be of harmonic
or non-harmonic type. Periodic motion refers to any
type of repeated motion eg rotation of shaft “RPM”, 60
cycle line voltage etc.
 Harmonic: Simple harmonic motion refers to types of
periodic motion where there is a restoring force which
is proportional to the displacement. e.g sinusoidal
motion etc
(b) Non-repetitive or Transient
 Transient/Single Pulse
 Non-repetitive/Random
21
(b) Non-repetitive or Transient
 Transient/Single Pulse: The transient signal varies non-
cyclically with time. The signal is of definite duration
and becomes zero after certain period of time. e.g
sudden rise in line voltage, sudden rise in machine
vibration due to failure of any moving part etc.
 Non-repetitive/Random: The random signal varies
randomly with time with no definite period or amplitude.
This may be continuous but non cyclic/ non repetitive.
“The nature of these Input quantities is discussed in

Chapter 4 & response of the measuring system is
discussed in Chapter 5 of Text Book”
22
 State varying Inputs
 Inputs which are as such not measured with time but
their state variation is important & measured
e.g day-night differentiator…light detector, smoke
detectors, aircraft L/Gears, flaps, variable shock cone etc
extension/ retraction detectors
23
 Signals --- here refer to measurands.
 Analog Signal
 Digital Signal
24
 Signals --- here refer to measurands.
 Analog Signal An analog signal is a continuous
signal that contains time varying quantities.
 Digital Signal A digital signal has a discrete value
at each sampling point/ sampling interval.
25
Fundamental Methods of Measurement
 Direct Comparison Method
 Indirect Comparison Method
 How to measure strain, voltage, pressure?
A more complex calibrated measuring system is

required… consider generalized measuring system on
next slide
26
 The measurand is quantified by direct comparison with
a primary or secondary standard e.g measuring a steel
bar height through comparison gage blocks (secondary
standards).
 The measurand is quantified by a calibrated measuring
system like caliper, micrometer etc
 How to measure strain, voltage, pressure?

next slide
27
Summary
 Introduction
 State varying….Independent of time
28 Classification of Measuring Sysem
Q&A
29
Introduction to Computer Aided
Instrumentation
Lec 1-2
1
 How to measure strain, voltage, pressure?

next slide
2
 The measurand is quantified by direct comparison with
a primary or secondary standard e.g measuring a steel
bar height through comparison gage blocks (secondary
standards).
 The measurand is quantified by a calibrated measuring
system like caliper, micrometer etc
 How to measure strain, voltage, pressure?

next slide
3
4
3 Stages of a Measuring System
 Sensor-Transducer Stage Senses desired
input variable & provides analogous output to next
element.
 Signal Conditioning Stage Modifies
transduced signal into usable form for final element. It
usually amplifies signal amplitude, attenuates/ filters
undesired frequencies or converts A to D. This stage
may comprise of combination or any one of these
functions.
 Readout, Data Presentation Stage Provides an
indication or recording or a signal for controlling some
device.
Each stage/ element consists of a distinct component or a set of
components.

5
3 Stages/ Elements of Measuring Sys
6
7
Basic Elements of a Measuring System
This device uses two

transducers ie piston &
spring
Stage 1 Sensor-Transducer Element

Piston – convert pressure to force Metallic
Spring – converts force into displacement
Stage 2 Signal Conditioning Element
No signal conditioning (input is directly
transformed to the scale)
Stage 3 Readout Element
Metallic Scale is available for readout
8
A short Discussion on Sensor & Transducers
 Sensor A device which can detect a physical
parameter/quantity (measurand) & convert it into any
form of energy.
 Transducer A device that converts a measurand
from one form of energy to another form (generally
electrical). “Every transducer is a sensor but not every sensor
is a transducer”.
e.g
Thermocouple transducer --- heat energy to electrical energy
Spring transducer --- force to displacement & vice-versa
“A transducer generally gives an electrical signal which is

proportional to the measurand”.
9
 A Comment on Sensors/Transducers
 Primary function of a sensor/ transducer is to detect
or sense the measurand.
 Ideally a sensor should be insensitive to every other

possible input other than the measurand
 A strain gauge should sense strain only

 It should be insensitive to temperature
 This isolation of input signal cannot be ideally achieved
 Some sort of unwanted sensitivity will always be there
and this will cause measurement error
10
Bourdon Tube -
Pressure Sensor
Bellows -
Pressure Sensor
11
Spring –
Force to displacement Sensor
12
Classification of Measuring Systems
INSTRUMENTS
Electrical Mechanical Electronics Optical Hyd/Pneu
Analog Digital Hybrid
Active Passive
Null Type Deflection Type
Open Loop Closed Loop
13
Analog Instrument
An analog instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the
quantity being measured changes. The output can have an infinite number
of values within the range that the instrument is designed to measure. The
deflection-type of pressure gauge described earlier is a good example of an
analog instrument.
Digital Instrument
A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can
only have a finite number of values. The rev counter is an example of digital
instrument. The counter system can only count whole revolutions and
cannot discriminate any motion that is less than a full revolution.
14
Passive Instruments
Instrument which produce reading
output directly from quantity being
measured.
Active Instruments
Instruments where quantity being
measured simply modulates the
magnitude of some external power
source.
15
Null or Deadweight Instrument
Here fluid exerts pressure on piston & piston
moves up. A datum line is marked on cylinder.
Once piston moves up as per the exerted
pressure, weights on piston are added to push
it down till datum (zero-null) mark. Now
weights are calculated and transformed to
Pressure value; thus pressure is measured.
Deflection Type Instrument

Pressure gage shown above is spring type;
where fluid exerts pressure on piston and
spring contracts, thereby pointer deflection
shows the fluid Pressure exerted on the
piston/spring: for such instruments, accuracy
depends on linearity and spring calibration.
16
Null or Deadweight & Deflection Type Instrument
(i) Null type instruments are more accurate than deflection types as
calibration of weights is quite easy against that of spring or linearity
characteristic.
(ii) Deflection type instruments are more convenient to read,
therefore widely used at workplace. The Null type involves
mathematics to know the measurand value, but at the same time, it
is more accurate; it is therefore is widely used for calibration duties
17
INSTRUMENTS
Electrical Mechanical Electronics Optical Hyd/Pneu
Analog Digital Hybrid
Active Passive
Null Type Deflection Type
Open Loop Closed Loop
18
A more complex system
19
Voltage output from

accelerometer with
noise
20
Signal after removal

of noise
21
Time-integrated
voltage analogous
to velocity
22
Summary
 Introduction
 State varying….Time Varying
23 Classification of Measuring Sysem
Q&A
24
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Instrument
Performance Characteristics
Lecture No 3-5
2
Learning Objective
 Importance of Instrument Performance

Characteristics
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
 Time-dependent Characteristics of Measurand
3
Sequence
 Importance of Instrument Performance Characteristics &
definitions
 Static Performance Characteristics
 Desirable Characteristics
Accuracy (Trueness----Precision----Calibration), Resolution, Sensitivity,

Linearity, Repeatability, Reproducibility
 Undesirable Characteristics
 Drift (Zero Drift, Sensitivity or Span Drift)
 Dead zone (Threshold, Hysteresis)
 Dynamic Performance Characteristics
 Frequency Response
 Amplitude Response
 Phase Response
 Slew Time
 Time-Dependent Characteristics of Measurand
4
Instrument Performance Characteristics
 Studying Performance Characteristics is Important
 Higher the performance, higher will be the cost of equipment.
 Lower or inappropriate performance characteristics can lead to

erroneous readings/ output.
 Few examples
“Thus knowledge of Instrument Performance

Characteristics is a must”
5
 Studying Performance Characteristics is Important
 Higher the performance, higher will be the cost of equipment.
 Lower or inappropriate performance characteristics can lead to
erroneous readings/ output. Few examples:-
 Consider an altimeter for an aircraft … It is required to give accurate
output within no time …. response of this altimeter over time is critical. If
we don’t cater for these aspect in selecting an altimeter, we may end up in
undesired results.
 Consider a fuel counter in an aircraft …. It is required to assist pilot for fuel
management during flight ….. An average counter with average
characteristics suffice the pilot needs. What if, an aircraft has to fly for
endurance & counter has poor linearity characteristics …… Pilot may end
up having higher counter errors in remaining fuel which may result fuel
starvation conditions.
“Thus knowledge of Instrument Performance Characteristics is a must”
6
 To choose an instrument that is most suited for a particular
measurement application/ quantity, few characteristics are
important to be known.
 The performance characteristics of Instruments may be broadly

divided into two groups:-
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
7
 To choose an instrument that is most suited for a particular
measurement application/ quantity, few characteristics are
important to be known.
 The performance characteristics of Instruments may be broadly

divided into two groups:-
 Static Characteristics “The instrument performance criteria for the

measurement of quantities that remain constant, or vary quite slowly”
is called as Static Performance Characteristics of Instruments.
 Dynamic Characteristics “The instrument performance criteria for the

measurement of quantities that vary rapidly over time” is called as
Dynamic Performance Characteristics of Instruments.
8
Static Performance Characteristics of
Instrument
9
Static Performance Characteristics
 Static performance characteristics can be divided into two broader
categories.
 Desirable Characteristics
 Accuracy & Precision
 Range
 Resolution
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Repeatability
 Reproducibility
 Undesirable Characteristics
 Drift
 Zero Drift
 Sensitivity or Span Drift
 Dead zone
 Threshold
10  Hysteresis
 Accuracy Accuracy is “the closeness of a measurement to
the true/actual value” OR
 The difference between Xm & Xt is called as error …. Accuracy is
represented in negative term ie error or inaccuracy.
 OEM will specify maximum error as Accuracy”.
% Accuracy = {(Xm- Xt)/Xt} x 100%
Where (Xm- Xt) = Error in measurement result
 Precision It is the closeness of agreement among a set of

results. OR
 The difference between readings during repeated measurements of
same quantity.
 Calibration in metrology is the comparison of measurement values
delivered by a device under test with those of a calibration standard of
known accuracy.
11
 Accuracy Accuracy is “the closeness of a measurement to the
true/actual value”
 Precision It is the closeness of agreement among a set of
results regardless that result is close to true value or not.
High precision & high Accuracy are desired.
12
 Desirable Characteristics (Cont’d)
 Range/Span
It is defined as “the magnitude
of minimum to maximum values
of a quantity that an instrument
is designed to measure”.
 Resolution
The smallest increment of change in input value that can
be determined from instrument output (readout scale).
Resolution is on same order as that of Precision.
13
 Desirable Characteristics (Cont’d)
 Sensitivity “The change in instrument output per unit change in
measurand input is called instrument sensitivity.” S = dy/dx
 “An instrument is said to be sensitive, when it reacts more for a given

input signal or when it produces greater gain values for a given input.”
 Sensitivity has dimensions

e.g a mercury thermometer
(mercury displace/rise in temp)
i-e S = dy/dx = mm/C
14
 Typically, an instrument with higher sensitivity will also have finer
resolution, better precision & higher accuracy.
15
 Typically, an instrument with higher sensitivity will also have finer
 Once we can detect smaller inputs, we will have better resolution.
 Once we have better resolution, then scatter of repeated measured

values of constant input will be smaller …. smaller scatter/ disperse
…. greater precision.
 As each division on readout scale is being produced by greater

magnitude output (dy), then chances of inaccuracy are less as greater
magnitude output are easy to handle by the instruments. Thus higher
sensitivity will result in better/ higher accuracy.
16
Senstivity….. A Numerical
 The following resistance values of a platinum
resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures.
Determine the
measurement sensitivity
of the instrument in
ohms/°C.
 Solution If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-

line relationship between resistance change and temperature
change is obvious.
 For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is
7. Hence the measurement sensitivity = 7/30 = 0.233 ohms /°C.
17
 Linearity is the ability of an instrument to respond to its input quantity
linearly. Linearity is represented in negative terms ie non linearity (+-n%).
 Linearity is simply a measure of the maximum deviation of the calibration
points from the ideal straight line of output.
%
 There is commonality in In-accuracy & non-linearity…. See formulae

 For Non-Linear Instruments, always In-accuracy is given.
 For Linear Instruments, always %Linearity is given.
18
 Comment on Linear & Non Linear Instruments
 For Linear Instruments, always % Linearity is given & it remains
constant on each point of scale i-e +2% FSR linearity in previous
example.
 This 2% linearity exhibits an error on each division of instrument readout.
e.g what would be error at 10 & 50 bar readings

on a 100 bar full scale Linear instrument with
% linearity of +2%FSR?
19
 e.g what would be error at 10 & 50 bar readings on a 100 bar full
scale Linear instrument with % linearity of +2%FSR?
 Error due to % Linearity of +2% FSR =(2/100)100=+2 bar at each graduation

 Error at 10 bar = (error at reading/desired reading)x100%
= (2/10)x100% = 20% of reading ie 10 bar

 Error at 50 bar = (2/50)x100% = 4% of reading ie 50 bar
 Thus for Linear Instruments (for which % Linearity is given in terms of FSR),
readings must be taken above half of scale to have less error i-e below 4%.
 Actual incident of fuel starvation due to % linearity error in Fuel Counter of a
trainer aircraft………..
 For Non-Linear Instruments, always In-accuracy is given. The error

on each point of scale would vary in case of a nonlinear instrument
20
 Repeatability is the variation in measurements taken on the same item
under the same conditions.
 Reproducibility is the ability of a measurement to be duplicated, either by
the same person or by someone else under changed conditions.
 Drift is the change in instrument output over time - when the true value is
constant. OR Gradual shift in indication over a period of time where the input
variable (true value) is constant.
 Zero Drift: e.g zero error in v caliper
 Sensitivity or Span Drift: Sensitivity of an instrument may vary due to
environment like temp… it is called as sensitivity drift. e.g temp effect in
coil based volt meter; resistance change due to temp resulting voltage
under reading.
 Units system----- sensitivity /temp -------- 0.02 (mm/Kg)/C. OEM
recommended environment is “IMP”.
 Dead zone
21
 Dead zone Dead zone errors are created by following phenomenon:-
 Threshold Threshold is when a minimum input is required to

generate change in output. OR “Min increment of input signal to move the
pointer from zero position”. Threshold is present in instrument due to
various reasons like friction force etc.
 Hysteresis Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different

output effect while loading and unloading.
Hysteresis takes place due to the fact that all energy put into stressed part
when loading, is not recoverable while unloading. When input of an instrument are
varied from zero to its full scale and then if input is varied from full scale to zero, the
output will be different from previous deflection.
22
Time-Dependent Characteristics of
Measurand
23
Few Numerical on Instrument Characteristics
 Linearity
 A linear instrument with full scale of 100 divisions, once calibrated
for linearity verification, yield following readings:-
Input 1 2 3 4 5 8 25 80 95
Output 1 2.1 4 6 5 8 25 80 95
 Calculate its non linearity in percentage over FSR.
 Find Percentage error at 10 Bar & 50 Bar.
 Comment on usage of instruments with such linearity.
 Sensitivity
 Appended below, is the calibration data of two linear transducers
Input 1 2 3 4 Input 1 2 3 4
(bar) (bar)
Output 10 20 30 40 Output 15 30 45 60
(mv) (mv)
 Find Sensitivity of both the transducers (mention sensitivity units as

well).
24
 Accuracy
 An instrument with full scale of 100 divisions, once calibrated to
know maximum error in it, yield following readings:-
Input 1 2 3 4 5 8 25 80 95
Output 1 2.1 4 6 5 8 25 80 95
 Calculate instrument inaccuracy in percentage over maximum error.
25
Summery
definitions

 Phase Response
 Slew Time
26
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Time-Dependent Characteristics of
Measurands
(Lecture No 4)
2
Mathematical Model for Time-Measurand Relation
 A common parameter to all of measurement is time.

 All measurands have time-related characteristics.
 As time progresses, the magnitude of the measurand
either changes (dynamic) or does not change (static).
 Thus, Dynamic inputs are those whose magnitude vary
with time.
 The time variation of any magnitude is as important as is
the amplitude variation of the measurands & both they
have a relation.
 Time it is the independent variable, however, time and
any variable can be related harmonically.
3
Performance Characteristics
Performance
Characteristics
Input Quantities/
Instruments’ Measurand
Characteristics Characteristics
Static Dynamic Time-dependent

Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics
4
Learning Objective
 Why Time-dependent characteristics?

 Basic Aspects of Time-dependence of
Measurands
 How measurands are mathematically related
with time?
 Methods for Ascertaining Time-dependent

Characteristics?
 Uses of Time-dependent Analysis?
5
Why Time-dependent Characteristics of Measurands?
1. Each instrument has a particular response to any

input quantity/ measurand.
6
2. Knowing characteristics of input quantities/

measurands is essential for selection of instrument with
suitable response.
7
3. Amplitude & Frequency are two major Time

dependent information/characteristics of any measurand.
8
 These time-dependent characteristics of measurands can

only be determined once we know mathematical model of
this relation
9
 Each instrument has a particular response to any input

quantity/ measurand.
 Knowing characteristics of input quantities/ measurands

is essential for selection of instrument with suitable
response.
 Amplitude & Frequency are two major Time dependent

information/characteristics of any measurand.
 These time-dependent characteristics of measurands can

only be determined once we know mathematical model of
this relation
10
Basic Time-dependent Aspects of Measurands
Recall
Time
dependent
Aspects
Time Varying Time

(dynamic) Constant
Measurand (Static)
Periodic Transient Random
11
Basic Time-dependent Aspects of Measurands
Recall
Periodic (Sinusoidal) Measurand Transient Measurand
12
Random Measurand
 A Sinusoidal waveform is very basic periodic motion which represents
the simple harmonic motion as a function of time.
S = Sο Sin ωt => v = dS/dt = Sο ω Cos ωt => vο=Sο ω

a=dv/dt= -Sο Sinω2t => a = -Sω2 &
aο = -Sοω2
S = Instantaneous displacement from equilibrium
Sο = amplitude or max displacement from equilibrium
ω = circular frequency (rad/sec)
t = time interval
 Also, A scotch-yoke mechanism is generally used to show
relation between circular frequency “ω” & cyclic frequency “f”.
Note:- the mathematical model above is helping us in determining
Amplitude at any point of time as well as the frequency present in
the measurand…....major time dependent characteristics of
measurands
13
Time-Dependent Characteristics of Measurand
 Scotch-Yoke Mechanism
ω = 2πf
14
 Yoke Piston is a mechanical system which produces a motion which is
Simple Harmonic Motion.
 There are many electrical as well as mechanical systems which produce

simple harmonic motion or variation like Yoke piston system.
 Mass attached with a spring is another mechanical system which

produces simple harmonic motion.
 Alternating current in electrical circuitry, also produces simple

harmonic variations in its different variables.
Thus
 For establishing mathematical models for measurands which follow
simple harmonic relationships with time, an analogous Scotch-
Yoke mechanism can be devised or imagined.
15
Mathematical Modelling for Complex Measurands
More Complex Measurands : Periodic, Transient & Random Measurands
16
 Sinusoidal waveform or simple harmonic relationship cannot represent

complex dynamic measurands like transient or random measurands.
 These complex measurands/signals can be expressed as combination of

simple harmonic (sinusoidal) components. Each component will have its
own amplitude, frequency, and will be combined in various phase
relations with the other components.
17
 Sinusoidal waveform or simple harmonic relationship cannot represent

complex dynamic measurands like transient or random measurands.
 These complex measurands/signals can be expressed as combination of

simple harmonic (sinusoidal) components. Each component will have its
own amplitude, frequency, and will be combined in various phase
relations with the other components.
18
Phase Angle Ø
 When two variables are having same frequency & are
oscillating in synchronized manner, they are in phase and
phase angle between them is zero,
Figure Motions that are out of phase.

The dashed curve lags the solid curve by a phase angle Ø.
19
Methods for Ascertaining Time-Dependent Characteristics
of Measurands
 Analysis of complex or any signal (measurand) can be done
through various methods to ascertain amplitude, frequencies,
phases present in the complex signal. These methods primarily
determine Frequency Spectrum of the complex signal by making
use of mathematical models & other tools.
 Methods
1. Frequency Spectrum Analyzer It is an instrument that can

easily draw frequency spectrum of a signal making use of
FTA/FFT/DFT.
2. Harmonic/Fourier Transformation Analysis

3. Fast Fourier Transformation Analysis (FFT)
4. Discrete Fourier Transformation Analysis (DFT)
20
of Measurands
 Frequency Spectrum is a form of frequency
representation; it represents in a glance, all the
frequencies present in a complex signal & their
corresponding amplitudes.
21
of Measurands
1. Frequency Spectrum Analyzer
2. Harmonic or Fourier Transformation Analysis When waveform is a

known mathematical function then FTA can determine Freq Spectrum.
3. Fast Fourier Transformation Analysis (FFT) An other form of FTA. It

is used when mathematical function of the measurand is known,
4. Discrete Fourier Transformation Analysis (DFT) When waveform

has been recorded digitally in shape of discrete points then DFT maths is
applied to determine Freq Spectrum. Also DFT can be applied to an
analog signal which is recorded on a chart by taking discrete points.
 “Any function of a measurand can be expanded in a series of Sine/Cos

function sums & thus its Freq Spectrum can be determined by Fourier
Analysis”.
22
of Measurands
Scenario Method for Ascertaining Freq Spectrum

When Mathematical relation of Harmonic / Fourier Analysis of known
measurand with time is known mathematical function is done analytically.
The analog output of the transducer is fed into
When measurand is an analog a Frequency Spectrum Analyzer (an electronic
signal from a transducer device) to determine frequency spectrum
present in the analog signal.
The computer stores measurand as a function
When measurand is a recorded of time in discrete points; which can be then
digital signal analyzed through Discrete Fourier
Transformation Analysis.
Discrete points of the measurand are collected
When measurand is plotted from the graph and then DFT analysis is
graphically Vs time carried out to determine Freq Spectrum
present in the measurand.
23
Uses of Time-dependent Analysis of Measurands
 Time-dependent analysis of any measurand signal gives us primarily

following information of the measurand:-
Amplitude ---- Frequency ----- Phase relations
 Time-dependent analysis of the measurand is essentially required to:-
 Finalize required Instrument Performance Characteristics which will ensue

that measurand signal does not get changed during processing within the
instrument.
 Evaluate what all info (desired/ undesired frequencies e.g noise) is present in
the signal.
 Diagnose underlying problems of the machine - - - - CBM.
24
Why Time-Dependent Characteristics of Measurand?
An Example
25
Numerical on Time-dependent Characteristics
 Frequency Spectrum
 Following data was obtained by DFT analysis of a measurand
signal.
Freq (Hz) 100 200 500 200 400 200 500

Amp (mv) 1 1 1 3 4 5 5
 Draw Frequency Spectrum graph & workout desired dynamic

characteristics (Amp, Freq response) for subsequent selection
of Instrumentation hardware.
26
Summery
definitions

 Phase Response
 Slew Time
27
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Dynamic Performance Characteristics of
Instruments
(Lecture 5)
2
Learning Objective

 Phase Response
 Slew Time
 Determining Instrument Response

 Mathematical Modeling Method
 Experimental Method
3
Sequence
definitions

 Phase Response
 Slew Time
 Determining Instrument Response

4
Dynamic Performance Characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics of an instrument describe its

behavior/ response to the dynamic measurands & are
called as “Response of an instrument/ Measurement
System”.
 Instrument response is a measure of its fidelity to

purpose.
 Fidelity “the degree to which a system faithfully senses,

transmits & presents all pertinent information included in
the measurand (like amplitude, frequency, phase etc).
5
 For a static signal, only the signal magnitude is needed to
reconstruct the input signal into output/ measurement
result.
 For a dynamic signal, time dependent characteristics

(signal amplitude, frequency, and general waveform
information) are needed to reconstruct the input signal
into output/ measurement result.
 During a measurement process, Instrument Response to

these time dependent characteristics of input signal is
critical in ensuring a faithful output/ measurement result.
6
 Thus Instrument Response Characteristics will enable us
to evaluate the instrument for following:-
“does the output information truly represent the input”?
 If input is in form of sine wave or square wave; does the output

appears as a sine or square wave.
 Is each of harmonic component in complex wave being treated

equally or any part has been attenuated or completely ignored?
 Is phase shift of each harmonic component of complex wave

remained intact?
 Is amplitude of wave remained unchanged?

7
Following are the dynamic characteristics in terms of instrument response:-
 Phase Response
8
It is the ability of a system to treat all input amplitudes uniformly.
9
Amplitude Response
 Definition It is the ability of a system to treat all input amplitudes
uniformly
e.g In a Linear Amplitude Response Instrument. Input of 5 amplitude produces an output of
25 indicator divisions, then for input of 10, it shall produce 50 divisions.
 Likewise, a non linear or exponential response based instrument must
produce output amplitude response accordingly.
“Any discrepancy between design expectation & actual performance,

result in poor amplitude response”.
A caveat to above statement is

 No system is capable of responding faithfully over an unlimited range
of Amplitudes. The range of an instrument over which it can produce

desired amplitude response is called “Useable (Amplitude) Range of
Instrument”.
10
Amplitude Response
 Gain Vs Input Voltage for an Amplifier for a 1 KHz
Frequency
 For inputs below 0.01v, the
amplification is linear.
 For inputs above 0.01 v, the
amplifier becomes overloaded.
11
Frequency Response
 Definition “The variation of gain over all frequencies present in the waveform
is called as Frequency Response”.
at 10 mv
12
Frequency Response
 Frequency Response “The variation of gain over all frequencies present in
the waveform is called as Frequency Response”.
 Frequency response is measured by evaluating “variation of amplification/ gain
over all frequencies present in a waveform”.
 “a constant Gain response for all frequencies with a single amplitude value is the
desired response”
Good frequency response is obtained when
 a system reacts to all frequency components in same way.
 Changing the frequency of input signal should not alter the system’s gain so
long as the input amplitude is constant/unchanged
 In other words, different frequencies with a constant amplitude shall give
output with constant gain.

A caveat
 No system is capable of responding faithfully over an unlimited range of
frequencies. The range of an instrument over which it can produce desired

Frequency response is called “Useable (Frequency) Range of Instrument”.
13
Frequency Response
 Gain Vs Frequency for an input amplitude of ei=10mv
 At 10 mv, frequencies below 10KHz, produce a constant gain response & above 10
KHz, the frequencies get attenuated & are unable to give constant gain response.
14
Phase Response
 Definition Time is required for transmission of signal through
any measuring system. This time (lead or lag) taken by the
system, creates phase shift which is called Phase Response
of the system.
15
 Phase Response
 What is Phase? Consider scoth-yoke mechanism, when mass & piston have
same frequencies & they simultaneously reach corresponding extremes of
displacement, their motions are said to be in Phase. When they both have same
frequency but they do not oscillate together, the time difference (lead or lag)
between their motions is expected by an angle referred to as the phase angle, Ø.
 Figure Motions that are out of phase. The dashed curve lags the solid curve by
a phase angle Ø.
 Why Phase Response?

 Time is required for transmission of signal through any measuring system.
This time (lead or lag) taken by the system, creates phase shift which is
called Phase Response of the system.
16
 Importance of Phase Response Phase Response is of primary importance for
complex waveforms only.
 Treatment of phases of various frequencies present in a complex waveform
by an element of an instrument is called as Phase Response of that element.
 Complex waveform is made up of numerous harmonics. If phase lag is
different for each frequency present in the complex waveform, then each
component will be delayed by a different amount after passing through
measuring system.
 Output waveform including amplitudes will be distorted if the system does not
deal with phase shift in same manner.
 The phase shift for a single sine wave input is of no importance as waveform
shape being shown on oscilloscope would be same as the phase shift

occurred for few micro seconds after the input wave passes.
 Example When a single sine wave voltage is amplified through certain

amplifier device, & if output trails the input signal by half cycle, then this trail …
delay in the waveform is called Phase Response of the Amplifier device.
17
Phase Response
 Above 1KHz, phase lag starts creeping in the output of Amplifier.
 The instrument having phase response as shown in this graph will be able to transmit
input signal without distorting it till the input frequencies remain in 1KHz bandwidth and
this is its useable range
or bandwidth.
18
Delay or Rise Time
 Delay or Rise Time It is actually
another form of frequency response.
when a stepped or an instantaneous
input is applied to a system, the output may lag.
“The time delay after a step input is

applied, but before proper output
magnitude is reached is know as
Rise time or delay”.
19
Delay or Rise Time
 Delay or Rise Time It is actually another form of frequency response. when a
stepped or an instantaneous input is applied to a system, the output may lag.
“The time delay after step is applied, but before proper output magnitude is
reached is know as Rise time or delay”.
 It is measure of “system’s ability to handle transients”.
 Some time “Rise time” is defined as “time (delta t) required for system to pass
from 10% to 90% of its final response” OR “settling time for the system
response to reach within some small value of its final value”
 Figure
Response of a typical system to a step
input, showing Rise time (delta t) and
settling time.
20
Slew Rate or Slew Speed
 Definition It is “maximum rate of change in input per unit time
that a system can handle”.
 Examples
 for a voltage varying electrical system, it is dv/t ie volts per unit
time (mv/sec) or
 For displacement varying mechanical system, it is dx/t i-e
displacement per unit time (mm/sec).
21
Determining Response Characteristics
 Through Mathematical Modeling
 Any instrument or its element can be thought of a simplified
physical system to determine its response mathematically.
 Through Experimentally
 Response characteristics of existing system or components of a
system can be determined experimentally by injecting a signal of
known waveform like sine or square wave etc and then compare
the output results of system with known input.
22
Determining Response Characteristics
 Advantages/ Uses of Experimental Method
 This method can help Reverse Engineer a measuring system.
 Self Test capable devices, make use of this method.
 Self Diagnosis capable devices, make use of this method.
 Self Calibration capable devices, also make use of this method.
23
 Some Definitions
 System’s Gain A measuring system consists of a series of

elements like sensors, signal conditioners, recorders etc.
“System’s Gain is the product of the gains of all the elements of
system at desired frequency”.
 System’s Phase Shift It is the Sum of every element’s phase

shift.
24
 Desirable Dynamic Characteristics Following is a brief discussion on
“desirables” out of mentioned dynamic characteristics:-
 Frequency Response Constant Gain (or Gain=1 ie 0dB) response
over all frequencies of a waveform or frequencies of interest is
desired.
 Amplitude Response Constant Gain (or Gain=1 ie 0dB) response

over all input amplitudes is desired.
 Phase Shift Zero phase shift response is desired over all

frequencies present in a complex waveform.
 Slew Rate Higher Slew Rate is desired. “max rate of change in

input that a system can handle”
25
Dynamic Range of a Measurement System
 While working out dynamic range of a measurement system,
dynamic range of each individual element present in the system
must be considered.
 Example
 If a transducer has a Frequency Response of 10 KHz & is linked
with a conditioning element of 5 KHz & display unit of 2 KHz…..
 We cannot declare that it is a 10 KHz bandwidth measurement
system.
26
Why Performance Characteristics?
 To obtain an acceptable measurement, every measuring stage/

element must have acceptable response over the frequency range
of interest.
 If any single stage/ element does not respond properly, it will distort
the signal &
 thus contaminate entire measurement.
27
 A dynamic instrument, gives a constant output magnitude of
200 (or gives a constant amplification of 200 or gives constant
Gain) at 1 KHz over amplitude range of 0-50 mv & starts
attenuating the gain above 50 mv & finally becomes
overloaded at 65 mv input.
 Draw Amplitude Response graph for such Instrument &
determine suitable input amplitude range for which such
instrument can be used without a compromise of
measurement quality.
28
 Frequency Spectrum
 Following data was obtained by DFT analysis of a measurand
signal.
Freq (Hz) 100 200 500 200 400 200 500

Amp (mv) 1 1 1 3 4 5 5
 Draw Frequency Spectrum graph & workout desired dynamic

characteristics (Amp, Freq response) for subsequent selection
of Instrumentation hardware.
29
Summery
definitions

 Phase Response
 Slew Time
30
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Sensors’ Technologies
Operating Principles & Applications
(Mechanical)
Lecture No 6
2
Learning Objective
 What are Sensors?
 Concept of Primary & Secondary Sensors
 Classification of 1st Stage Devices (Sensors)
 Mechanical Primary Sensors

 Operating Principles
 Applications
3
Sequence
 Concept of Primary & Secondary Detector Transducers
 Classification of 1st Stage Devices
 Mechanical Primary Detector Transducers & Working Principles

 Contacting Pins
 Elastic Members Load Cells, Proving Ring, Bourdon Tube,

Bellows, Diaphragms, Helical Spring.
 Mass Seismic Mass, Liquid Column.
 Thermal Thermocouple, Bimetallic Stip, Mercury in
glass, Pressure Thermometer, Thermistor.
 Hydro-Pneumatic Float, Hydrometer, Orifice, Venturi,
Turbine, Pitot tube, Hydro Load Cell, Pneumatic Load Cell.
4
What is Sensor?.....
 The very first contact of a measuring Sys with the measurand is
through a detecting element which is called as “Sensor”.
 Sensors are the “1st Stage Devices” of a measurement system.
Primary & Secondary Transducers

 1st stage devices generally consist of 2 sub elements:- (however,
they may contain only 1 element like Class I sensors) i-e
 Primary Detector-Transducer It detects or senses quantity of

interest i-e input/ measurand & processes it into a form (displacement in
most of the cases).
 Secondary Transducer Process the info into a form that is acceptable

to Stage 2 elements.
5
Primary & Secondary Detector-Transducers
 . or senses quantity of interest i-e
Primary Detector-Transducer It detects
input/ measurand & processes it into a form (displacement in most of the cases)
 Secondary Transducer Process the info into a form that is acceptable to
Stage 2 elements
 Few Examples of primary & secondary transducers
Primary Detector Secondary Transducer

“Elliptical ring” in bourdon tube “Linkage-gears arrangement”
detects input pressure and converts it converts linear to rotary displacement
to displacement. for readout scale.
“Solid material block” in a load cell “Strain gage” attached with solid block
detects tension or compression loads converts deformation to varying
and coverts them into material resistance.
deformation (displacement form).
Diaphragm in a pressure gauge “Potentiometer” attached with
detects pressure and converts it into diaphragm converts displacement to
displacement etc. varying voltage.
6
Primary & Secondary Detector-Transducers

.
Few Examples of primary & secondary transducers
Primary Detector Secondary Transducer
“Elliptical ring” in bourdon tube “Linkage-gears arrangement”

detects input pressure and converts linear to rotary
converts it to displacement. displacement for readout scale.
“Solid material block” in a load cell “Strain gage” attached with solid
detects tension or compression block converts deformation to
loads and coverts them into varying resistance.
material deformation
(displacement form).
Diaphragm in a pressure gauge “Potentiometer” attached with
detects pressure and converts it diaphragm converts displacement
into displacement etc. to varying voltage.
7
Classification of 1St Stage Devices
 There are 3 classes of 1st stage devices (Sensors) based on:-
 Their varying complexity
 Number of substages within the 1st stage devices
The Classes are:-
 Class I (Single substage Sensor):- Where single Primary
detector performs detection-transduction of input quantity by
directly converting input to desired form for next stage (i-e signal
conditioner or directly readout scale).
Example:
Consider a Spring sensor in a Spring Balance
 Spring sensor (single stage of sensor)….. detects load and transduce

it to displacement which is directly fed into readout scale.
8
 Class II (2 substages of sensor):- 1st substage
performs detection-transduction & 2nd substage performs further
transduction of input quantity to desired form for next stage
Example:
Consider a Bourdon tube sensor in a Bourdon tube type
“Pressure Indicator”
 Elliptical tube (1st substage of sensor) detects pressure & converts it

to linear displacement.
 Rack & pinion mechanism (2nd substage of sensor) converts linear

displacement to rotary displacement which is directly fed to readout
scale pointer.
9
 Class III (3 substages of sensor):- 1st sub stage
performs detection-transduction, 2nd further transduction & 3rd sub
stage converts the input to desired form for next stage.
Consider a Load Cell sensor based “Load measurement Sys”
 Compression/tension solid column (1st substage of sensor) in a Load
Cell sensor detects compression or tension & converts it to
deformation in the solid.
 Strain gauge (2nd substage of sensor) attached to the solid converts

deformation into varying resistance form.
 Wheatstone Bridge circuit (3rd substage of sensor) detects varying
resistance and converts it to desired form of varying voltage for next
stage of SCU or readout scale.
Note: Variable Conversion circuits like Wheatstone bridge etc are

sometime studied as part of a sensor & sometime as part of SCU. Also,
sometime these are called as Variable Conversion Unit (VCU) of
Measurement System.
10
Concluding
 Class I sensors have only Primary Detector-Transducers
 Class II sensors have Primary Detector-Transducers as well as a

Secondary Transducer as part of the “Complete Sensor Stage”
 Class III sensors have Primary Detector-Transducers as well as

two Secondary Transducers as part of the “Complete Sensor
Stage”
11
Some Primary Detector-Transducers
 These can be broadly divided into Mechanical & Electrical:-
 Mechanical Primary Detect-Trans generally convert input quantities

to analogous displacement with some exceptions.
 Electrical Primary Detect-Trans generally convert displacement to

analogous electrical variable ie varying resistance, inductance,
capacitance, voltage, current.
12
Mechanical Primary Detector-Transducers
Detector-Transducer Example Operation
A. Contacting pins Linkages in bourdon tube disp > disp
type indicator
B. Elastic Members:-
1. Load Cells
a. Tension/ Force measurement force > linear disp
compression columns
b. Bending beam -//- Force > linear disp
c. Torsion -//- torque > angular disp
2. Proving Ring Pressure Indicators pressure > displacement
3. Bourdon Tube -//- -//-
4. Bellows -//- -//-
5. Diaphragms -//- -//-
6. Helical Spring Spring balance force > linear disp
13
Operating Principle--- Elastic Member Sensors
Elastic Members These work on elasticity principle; on

application of measurand /input, the member gets deformed and vice
versa.
 By virtue of this phenomenon, we detect the measurand and

transduce them to displacement.
 A number of measurands can be detected in this way e.g force,

weight, pressure, sound, vibrations etc.
14
Elastic Member Sensors
15
Elastic Member Sensors
16
C. Mass:-
1. Seismic Mass accelerometer forcing function > disp
2. Liquid Column Manometer pressure > displacement
17
Operating Principle--- Mass Sensors
Mass Mass based sensors are generally utilized in following ways:-
 Seismic Mass mass is suspended with some spring and by

virtue of any forcing function i-e seismic or any motion, they
respond in terms of their displacement which is subsequently
measured and converted into velocity & acceleration as per
requirement.
 Liquid Column a U shaped liquid column is exposed to

atmospheric pressure in one arm & other detects measurand
pressure & displaces itself by amount of difference between the
two pressures.
18
Mass Sensors
19
Recap Elastic Members & Mass
A. Contacting pins Linkages in bourdon disp > disp
tube type indicator
1. Load Cells
a. Tension/ compression Force measurement force > linear disp
columns
4. Bellows -//- -//-
C. Mass:-
20 2. Liquid Column Manometer pressure > displacement
D. Thermal
1. Thermocouples temperature ind temp > voltage potential
2. Bi-material Thermostats temp > displacement
3. Mercury in glass Thermometers temp > displacement
4. Thermistor Temperature ind temp > change in resistance
5. Pressure Thermo Temperature bulb temp > change in pressure
21
Operating Principle--- Thermal Sensors
Thermal Thermal sensors are generally utilized in following
ways for determining temperature characteristics:-
 Thermocouple These rely on the physical principle that,

“when any two different metals are connected together, an emf,
(which is function of temperature), is generated at the junction
between the metals.
 Bi-material Two metal strips with different heat expansion

coefficients are join together, lower coefficient strip (generally
copper) bends earlier on heating & deforms alongwith deforming
the other one. During cooling process it is the higher coefficient
metal (steel) strip which straightens out & brings former strip back.
The deformation is used to make/break electrical circuit e.g
thermostats.
22
Thermocouple & Bimetallic Sensors
23
Operating Principle--- Thermal Sensors
 Mercury in Glass It makes use of the fact that Mercury expands

(displaces) on heating & has a linear behavior with temperature e.g
Mercury thermometer.
 Thermistor (thermal-resistor) It is a semiconductor material

which acts as a resistor; on heating, its resistance decreases and
shows a linear behavior. It is used as temperature sensor.
 Pressure Thermometer A fluid is enclosed in a small vessel

which expands on heating and exerts pressure on the vessel
walls…the variation of inside fluid pressure has a linear behavior
with outside temperature variations.
24
Other Thermal Sensors
25
Recap Thermal Sensors
D. Thermal
26
E. Hydro-Pneumatic
1. Static
a. Float fluid level ind fluid level > disp
b. Hydrometer specific gravity meter Spec gravity > disp
2. Dynamic
a. Orifice Flow meters fluid velocity > change in
Pressure
b. Venturi -//- -//-
c. Pitot tube ASI, altitude -//-
d. Turbines flow meters Linear > angular velocity
e. Hydro Load Cell Weight measuring Force > Pressure variation
f. Pneumatic Load -//- -//-
Cell
27
Operating Principle--- Hydro-Pneumatic Sensors
 Float A light weight hollow body floats on fluid and linearly
displaces with change in fluid level.
 Hydrometer It makes use of “Buoyancy Effect” to measure

specific gravity of liquids. Liquids with various specific gravity
displace a floating object with different magnitude by virtue of
different buoyancy effect (up thrust) of liquids.
 A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb
weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright.
 The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall container, specially designed hydrometer
cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point
at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted.
 Pitot Tube Fluid velocity is captured on pitot tube front

hole and converted into pressure (total pressure). A side hole on
the tube (static port) captures static pressure. Fluid velocity is
determined making use of both the captured pressures.
28
Hydro-Pneumatic Sensors
29
 Orifice A disc with an orifice is placed in flow of a fluid and
pressure difference across the plate (ie fluid pressure before and
after the orifice) is measured; this pressure difference varies with
variation in the fluid flow rate through a linear relation.
 Venturi A Venturi shaped tube is placed in fluid flow and

pressure difference across venturi inlet & throat is measured; this
pressure difference varies with variation in the fluid flow rate
through a linear relation.
 Turbines As fluid flows through the turbine meter, it rotates the

turbines; the angular (rotational) velocity of the turbine rotor is
directly proportional to the fluid velocity flowing through the turbine.
The resulting output is taken by an electrical pickoff mounted on
the flow meter body.
30
31
 Hydraulic Load Cell A force in terms of a piston once

applied on a cylinder (filled with hydraulic at certain pressure), the
pressure of hydraulic inside cylinder varies; this pressure variation
has linear behavior to applied force and can be easily measured.
 Pneumatic Load Cell A force in terms of a piston once

applied on a cylinder (filled with air at certain pressure), the
pressure of air inside cylinder varies; this pressure variation has
linear behavior to applied force and can be easily measured.
32
33
Recap Hydro-Pneumatic Sensors
E. Hydro-Pneumatic
1. Static
2. Dynamic
Pressure
Cell
34
Recap ---- Inductive Sensors
Variable Self Variable Mutual Variable
Inductance Inductance Reluctance
Make use of Make use of Make use of

-Variable permeance (air -Secondary 2 or 3 coils -Moving magnet
gap b/w coil & armature) inductance -Moving coil
-Variable permeance (cross -Displacement of magnetic -Moving iron/magnet
section varying core) material core (LVDT) target material
-Eddy Current phenomenon -Variable permeance (air Permanent magnet is
Excitation current is gap b/w coil & armature) used instead of
used for self Inductance Excitation current is Excitation current
used for Mutual
Inductance
Examples Examples Examples
-Displacement Sensors -Displacement Sensors (LVDT) -Velocity Sensors (turbines in
-Eddy currents based displacement -Vibrometer (displacement anemometer & flow meter)
sensors, coating thickness sensors, function) -Vibrometer (velocity function)
metal detectors, NDI testers -Proximity pickups (turbines)
-Vibrometer (displacement -Microphones
35
function)
Few Problems
 A computer aided instrument has to be designed

for measuring vertical displacement of test
specimen on a Universal Tensile testing machine.
 Based on your knowledge of various Sensor
technologies including Mechanical, Electrical etc,
list down all possible primary detector transducers
which can be explored for final selection/
utilization in the computer aided instrument.
36
Few Problems

for measuring varying pressure of a fluid.
list down all possible primary & secondary
transducers for capturing varying pressure of the
fluid.
37
Few Problems
 Consider an acoustic measurement system which

has its 1st stage device (sensor) as a Microphone.
transducers which can be utilized to form 1st stage
device i-e microphone for Acoustic measurement
system.
38
Few Problems

for measuring exhaust gas temperature of a Jet
engine.
which can be explored for final selection in
designing a temperature measurement computer
aided instrument.
39
Few Problems
 A computer aided instrument (weighing machine)

has to be designed for measuring human weight.
list down a primary detector transducer.
 Recommend a secondary transducer which can
be augmented with primary detector transducer
 Do we require some variable conversion unit for
your recommended primary and secondary
transducers? If yes, then name the variable
conversion unit along with brief explanation of its
working principle.
40
Few Problems

for measuring fluid pressure input.
technologies, list down possible Mechanical as
well as Electrical primary detector transducers.
 Recommend possible secondary transducers
which can be augmented with Mechanical primary
detector transducers.
41
Few Problems
 Briefly explain working principle of a Capacitance

type fluid level sensor.
 Draw sketch of such transducer.
42
Few Problems
 Briefly explain working principle of a non contact

Ampere meter
 Draw sketch of the working principle of such
transducer.
43
Few Problems

for flow rate input.
44
Few Problems

for measuring vibration as a function of velocity.
technologies, recommend a primary detector
transducer.
 And also recommend possible secondary
transducer which can provide output quantity as a
function of velocity.
 Name at least two secondary transducers which
can be used to give output quantity as a function
of displacement instead of velocity.
45
tube type indicator
1. Load Cells
columns
4. Bellows -//- -//-
C. Mass:-
D. Thermal
47
E. Hydro-Pneumatic
1. Static
2. Dynamic
Pressure
Cell
48
Summary
 Contacting Pins

 Few Problems on Sensors’ Technologies
49
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Sensors’ Technologies
Operating Principles & Applications
(Electrical)
Lecture No 8-9
2
Learning Objective
 What are Sensors?
 Concept of Primary & Secondary Sensors
 Classification of 1st Stage Devices (Sensors)
 Electical Primary Sensors

 Operating Principles
 Applications
3
Sequence
 Electrical Primary Detector Transducers & Working Principles
 Resistance Variable length, Resistivity, Dimension
 Inductance Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance, Reluctance
 Capacitance Changing air gap, dielectric constant, plate.
 Hall Effect, Piezoelectric, Optical Sensor, Ultrasonic
 Few Problems on Sensors’ Technologies
4
Electrical Primary Detector-Transducers
A. Resistance:- (R = ρL/A)
1. Contacting Limiting switch Disp > R zero or

infinity
2. Variable Length Sliding contact devices & -//-

conductor Potentiometer
3. Variable Area conductor Strain gages strain > change in R
4. Variable Resistivity of Thermistor (a semi temp > change in R

conductor conductor material) device
5. Variable dimension of Strain gages strain > change in R

conductor
5
Operating Principle--- Variable Resistance Sensors
 Resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to following
relation:-
R = ρL/A;
(Where ‘R’ is resistance, ‘L’ is length of conductor, ‘A’ is cross-
sectional area of conductor, ‘ρ’ is resistivity of material.)
 Variable Resistance sensors are based on changes in factors as

mentioned in above relation.
 Contacting These are limiting switches which make (R

zero) or break (R infinity) the electrical circuit upon displacement of
measurand towards or away from the limiting switch e.g Limiting
switch in CNC machines to limit the motion in particular axis,
L/Gears extension/retraction indication system, ordinary electrical
switches, pressure limit switch (switch actuated by bellow),
temperature limit switch (switch actuated by bimetallic strip) etc.
6
Operating Principle---Variable Resistance Sensors
 Variable Length of Conductor Measurand displacement alters

the length of conductor and thus conductor’s resistance varies
which is subsequently measured e.g sliding contact devices,
potentiometers etc
 Variable Resistivity of Conductor Here sensor is a semi

conductor material which changes its resistivity with change in
temperature i-e the measurand e.g thermistor.
 Variable dimension of Conductor Here dimension (length,

cross-sectional area) of the conductor (strain gauge wire) changes
in response to a deformation/ strain which in turn varies resistance
of the gauge. Variation in resistance can subsequently be
measured e.g resistance strain gauges etc
7
Resistance Sensors
8
B. Inductive:-
1. Variable Inductance
(Self & Mutual Inductance)
i. Variable Air Gap Displacement Sensors, displac > change in

ii. Changing Core LVDT, Vibrometer, Eddy Inductance
Position Current displacement
sensor, flowmeter
2. Variable Reluctance
i. Moving Permanent
Magnet Velocity Sensor, Velocity > change in
ii. Moving Coil Vibrometers, reluctance
iii. Changing flux path Proximity pickups,
permeance anemometer, flowmeter
9
Operating Principle---Variable Inductive Sensors
 Few Concepts
 An inductor coil has inherent property that it does not want to change its state
ie if initially there was no current flowing through it, it will try to resist
introduction of any current to it & vice versa.
 Once we introduce a change in its state, it tries to resist and creates a
magnetic flux around it for this purpose.
 This magnetic flux induce a voltage in the coil which is opposite to
introduced power source.
 Permeability of magnetic flux path is one of the major factors in
establishing magnetic flux magnitude
 If we change permeability of magnetic flux path through any means,
the magnetic flux magnitude will change.
 The change in magnetic flux will cause an analogous change in
induced voltage.
10
 Inductive Sensors primarily utilize variation in Inductance
(denoted by ‘L’ with units as ‘Henry’) which is function of a number
of factors like number of turns in the inductor coil, the coil size, and
especially permeability of the flux path. Here flux path refers to
core material which allows flow of magnetic flux as per material
permeability.
 Magnetic flux Permeability of material varies due to many factors
like:-
 Change in Air gap between inductor and Armature
 Varying core cross sectional area--- tapered cores
 Movement of core etc
 Core material
 Classification of Inductive Sensors Based on the operating
principle discussed above, Inductive sensors can be classified as:-
 Self Inductance Sensors
 Mutual Inductance Sensors
11  Variable Reluctance Sensors (permanent magnet inductance)

 Self Inductance Sensors a single coil is used as the transducer
which is excited by external power supply.
 The coil induces magnetic flux by virtue of change in current
once we turns on power source . The flux causes an induced
voltage in coil which is opposite in direction of the exciting
current & varies in response to variation in flux.
 When air gap between coil and core varies by virtue of core
displacement, the flux varies due to air permeance variation.
Thus, Inductance of the coil ie Induced voltage changes.
 Net effect of excitation voltage & opposite Induced voltage is
measured as a function of core displacement.
 Mutual Inductance Sensors
 Variable Reluctance Sensors
12
Operating Principle---Self Inductance Sensors
13
14
Turbine type Flow Meter

with Inductive Pickup
15

used for Mutual
Inductance
-Eddy currents based sensors -Vibrometer (displacement anemometer & flow meter)
(displacement, coating thickness function) -Vibrometer (velocity function)
tester, metal detector, NDI) -Proximity pickups (turbines)
-Vibrometer (displacement -Microphones
16
function)
 Self Inductance Sensors
 Mutual Inductance Sensors Here 2 or 3 coils are arranged in
the transducer. One primary coil is excited by external power supply
and other(s) act as secondary pickup coils. A magnetic material core
when displaces due to mechanical measurand, the core alters
magnetic flux of coils due to its permeance. In 3 coils transducer, Two
secondary coils are utilized to differentiate the direction of
displacement.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) The most commonly
used displacement transducer. It utilizes one primary coil excited by AC
current and two secondary pickup coils. When a ferrite core is in centre of
the three, an equal voltage is induced in each secondary pickup coils
which cancels output of each pickup coil by virtue of their opposite
position. As armature/core moves in one direction, the differential
magnetic flux sum (output) of the two pickups is available to be measured
with direction of displacement.
17  Variable Reluctance Sensors
Operating Principle---Mutual Inductance Sensors
Two Coil Mutual Inductance
18
Operating Principle---Mutual Inductance Sensors
Three Coils Mutual Inductance
19 An LVDT Transformer
Operating Principle---Eddy Current Sensors
Few Concepts on Eddy Currents
 When an Alternating current is passed through an inductor coil
(primary coil), it produces an alternating electromagnetic field
(primary field) around it.
 When a magnetic material is brought in vicinity of this primary
electromagnetic field, it will produce small loops of current in the
material which are called as Eddy currents.
 The current loops are smaller in magnitude and their magnitude is
dependent upon many factors. These current loops in turn produce
secondary electromagnetic field which is opposite in direction to
the primary field.
 The net electromagnetic field is the difference of primary and
secondary fields.
 This net electromagnetic field governs the self inductance in the
coil instead of primary field.
20
Few Concepts on Eddy Currents
 Factors affecting magnitude (flux) of secondary magnetic field
of Eddy currents
 Distance between the magnetic material and the coil; with
increase in distance between the two, the magnitude of
secondary magnetic field decreases.
 This phenomenon is used to detect smaller displacements/ proximity
of magnetic materials through non contact method.
 Thickness of the magnetic material; with increase in thickness

of the conductor, magnitude of secondary magnetic fields
increases.
 This phenomenon is used to measure sheet/wall thickness of
magnetic materials
 If there is some surface crack on application area of the
magnetic material, that will disrupt the eddy currents and thus
decrease magnitude of secondary magnetic field.
 This phenomenon is used to detect smaller depth/ surface cracks in
21 magnetic material (Non Destructive Testing NDT).
Eddy Current Sensor’ Applications

- Non Contact Small Displacement Measurement
- Non Destructive Testing
- Sheet Thickness Measurement
22
Eddy Current Sensor’ Application
- Non-Destructive Testing
23
 A non-contact type (small) displacement measurement is provided by

Eddy current sensor for the target objects made of magnetic materials.
 The conventional eddy current displacement probe consists of a sensing
coil supplied from an alternating source.
 This will produce an alternating magnetic field around the sensing coil
which induces small eddy currents in the target object whose
displacement is to be measured. The surface area of the target is
required to be three times greater than the eddy current probe diameter.
 The induced eddy current in the target material induces a magnetic field
which opposes the magnetic field produced by the sensing coil.
 The interaction between these two magnetic fields is dependent on the
separation between the sensing coil and the target object.
 With change in position of the target object, the variation in interaction
between these magnetic fields is detected (in terms of current variation)
and taken as the measure of the target displacement with respect to
sensing probe.
 Eddy currents phenomenon is used in many ways e.g displacement
sensor, coating thickness, NDI tester etc.
24
B. Inductive:-
i. Changing coil
position Displacement Sensors, displac > change in
ii. Variable Air Gap LVDT, Vibrometer, Eddy Inductance
iii. Changing Core Current displacement
Position sensor, flowmeter
i. Moving Permanent
Magnet Velocity Sensor, Vibrometer, Velocity > change in
ii. Moving Coil Proximity pickups, reluctance
iii. Moving Core anemometer, flowmeter
25
Variable Reluctance Sensors
 A permanent magnet is used to generate a uniform steady
magnetic field.
 A coil is wound around the magnet. The magnetic flux lines are cut
by turns of the coil which induce magnetic flux in the coil.
 The flux in the coil varies when flux path permeance is changed
due to nearby measurand ie core (ferromagnetic or magnetic
material) displacement OR Coil displacement OR Magnet
Displacement.
 Flux in the coil is measured in terms of generated Pulse rate
through some frequency meter.
 Such arrangement is used in measuring RPM, angular
displacement, flow rate e.g Techogenerator, turbine flow meter,
anemometer, vibrometer (as secondary transducer in seismic mass
sensors) etc.
26
Applications of Variable Reluctance Sensors
Reluctance Variation Source Application

Core (Ferromagnetic/Magnetic Flow meters, Anemometers,
Material) displacement Angular displacement,
Magnet displacement Techogenerator (RPM
measurement), Vibrometer
(Seismic mass based)
Coil displacement Techogenerator, vibrometer
(seldom used due to handling of
induced voltage)
27
Microphone
28
Machine gear meter with Reluctance Pickup

29
Anemometers
Turbine Flow meter with Reluctance Pickup

30
Inductor & Inductance
 Inductor/ Coil Whenever a length of conductor wire is formed
into a coil, it becomes a basic inductor.
 Current through the coil produces an electromagnetic field.
 The magnetic lines around each loop in the coil winding effectively
add to the lines of adjoining loops, thus forming overall a strong
electromagnetic field around the coil.
 We can say that an Inductor is a storage device

for storing magnetic flux.
31
 Self Inductance When there is current through inductor, an

electromagnetic field is established.
 When current changes, the electromagnetic field flux also changes
in response.
 Change in current produces varying flux of electromagnetic field
around the inductor.
 In turn, this changing electromagnetic flux causes an induced
voltage across the coil in opposite direction of the current flowing
through the coil & called as ‘Induced Voltage’. This property is
called as “Self Inductance or usually Inductance (L)”.
 Inductance Thus Inductance is measure of a
Coil/Inductor’s ability to establish an induced voltage as a result of
change in its current & induced voltage is in opposite direction to its
changing current. Its units are Hentry ‘H’.
Vinduced = L (di/dt)
32
Physical Characteristics of Inductance ‘L’ Following
parameters are important in establishing Inductance of a Coil:-
 Core Material each material has different permeance, hence
with change of core material, inductance changes depending upon
permeance of the material. Soft iron core has greater permeance
(almost 1000 times) than air coil; thus inductor with soft iron core
will have greater Inductance.
 Core Length Inductance ∝ 1/core length & directly
proportional to its cross sectional area e.g tapered cores.
 Coil No of turns Inductance ∝ Square of number of turns.

 Coil Diameter Inductance ∝ coil diameter.
 Coil Length Inductance ∝ coil length; coil turns etc constant
33
Definitions---Variable Inductive Sensors
 Magnetic Flux The total number of magnetic lines of force of
a magnet is called as magnetic flux ‘Φ’ & its units are Webber.
 Magnetic Flux Density Magnetic flux per unit area is called
magnetic flux density ‘B = Φ/A’ & units are Weber/m2
 Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction Whenever a conductor
is placed in a varying magnetic field, emf is induced in it OR
Whenever a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, emf is induced
which is called as Induced emf.
 Permeability measure of flow of magnetic flux from a
material.
 Reluctancemeasure of opposition to flow of magnetic flux in a
material.
Air has more Reluctance than that of iron ie magnetic flux propagation
in air core is less as compare to iron.
Magnetic flux easily propagates in iron due to low Reluctance (high
permeability) thus iron core increases flux density.
34

used for Mutual
Inductance
-Eddy currents based sensors -Vibrometer (displacement anemometer & flow meter)
(displacement, coating thickness function) -Vibrometer (velocity function)
tester, metal detector, NDI) -Proximity pickups (turbines)
-Vibrometer (disp function) -Microphones
35
C. Capacitive:-
1. Changing plate Displacement sensors, displacement > change in C

separation Microphones, Touch
screens/pads,
pressure switches,
pressure
measurement
2. Changing plates Displacement -//-
area
3. Changing Level, humidity -//-

dielectric constant sensors
36
Operating Principle---Variable Capacitance Sensors
 Capacitance The ability of a system to store electric charge in it.

 When two conductor plates are placed parallel to each other with a
dielectric (air or any dielectric material) in between and connected
to a voltage potential; they store charge in this system.
 Capacitance of a set of equally spaced parallel plates depends on
following factors:-
 Dielectric Constant ‘K’ between the plates
 Area of one side of one plate ‘A’
 Number of plates ‘N’;
 Separation of 2 plate surfaces ‘d’ in inches
 Capacitive Transducers operate on the principle of change in
Capacitance due to variation in any of mentioned factors:-
 Changing Dielectric Constant Transducer
 Changing Plate Area Transducer
 Changing Distance b/w plates Transducer
37
Operating Principle--- Variable Capacitance Sensors
38
Microphone Sensor
39
Differential pressure Sensor

40
41
42
Liquid Level
43
D. Hall effect Position sensors displacement > voltage
E. Piezoelectric Accelerometers, displacement > voltage & vice

ultrasound versa
F. Ultrasonic Fluid level, linear Wave travel time > displacement
(>20KHz) displacement
change in freq or phase > metal
NDI equipment flaw detection
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
LEDs, Laser diodes Displacement,
etc Pressure,
Light Detectors:- Temperature,
1. Photo voltaic Acceleration, light intensity > voltage
2. Photo conductive Vibration etc light intensity > resistance change
3. Photo diods light intensity > current
44
Operating Principle…..Hall Effect Sensors
Hall Effect
 It is a property exhibited in a conductor (semi conductor) influenced

by magnetic field. Hall voltage is developed across the conductor
transverse to current flowing through the semi conductor.
In other words:-
 If current flows (through a semi conductor) perpendicular to a
magnetic field, the magnetic field will produce a voltage (o/p)
parallel to magnetic field & transverse to applied current; this
voltage is called as Hall voltage.
 Any disturbance in the magnetic field will be transduced into

change in output (o/p) voltage.
45
Hall Effect Sensors
46
Operating Principle…..Hall Effect Sensors
Operating Principle of Hall Effect Sensors
 Once any ferromagnetic or magnetic material comes in proximity of

this sensor, it will alter its magnetic field and thus output voltage
will change.
 This phenomenon is used as “Position Sensor” in automotive vehicles,

metal detectors etc.
 Once any electric field interfere with this sensor, it will alter
sensor’s magnetic field and thus output voltage will change.
 This phenomenon is used for measuring current flowing through a

conductor without contacting the conductor.
47
Hall Effect Sensors
48

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
49
Operating Principle---Piezoelectric Sensors
 Piezoelectric materials produce an output voltage when a force is

applied to them.
 They can also operate in reverse mode where an applied voltage

can produce an output force by developing deformation in result of
the applied voltage.
 They are frequently used as ultrasonic transmitters & receivers by

making use of “applied voltage” in transmitters & “applied force”
mode in receivers.
 They are also used as secondary transducers in many applications

e.g pressure sensors, acoustic sensors (microphones),
acceleration & vibration sensors etc.
50

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
51
Operating Principle---Ultrasonic Sensors
 Ultrasound is a band of frequencies above 20KHz (i-e above sonic
range that a human ear can hear).
 Ultrasonic sensors consist of transmitter & receiver. Common form

of ultrasonic receiver & transmitter is Piezoelectric material.
 Changes in measurand are determined in two ways:-
 Time taken by ultrasonic wave in transmission & reception as a

function of displacement. This phenomenon can be used for
measuring linear displacement or fluid level etc.
 Measuring change in frequency or phase. This phenomenon can be

used in ‘Non Destructive Inspection’ NDI equipment for detecting flaws
of materials.
52
53
 Ultrasonic displacement sensors are developed based on the pulse
echo method.
 In this technique, ultrasonic pulse wave from a transmitter is sent
towards the target object whose displacement is to be measured.
 The transmitted pulse wave is totally or partially reflected from the
object and is received by the receiver unit placed at suitable
location close to the transmitter unit. Or both the units can be
enclosed in single transducer.
 The elapsed time between the instant of transmission of the pulse
signal and the instant of receiving of the reflected pulse is
measured, which depends on the sound velocity and object
distance.
 If sound velocity ‘c’ is known, the time ‘t’ elapsed between the
transmitted signal and its echo is proportional to the distance ‘d’ of
the object producing the echo given by the expression
d=ct/2
54
 ‘

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
55
Operating Principle---Optical Sensors
 Optical Sensors are based on transmission of light between a light
source & a light detector.
 The transmitted light can travel along either an air path or a fiber optic
cable.
 Fiber optic medium gives multiple advantages over air medium and is
widely used.
 Optical sensors have many applications e.g Temperature, Pressure,
Flow, Position, Vibration, Rotation, Acceleration, Force, Strain,
Displacement etc.
 Light Detectors
 Photoconductors they are also called as photoresistors. They convert
changes in incident light into changes in resistance.
 Photovoltaic they are also called as photocells. They generate output
voltage whose magnitude is a function of magnitude of incident light.
 Photodiodes they give output current as a function of amount of
incident light.
56
Operating Principle---Optical Sensors
 Optical Sensors ------ Few Examples
 Temperature Optical fiber Refractive index is a function of

temperature change; this principle is utilized for measuring
temperature as a function of light intensity variation.
 Force/ Pressure Force/ Pressure exerted on an optical fiber

will cause a change in emitted light intensity & refractive index of the
fiber optic which is then measured by suitable light detectors.
 Acceleration/ Vibration By placing a mass subject to acceleration/

vibration; the rate & amplitude of force exerted on fiber optic can be
measured as a function of light intensity, wavelength, frequency etc.
 Displacement The amount of Reflected light varies with

displacement of the object; thus displacement is measured as a
function of reflected light.
57

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
58
Few Problems

for measuring vertical displacement of test
specimen on a Universal Tensile testing machine.
which can be explored for final selection/
utilization in the computer aided instrument.
59
Few Problems

for measuring varying pressure of a fluid.
transducers for capturing varying pressure of the
fluid.
60
Few Problems
 Consider an acoustic measurement system which

has its 1st stage device (sensor) as a Microphone.
transducers which can be utilized to form 1st stage
device i-e microphone for Acoustic measurement
system.
61
Few Problems

for measuring exhaust gas temperature of a Jet
engine.
which can be explored for final selection in
designing a temperature measurement computer
aided instrument.
62
Few Problems
 A computer aided instrument (weighing machine)

has to be designed for measuring human weight.
list down a primary detector transducer.
 Recommend a secondary transducer which can
be augmented with primary detector transducer
 Do we require some variable conversion unit for
your recommended primary and secondary
transducers? If yes, then name the variable
conversion unit along with brief explanation of its
working principle.
63
Few Problems

for measuring fluid pressure input.
64
Few Problems
 Briefly explain working principle of a Capacitance

type fluid level sensor.
 Draw sketch of such transducer.
65
Few Problems
 Briefly explain working principle of a non contact

Ampere meter
 Draw sketch of the working principle of such
transducer.
66
Few Problems

for flow rate input.
67
Few Problems

for measuring vibration as a function of velocity.
technologies, recommend a primary detector
transducer.
 And also recommend possible secondary
transducer which can provide output quantity as a
function of velocity.
 Name at least two secondary transducers which
can be used to give output quantity as a function
of displacement instead of velocity.
68
tube type indicator
1. Load Cells
columns
4. Bellows -//- -//-
C. Mass:-
D. Thermal
70
E. Hydro-Pneumatic
1. Static
2. Dynamic
Pressure
Cell
71
A. Resistance:- (R = ρL/A)
1. Contacting Limiting switch Disp > R zero or

infinity
2. Variable Length Sliding contact devices & -//-

conductor Potentiometer
3. Variable Area conductor Strain gages strain > change in R
4. Variable Resistivity of Thermistor (a semi temp > change in R

conductor conductor material) device
5. Variable dimension of Strain gages strain > change in R

conductor
72
B. Inductive:-
i. Changing coil
position Displacement Sensors, displac > change in
ii. Variable Air Gap LVDT, Vibrometer, Eddy Inductance
iii. Changing Core Current displacement
Position sensor, flowmeter
i. Moving Permanent
Magnet Velocity Sensor, Vibrometer, Velocity > change in
ii. Moving Coil Proximity pickups, reluctance
iii. Moving Core anemometer, flowmeter
73
C. Capacitive:-
1. Changing plate Displacement sensors, displacement > change in C

separation Microphones, Touch
screens/pads,
pressure switches,
pressure
measurement
2. Changing plates Displacement -//-
area
3. Changing Level, humidity -//-

dielectric constant sensors
74

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
75
Summary
 Contacting Pins

 Electrical Primary Detector Transducers & Working Principles
 Resistance Variable length, Resistivity, Dimension
 Inductance Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance, Reluctance
 Capacitance Changing air gap, dielectric constant, plate.
 Hall Effect, Piezoelectric, Optical Sensors, Ultrasonic
76 Few Problems on Sensors’ Technologies

IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Data Acquisition System (DAS)
Lecture No 10 & 11
2
3
Learning Objective
Students will be able to
 Interpret A to D converter characteristics/

features for subsequent selection of hardware.
 Employ analog to digital conversion of input

analog signals.
 Workout storage memory requirements.
4
Sequence
 Introduction to DAS
 Analog to Digital Conversion Process
 What is A to D Converter
 Conversion Process
 Principle Considerations in Selection of A to D Converter

 ADC Voltage Range ‘EFSR’
 ADC Resolution ‘Q’
 Conversion Speed/ Sampling Interval ‘Δt’
 Sources of Errors Intrinsic to ADC

 Signal Aliasing
 Quantization Error
 Saturation Error
 Conversion Errors
 Storage memory requirement for digital data
5
Introduction
 A data-acquisition system is the portion of a
measurement system that quantifies and stores data.
 There are many ways to do this. The engineer who reads

a transducer dial, associates a number with the dial
position, and records the number in a log book, performs
all of the tasks similar to a data acquisition system.
 This lecture focuses on microprocessor-based data-

acquisition systems, which are used to perform
automated data quantification and storage.
6
Introduction
 For analysis of measurement quantities, we need to acquire
measurement data in computers.
 For this purpose, the data which is in form of electrical signals, is
needed to be made compatible for acceptance by computers …….
this process is called “Interfacing”.
 We know, this data is generally extracted from sensors in form of
Analog Signal & this signal is not compatible for acceptance by
computer.
When a signal is recorded in computer, only discrete points are
stored.
 So we need to change analog signal into digital signal.
 For this purpose, Analog to Digital Converters are used.
 While converting signal from analog to Digital, main aim is to
represent analog signal in digital form with no distortion in it.
7
Analog to Digital Conversion Process
• What is A to D Converter
• Conversion Process
8
What is A to D Converter
 In broader sense, A to D converters are used to act as interface
between the sensors & computers.
 A to D converters, as name suggests converts analog signals to
digital.
An ADC converts a continuous time & continuous Amplitude

“Analog Signal” into a discrete time & discrete amplitude “digital
Signal”.
 A typical A to D converter can also:-

 Convert digital signal to analog.
 Condition the analog signal & can give output in form of

analog signal for controlling a device or for display on an
analog Indicator.
9
 The process of conversion is quite simple:
 The ADC will draw samples from analog signal after specific
intervals of time as per its capability. This interval is constant.

 The drawn sample point will have specific amplitude value at that
point of time; same will be assigned to the sampled point by ADC

 There is a caveat at this step…..ie ADC Resolution….ADC
cannot assign amplitude value lesser than its Resolution
capability
 Assign this value a binary code as per Bit register of the ADC
10
Time Discrete Assign Binary Hardware-
A to D Converter
Interval Amplitude Code software
(Δt) Sec (volts) Interface
0.01 0.25 0000 A software
0.02 0.75 0001 application
which must
0.03 0.85 0011 decode
0.04 0.35 0111 amplitude value
0.05 0.1 1111 assign to the
binary code of
0.06 -0.25 1000
the sampled
0.07 -0.85 1100 data point
0.08 -0.35 1110
0.09 -1.5 0100
11
Principle Considerations in ADC Selection
• ADC Voltage Range ‘EFSR’

• ADC Resolution ‘Q’
• Conversion Speed/ Sampling
Interval ‘Δt’
12
 Principle considerations in selecting a type of A/D converter include

ADC resolution, voltage range (EFSR), and conversion speed.
 Primary sources of error intrinsic to an ADC are:-

 Conversion speed & associated Signal Aliasing
 Resolution & associated Quantization error
 Saturation error associated to ADC voltage range EFSR Vs input signal
range.
 Conversion errors due to ADC settling time, signal noise during analog
signal sampling, temperature effects, excitation power sampling
(Errors are discussed later in the slides)
13
 ADC Voltage Range ‘EFSR’ is equal to maximum voltage
range which can be accepted by ADC device as input. & this EFSR
is used during quantization process for comparison of input
voltages with it. Sometimes it is called as ERef.
 In other words this EFSR is equal to total amplitude range an ADC
can handle.
 Any variation in this voltage due to unstable power supply can
cause fluctuation of ADC resolution which will result in
erroneous output of ADC.
14
 ADC Resolution ‘Q’ is defined in terms of the smallest
voltage increment that causes a bit change. Resolution is specified
in volts and is determined by Q = E / 2N
FSR
 ADC resolution primarily depends one ADC bit register or Bit Size
 An N bit ADC will be able to generate 2N codes. Each code will consist
of N binary digits
 A 3 bit ADC can generate maximum of 8 combinations of 3 bit codes
(000, 001, 010 & so on). Each combination is called as Quantization
level
 Each code will have a specific voltage
value which can be obtained by dividing

entire amplitude range ie EFSR with total
combinations ie the Resolution.
Example: an ADC with 10 v & 3 Bit ADC will
have voltage increments of 1.25 v (10/23) at
15
each quantization level.
 Conversion Speed/ Sampling Interval It is the smallest time
interval taken by an ADC to sample/draw a data point from analog
signal. It is also called as Sampling Interval Δt.
 Sampling Interval Δt decides number of data points which an ADC can
sample or draw per cycle
 Number of data points is the critical factor in ensuring shape of the
converted signal
 With lesser sampling interval Δt,
we can have more number of datapoints sampled per cycle of analog

signal & thus better shape of converted
signal and vice-versa
16
Sources of Errors Intrinsic to ADC
• Signal Aliasing
• Quantization Error
• Saturation Error
• Conversion Errors
17
 Principle considerations in selecting a type of A/D converter include

ADC resolution, voltage range (EFSR), and conversion speed.

 Conversion speed & associated Signal Aliasing
 Resolution & associated Quantization error
range.
(Errors are discussed later in the slides)
18
1. Conversion Speed/Sampling Interval
It is the smallest time interval taken by an ADC to sample/draw a
data point from analog signal. It is also called as Sampling Interval
Δt.
 ADC Sampling Frequency ‘fs’ is inverse of sampling interval ie
fs =1/Δt
 Signal Aliasing It is a phenomenon which occurs during

sampling of datapoints. Here analog signal gets distorted due to
less number of datapoints sampled during conversion and it
happens due to larger sampling interval.
 Higher Δt or less sampling frequency fs - - - - a distorted output signal from

ADC
19
Aliased Signal due to Under-Sampling
20
 Signal Aliasing Remedy
 Ensure Nyquist-Shannon’s Sampling Theorem.

 Theorem states that a faithful reproduction of the original
signal is only possible if the sampling rate is higher than twice
the highest frequency of the analog signal.
 i-e to ensure no signal aliasing, the A to D converter must
satisfy following equation:-
fs ≥ 2 fmax ;
Where fs is sampling frequency & fmax is input Signal maximum
frequency
21
 Signal Aliasing Remedy
 Ensure Nyquist-Shannon’s Sampling Theorem.
fs ≥ 2 fmax ;
 fs sampling frequency or sampling interval (Δt) is a hardware
set feature & cannot be changed. However, few OEM gives
provision of setting fs but it cannot be increased above
specified maximum sampling frequency.
 An analog Low Pass filter is often used before an A to D

converter, so that input fmax frequency satisfies the Shanon’s
theorem.
22
 Signal Aliasing ----- Few Points ------
 Thus, for avoiding Signal Aliasing error, we must know input
signal frequency (i-e Time-dependent characteristics of
Measurand) as well as fs of A to D converter.
 Typical fmax of few signals
 IC Engines vibration Signal 5000Hz

 Audio Signal 20000Hz
 Ultrasonic Signal 2 MHz
 Temperature Signal Low Freq - - almost constant
 For a DC signal, whatsoever, sampling interval (Δt) we select,
that is not going to distort output signal
 Figure --- (Discrete Sampling of a DC Signal)
 So, for a room temp signal (which is almost constant), we

don’t require any Low Pass anti-aliasing filter.
23
2. Amplitude Quantization in amplitude domain
Here, analog amplitude values are quantized to discrete amplitude
values for assignment to sampled datapoints in time domain.
 In quantization of analog amplitudes, ADC Bit Size (N) decides

following:-
No of amplitude levels an ADC can produce over its entire
amplitude range
 What amplitude value is assigned to each data point sampled in
time domain?
 This value can be determined in terms of amplitude gap between two
consecutive levels in amplitude domain which is known as “ADC
resolution”:-
ADC Resolution = Amplitude Gap = EFSR / 2N; N is Bit size
24
25
26
 Quantization Error While quantizing analog amplitude

values to discrete amplitude values, we come across Quantization
error. Here, sampled discrete values may omit taking account of
few amplitude values present in the analog signal.
27
 Quantization Error Explanation
 Consider a signal being quantized by a 3 Bit & 10 volts A to D
converter (i-e 23 8 quantization levels).
 ADC Resolution = EFSR / 2N = 10v/ 23 = 1.25 V
 i-e entire ADC amplitude range will contain 8 levels with a gap of
1.25 v (i-e 8 levels will be having voltage values of 0, 1.25, 2.50v
& so on).
 Such ADC will not be able to capture any amplitude value of
input signal which lies between these gaps (eg 3.0v cannot be
captured with such ADC; ADC will assign either lower level value
ie 2.50 v or upper level value 3.75v to analog input of 3.0v).
 Incapability of registering amplitude values between this gap is
called “Quantization Error” (denoted by Qerror).
 Max Quantization error Qerror is thus, equal to ADC resolution &
can be expressed in terms of error bound of ± 1/2Q.
28
 Quantization Error Cont’d

 Resolution It is the smallest amount of an input signal that an A to D
converter can detect
 “OR” the gap between two consecutive levels in amplitude domain - - -
is called as A to D converter’s Resolution.
 Higher the Bit Size, finer will be the Resolution.
 Quantization Error Remedy

 Increase Resolution of ADC by
(i) By increasing Bit Size…………Best Remedy
(ii) By increasing input Signal amplitude through incorporating some
amplifier. Amplifying the input signal will reduce the error.
Amplification of input signal always accompany amplification of noise
in the signal which sometime, may not be acceptable.
29
How we can reduce Quantization Error by increasing Bit Size?
 e.g consider a 12 bit ADC with full scale range of 10V. It will have
Resolution of 2.4 mv & thus its Qerror is also 2.4 mv which can be
represented with error bound of ± 1.2 mv.
 Now consider an input signal with sensitivity of 1 mv/C. this
signal will have estimated error of ± 1.2 mv (ie quantized value
could be 1 mv ± 1.2 mv). Here error value is not at all
acceptable.
 Now if we use a 18 bit ADC, with same full scale range of 10V. It
will have Resolution of 0.03 mv & thus its Qerror is also 0.03 mv
which can be represented with error bound of ± 0.015 mv. Now
1 mv/C signal will have estimated error of ± 0.015 mv (ie
quantized value could be 1 mv ± 0.015 mv). Here, error value is
quite acceptable against 1mv
30
How we can reduce Quantization Error by increasing Input Signal
Range?
 e.g consider a 12 bit ADC with full scale range of 10V. It will have
Resolution of 2.4 mv & thus its Qerror is also 2.4 mv which can be
represented with error bound of ± 1.2 mv.
 Now consider an input signal with sensitivity of 1 mv/C. this
signal will have estimated error of ± 1.2 mv (ie quantized value
could be 1 mv ± 1.2 mv). Here error value is not at all
acceptable.
 Now if same input signal is amplified with a gain of 1000; its
sensitivity will be 1V/C. Now this signal will have estimated error
of ± 1.2 mv (ie quantized value could be 1 V ± 1.2 mv). Here,
error value is quite negligible against 1V
31
 Summing Up
 Two most important features in A to D Converters are
 Sampling Frequency
 Resolution
 Wrong Sampling frequency of ADC will result in Signal Aliasing
 Inadequate Resolution of ADC will result in Quantization Error in
amplitude domain.
 Higher the Bit Size, finer will be the Resolution.
32
 Conversion speed & associated Signal Aliasing discussed
 Resolution & associated Quantization error discussed
range.
 Saturation Error The Voltage Range of an A/D converter limits
the minimum and maximum analog voltage input. If either Limit
(min or max input voltage) is exceeded, the A/D converter output
saturates and does not change with a subsequent increase in input
level.
 Remedy for Saturation Error It can be avoided by
conditioning signals (amplify or attenuate analog voltage input
range) to remain within the limits of the A/D converter.
 Conversion Errors
33

 Conversion speed & associated Signal Aliasing discussed
 Resolution & associated Quantization error discussed
range. discussed
 Conversion Errors Factors that contribute to conversion errors

include A/D converter settling time, signal noise during the analog
sampling, temperature effects, and excitation power fluctuations.
34
Specification Parameters or Features of
an A to D Converter
35
Features of A to D Converters
 Input Range (EFSR) generally 0 – 5 v or 0 to 10v DC
 ADC Resolution or Bit Size
 Conversion Speed or Sampling Frequency
 Polarity
 Either Unipolar i-e 0 to 5 v
 Or Bipolar i-e +5 to -5 v
 Gain
 Analog input – Output
 Digital input – output
 D to A Conversion for controlling analog devices
 Counter/ timer/ clock for communicating with computers

36
Features of A to D Converters
 Number of Input Data Channels typically 16 channels for having
multiple data
 Single Ended Input here for each signal, only one input channel is
available (for taking +ve volt value) & for –ve volt value, common
“Ground” of ADC is used.
 This option induces noise due to common ground for all inputs.
 Differential Ended Input here, for each signal, 2 channels are

dedicated; one for +ve & one for -ve volt values of inputs.
 A 16 channel ADC, once used with diff ended input, can handle 8 input
signals
 Multiplexing/ Switching here effective sampling frequency reduces due

to sampling of multiple inputs simultaneously.
 effective “fs “ = (fs )/(No of channels)
 Onboard Memory ADCs do have certain onboard memory for

various functions
37
Digital Data Recording
Storage Memory Requirement
38
Digital Data Recording
Storage Memory Requirement for Sampled Digital Data
 Storage memory requirement can be worked out by knowing total

data points over desired period & space required by each data point
(i-e 2 bytes).
 Every data point requires 16 bits (2 bytes) of memory space.
 No. of total data points “N” can be obtained through relation
 T = N . Δt ; where T is cycle time i-e 1 sec, Δt is sampling interval & can
be obtained by relation
 fs = 1 / Δt ; where fs is sampling frequency (a hardware set)
 Now, we can obtain data points “Ntime” over a period of time “T” by
substituting required time in 1st relation & subsequently, we can
determine “total data points for the required period”.
 In digital recording, the most limiting factor is “Sampling Frequency
fs”.
39
Few Problems
40
Few Problems
 Determine storage memory required for recording 10 minutes of

data which has been acquired through 10 KHz sampling frequency.
41
Few Problems
 A thrust measurement system is being designed. As a
measurement system designer, you are required to select an A to D
converter & a data recorder hardware. Based on following
information, select mentioned hardware with appropriate
specifications:-
 Thrust is required to be measured at 3 different pints (throttle settings)
where thrust pulses variations are of no more than 15 Hz.
 Thrust data is required to be measured/stored for 1 hour.
 Following specifications are essentially required
 Determine appropriate sampling freq of ADC?
 ADC Resolution if you have used a 3 Bit ADC with 10 V range?
 Minimum memory storage required for 1 hour data recording?
 Comment, how can quantization error & input signal aliasing be
avoided in this case?
42
Few Problems
43
Few Problems
 A computer aided temperature measurement system is being

design. The selected temperature sensor has a sensitivity of
100 mv/C.
 Analyze the ADC resolution & input signal amplification effect on
quantization error taking account of following parameters &
comment on results of your analysis:-
(a) quantize a 100-mV analog signal using an 8-bit and then 12-bit
A/D converter, both ADCs’ are having a full-scale range of 0 to 10 V.
(b) Amplify 100mV input analog signal to 1V and then quantize this
amplified input signal using above given 8 & 12 bit converter machines
having FSR of 10 V.
44
Few Problems
 A 16-bit A/D converter has a full-scale range of 10 V. What is the

resolution of this A/D in volts? If this A/D were used to measure
temperature using a sensor having a sensitivity of 0.1 mV/C, what is
the ADC resolution in C?
45
Few Problems
 The output from a temperature sensor is expected to vary from

2.500 mv to 3.500 mv (Note: transducer is generating amplitude
values to the 1000th of a m-volt).
(a) If the signal is fed to a 12 bit A/D converter having a ± 5 v range,
estimate the ADC resolution.
(b) What would be the Quantization error if the temperature sensor
output is fed to ADC without any amplification?
(c) Suggest amplification gain for temperature sensor output which
shall significantly reduce the Quantization error.
46
Few Problems
 A student has designed temperature measurement system by
selecting K type thermocouple and NI DAQ hardware. After
appropriately designing the LabView program the student
encounters a problem ie “The measurement system is showing
temperature variations in steps of 30 C only i-e it is not showing
temperature values between 0-30 C, 30-60 C, 60-90 & so on.
Students of 87 EC have so far identified following facts:-
 (a) Transducer and DAQ card ranges are in cohesion for mutual interface.
 (b) Lab view program is appropriately designed.
 (c) Electrical circuitry is correctly designed and incorporated.
 (d) Thermocouple was found serviceable.
 Questions
 (i) Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and identify the problem. (Hint: ADC
selection).
 (ii) Explain the problem phenomenon in view of topic covered in DAQ selection
topic.
 (iii) Possibly two remedies exist for this problem; please list the remedies.
47
Few Problems
 A A student has designed a thrust measurement system for an engine
test bed by selecting Rduino UNO, an appropriate transducer and
appropriate soft code for the measurement system. The system was
statically calibrated at 3 different values of force (corresponding to
expected thrust values to be measured at 3 desired throttle settings) on a
tensile testing machine prior to employing the system on the test bed.
Once the system was employed on the test bed, the system started giving
erroneous readings (thrust values) at desired throttle settings. A team of
87 EC students started troubleshooting the system and identified
following:-
 (i) The transducer specifications were found in line with the design requirement.
 (ii) System circuitry was correctly designed and there was no problem in the physical
circuit.
 (iii) Rduino UNO was found serviceable.
 (ii) Students finally identified the problem and concluded that while designing the
measurement system, measurand behavior (thrust) was overlooked by the designers.
 Question. Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and briefly explain the
phenomenon of identified problem (Hint: measurand behavior & Rduino).
48
Summary
 Two important factors in A to D Conversion

 Sampling Errors
 Quantization Errors
 Features of an A to D Converter
49
Q&A
50
A to D Converter
 An ADC converts an analog voltage value into a binary number
through a process called quantization.
 The ADC is a hybrid device having both an analog side and a
digital side.
 The analog side of ADC is specified in terms of a full-scale voltage
range EFSR. The EFSR is the voltage range which can be accepted
by the device as input.
 The digital side is specified in terms of the number of bits of its
register.
 An N-bit ADC outputs N-digits binary numbers. It can represent 2N
different binary numbers (ie 2N combination of zeros & ones).
 Example: a 2 bit ADC will output 2-digits binary numbers having 2N
(4) binary combinations ie 00, 01, 11, 10.
 Each of this binary combination represents a voltage value which is
assigned to discrete data points during quantization process.
51
A to D Converter
Analog Side
52 Digital Side
A to D Converter
 For example, a typical 8-bit A/D converter with an EFSR =10 V

would be able to represent input analog voltages in the range
between 0 and 10 V with 28 = 256 digit binary numbers of different
binary values.
 Thus 8 bit ADC will divide 10 V amplitude into 256 binary levels &
voltage at each level will be represented by a unique binary
number.
 (10v/256binary codes = 39 mv b/w each binary number.
53
A to D Converter
Analog Side
54 Digital Side
A to D Converter
Avery fast A/D converter is the parallel or flash converter depicted in Figure 7.11.
These converters are common to high-end stand-alone digital oscilloscopes and
spectral analyzers. An N-bit parallel converter uses 22 - 1 separate voltage
comparators to compare a reference voltage to the applied input voltage. As
indicated in Figure 7.11, the reference voltage applied to each successive
comparator is increased by the equivalent to value of 1 amplitude gap or
resolution (also known as Leas Significant bit LSB) by using a voltage-dividing
resistor ladder. If the input voltage is less than its reference voltage, a
comparator will go LOW; otherwise it will go HIGH. Consider the 2-bit converter
shown in Figure 7.11. If Einput >= 1/2 Eref but Einput < 3/4 Eref Eref , then
comparators 1 and 2 will be HIGH but comparator 3 will be LOW. In this manner,
there can only be 2N = 22 different HIGH/LOW combinations from 22 – 1 =3
comparators, as noted in Table 7.4
55
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Computer Aided Data Acquisition
System (DAS) Problems
Lecture No 12 & 13
2
Learning Objective
Students will be able to
 Interpret A to D converter characteristics/

features for subsequent selection of hardware.
 Employ analog to digital conversion of input

analog signals.
 Workout storage memory requirements.
3
Sequence
 Two important features in A to D Conversion

 Sampling Errors
 Quantization Errors
 Features of an A to D Converter
 DAQ Problems
4
Few Problems
 Determine storage memory required for recording 10 minutes of

data which has been acquired through 10 KHz sampling frequency.
5
Few Problems
 A thrust measurement system is being designed. As a
measurement system designer, you are required to select an A to D
converter & a data recorder hardware. Based on following
information, select mentioned hardware with appropriate
specifications:-
 Thrust is required to be measured at 3 different pints (throttle settings)
where thrust pulses variations are of no more than 15 Hz.
 Thrust data is required to be measured/stored for 1 hour.
 Following specifications are essentially required
 Determine appropriate sampling freq of ADC?
 ADC Resolution if you have used a 3 Bit ADC with 10 V range?
 Minimum memory storage required for 1 hour data recording?
 Comment, how can quantization error & input signal aliasing be
avoided in this case?
6
Few Problems
7
Few Problems
 A computer aided temperature measurement system is being

design. The selected temperature sensor has a sensitivity of
100 mv/C.
 Analyze the ADC resolution & input signal amplification effect on
quantization error taking account of following parameters &
comment on results of your analysis:-
(a) quantize a 100-mV analog signal using an 8-bit and then 12-bit
A/D converter, both ADCs’ are having a full-scale range of 0 to 10 V.
(b) Amplify 100mV input analog signal to 1V and then quantize this
amplified input signal using above given 8 & 12 bit converter machines
having FSR of 10 V.
8
Few Problems
 A 16-bit A/D converter has a full-scale range of 10 V. What is the

resolution of this A/D in volts? If this A/D were used to measure
temperature using a sensor having a sensitivity of 0.1 mV/C, what is
the ADC resolution in C?
9
Few Problems
 The output from a temperature sensor is expected to vary from

2.500 mv to 3.500 mv (Note: transducer is generating amplitude
values to the 1000th of a m-volt).
(a) If the signal is fed to a 12 bit A/D converter having a ± 5 v range,
estimate the ADC resolution.
(b) What would be the Quantization error if the temperature sensor
output is fed to ADC without any amplification?
(c) Suggest amplification gain for temperature sensor output which
shall significantly reduce the Quantization error.
10
Few Problems
 A student has designed temperature measurement system by
selecting K type thermocouple and NI DAQ hardware. After
appropriately designing the LabView program the student
encounters a problem ie “The measurement system is showing
temperature variations in steps of 30 C only i-e it is not showing
temperature values between 0-30 C, 30-60 C, 60-90 & so on.
Students of 87 EC have so far identified following facts:-
 (a) Transducer and DAQ card ranges are in cohesion for mutual interface.
 (b) Lab view program is appropriately designed.
 (c) Electrical circuitry is correctly designed and incorporated.
 (d) Thermocouple was found serviceable.
 Questions
 (i) Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and identify the problem. (Hint: ADC
selection).
 (ii) Explain the problem phenomenon in view of topic covered in DAQ selection
topic.
 (iii) Possibly two remedies exist for this problem; please list the remedies.
11
Few Problems
 A A student has designed a thrust measurement system for an engine
test bed by selecting Rduino UNO, an appropriate transducer and
appropriate soft code for the measurement system. The system was
statically calibrated at 3 different values of force (corresponding to
expected thrust values to be measured at 3 desired throttle settings) on a
tensile testing machine prior to employing the system on the test bed.
Once the system was employed on the test bed, the system started giving
erroneous readings (thrust values) at desired throttle settings. A team of
87 EC students started troubleshooting the system and identified
following:-
 (i) The transducer specifications were found in line with the design requirement.
 (ii) System circuitry was correctly designed and there was no problem in the physical
circuit.
 (iii) Rduino UNO was found serviceable.
 (ii) Students finally identified the problem and concluded that while designing the
measurement system, measurand behavior (thrust) was overlooked by the designers.
 Question. Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and briefly explain the
phenomenon of identified problem (Hint: measurand behavior & Rduino).
12
Q&A
13
A to D Converter
Analog Side
14 Digital Side
A to D Converter
Avery fast A/D converter is the parallel or flash converter depicted in Figure 7.11.
These converters are common to high-end stand-alone digital oscilloscopes and
spectral analyzers. An N-bit parallel converter uses 22 - 1 separate voltage
comparators to compare a reference voltage to the applied input voltage. As
indicated in Figure 7.11, the reference voltage applied to each successive
comparator is increased by the equivalent to value of 1 amplitude gap or
resolution (also known as Leas Significant bit LSB) by using a voltage-dividing
resistor ladder. If the input voltage is less than its reference voltage, a
comparator will go LOW; otherwise it will go HIGH. Consider the 2-bit converter
shown in Figure 7.11. If Einput >= 1/2 Eref but Einput < 3/4 Eref Eref , then
comparators 1 and 2 will be HIGH but comparator 3 will be LOW. In this manner,
there can only be 2N = 22 different HIGH/LOW combinations from 22 – 1 =3
comparators, as noted in Table 7.4
15
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Concept of Errors
Lecture No 14
2
Learning Objective
 Concept of Errors in Measurement
 Types of Errors
3
Sequence
 Error in Measurement is Inherent
 Common Types of Errors
 Bias or Systematic Errors
 Random or Precision Errors
 Sources of Errors
 Sources of Errors “Classifications”
 Sources of Bias Errors
 Sources of Random Errors
 Source of Other Errors
 Terms Used in Rating Instrument Performance
 Quantification of Measurement Quality
4
Errors in Measurement is Inherent
 Can True Value be Obtained?
5
Error in Measurement
 What is Measurement? “Measurement of a quantity” is

generally defined as quantitative comparison of this quantity with
another which is homogeneous to the measured one.
 What is Measurement Error “Measurement Error” is defined

as difference between measured & true values of the measurand.
 Why we study Measurement Error? “Error in measurement”

is studied to ascertain the “goodness of measurement data (or
measurement quality)”.
6
 Main Problem… Can the true value of measurand be

obtained/measued?
 Answer… Negative…..
 Why? there are numerous error contributors in a

measurement process which liable the measured value to deviate
from true value. e.g measurand, operator, instrument etc
7
Corollary Error is inherent in all kind of measurements, so we
cannot know the true value &
 thus can never know exact error of a measurement. However, we

can estimate an interval of measurement error.
 This estimate of error interval is also called uncertainty bound (ie

estimate of likelihood that a measuring error will exceed some specific
error value).
8
Error Contributors in a Measurement Process
 The Contributors
 Instrument
 The Operator
 Measurement Method
 Measurement Standard
 s
9
10
 The Measurand it gets modified sometime during measurement or

our knowledge about its behavior is limited etc
 The Instrument It gets affected due to non ideal components

(manufacturing flaws), internal generated noise, its sensitivity to
environmental conditions, lack of calibration, wear & tear due to aging.
 The Operator Operator inability to measure “just in time”, pointer

exact displacement, post processing omissions etc contribute in
overall measurement error.
11
 Measurement Method The measurement methods are based on

some physical phenomenon/ interactions like mechanical,
electromechanical, electromagnetic etc and these interactions may not
produce expected results due to interaction by other phenomenon like
friction in mechanical sys will eat up some of input qty etc.
 Measurement Standard It may not be able to give exact value or a

value to desired accuracy ie less precision standard.
12
13
Common Types of Errors & Their Sources
 Systematic/Bias Errors
 Random/Precision Errors
 Sources of Systematic/Bias Errors
 Error Sources within Instrument
 Error Sources outside Instrument
 Sources of Random/Precision Errors
 Human Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Fluctuating Experimental Conditions
 Sources of Other Errors
 Illegitimate Errors
14
Common Types of Errors
 For setting up of uncertainty bound/ estimate of error interval of a
measurement, the first step would be to identify its possible
causes/contributors/sources (briefly covered in previous slides).
Here we will discuss categories of these errors/ error contributors.
(i) Bias or Systematic Errors
(ii) Precision or Random Errors
 (i) Bias or Systematic Errors “Errors which occur the same

way each time a measurement is made” e.g a scale consistently
reads 5% above true value ie the measurement is biased +5% to
true value.
 OR “Errors in output readings of an instrument that are consistently
on one side of the true value ie either all errors are +ve or -ve”.e.g
bent needle of dial, zero drift of instrument etc.
15
Common Types of Errors (Cont’d)
 (ii) Precision or Random Errors “Errors which are different for
each successive measurement but have an average value of zero”.
e.g vibrations may cause fluctuations in readings about true
value…sometime reading high & sometime low….this will create a
distribution surrounding the true value.
 OR “Errors in output readings which occur at either side of the true

value”. These are caused by random & unpredictable effects. The
+ve & -ve errors occur in approximately equal number for a series
of measurements of same qty.
 OR “Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction)

in the measured data. Random errors can be evaluated through
statistical analysis and can be reduced by averaging over a large
number of observations.

16
 Comments on Bias & Random Errors
 Random errors can be overcome by taking same measurement a
number of times & extracting a value by averaging or other statistical
techniques.
 Bias errors cannot be treated using statistical techniques, because
such errors are fixed & do not show a distribution. However, these
errors are estimated by comparison of more accurate instrument ie
“Calibration”.
 Distinction between Random & Bias error sources is thus essential so
that an appropriate treatment can be applied. Sometime, it is difficult

to differentiate…
e.g An operator may make different reading each time but often this kind
of error is Random & can be treated through Statistical Techniques.
On the other hand, if an operator make a parallax induced error (which is
a Bias error) error value will remain constant for each repetition.
 “
17
18
Sources of Bias Errors
 Sources of Systematic/ Bias Error Following are few Bias
error sources:-
 Error Sources within Instrument
due to defective equipment Play in
linkages, backlash in gears
Meshing of instrument, friction
force in a sliding bar type
instrument, fabrication flaws
& maintenance flaws are the
example of error sources within
Instruments.
 Calibration errors
Zero-offset & scale errors

are called calibration error.
19
 Error Sources Outside Instruments
(i) Environmental conditions like Temperature & humidity.
e.g temp variation affects friction, spring stiffness, circuit
resistance & thus cause error in measurement.
(ii) AC Power Lines Cause magnetic field & magnetic fields

may affect electrical coils if present in instrument. Electric coils
induce current from these magnetic fields due to which current/
voltage signals get affected.
(iii) Loading Effects once measuring instruments are

introduced to a measurand, they may slightly alter it by virtue of
their physical interaction/ phenomenon …. its called loading effect.
e.g coupling the RPM gauge to a motor will reduce its
speed, attaching ‘V’ meter will reduce source voltage by consuming
some current in ‘V’ meter circuit
20
Sources of Random Errors
 Human errors when operator is inconsistent in making the readings.
 Errors due to outside disturbances to instrument like temp variation

cause error in instrument itself & result in random error.
Temp---Bias--------- once temp variation occurred between time
when instrument was calibrated & measurement taken.
Temp---Random--- when test duration is too long & temp keeps
varying during the test.
 Error due to mechanical vibrations/ fluctuating experimental

conditions these cause random errors.
Also variation in measurand quantity due to intermittent leakage in
input can cause random errors.
 Errors derived from insufficient measuring sensitivity Low
sensitivity instrument will produce lower deflection in readout scale
& thus can lead to random errors.
21
Sources of Other Errors
 Illegitimate errors e.g blunders/ mistakes during measurement,

computational errors after measurement.
 Errors that are sometime Bias & sometime Random e.g errors due to
temp variation, operator’s skill level etc may be bias or random type of
errors.
22
Remedies For Sources of Errors
 Remedies for Bias Errors

 Static Calibration
 Dynamic Calibration
 Remedies for Random Errors

 Statistical Techniques
23
 Remedies for Bias Errors Such errors are consistent in sign &
magnitude and because of this consistency they may be corrected
by calibration.
 For time-varying input measurand, introducing a correction is more

complicated e.g distortion caused by poor frequency response cannot
be corrected by usual “static calibration” (calibration of an instrument
when input is constant in time).
 For dynamic input we correct these errors by “dynamic calibration”.

Here we measure Op/Ip at range of frequencies of interest ie G(f) &
calibrate them.
24
 Remedies for Random Errors Such errors are

statistical fluctuations (in either direction) & are caused by random
& unpredictable effects.
 The +ve & -ve errors occur in approximately equal number for a
series of measurements of same qty.
 As such, no remedy exists to treat these errors, however, their

behavior can be predicted through Statistical Techniques where we
can estimate an error bout with certain level of confidence.
 Yet, ensuring OEM/ designer recommended experiment/measurement
conditions (like environmental temperature, operators’ skill etc) can
lead to minimize Random effects.
 Statistical techniques are always employed after ensuring
recommended conditions.
25
Distinction between Error Sources
 By now, we have come to know that treatment for both the types of
errors is different ie Calibration for Bias errors & Statistical
techniques for Random errors.
 Distinction between Random & Bias error sources is thus essential

so that an appropriate treatment can be applied.
26
Terms Used in Rating Instrument Performance
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Resolution
 Sensitivity
27
 Following terms are often employed to describe quality of an

Instrument’s readings. They are related to expected errors of the
instruments:-
 Accuracy The difference between Xm &Xt is called as error ….
accuracy. “OEM will specify maximum error as Accuracy”.
OEM often neglect mentioning confidence level i-e the odds that an
error can exceed the specified maximum error.
 Precision The difference between readings during repeated
measurements of same quantity.
Typically Precision of Instrument is determined by Statistical
Analysis of the measurements.
 Resolution The smallest increment of change in input value that can

The resolution is often on same order as precision; sometime it is
smaller.
28
 Sensitivity The change in instrument output per unit change in

measurand input is called instrument sensitivity.
Typically, an instrument with higher sensitivity will also have finer
- Detection of smaller inputs

Relates with precision &
Resolution.
- High sensitivity…
Output with larger values/
scale deflection relates with
Accuracy.
29
Summary
 Errors in Measurement
30
Sources of Errors
 Without understanding sources of error, we can neither design a
good instrument nor can get less error measurement…… & error
may become so great that measurement become useless/
dangerous.
 Definition “Source of error is one which is of same nature of
signal e.g if signal is displacement, so error source will always be
of same nature….e.g ‘play’ ie empty gap…empty distance where
there is no material…play in joint or linkage etc”.
 Signal: Displacement (“friction cannot be error source for displacement”)
Error Sources: Play------------- play in joints, linkages
Backlash------- play in gears meshing
Deformation--- if a link is deformed, it will carry
error in displacement signal
 Signal: Force (“play cannot be error source for force”)
Error Sources: Friction------- friction in piston-cylinder gage
31 Any resistance/ hindrance
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Quantifying Measurement Quality
“Introduction to Uncertainty in Measurement”
Lecture No 15
2
Learning Objective
 Concept of Measurement Uncertainty
 Evaluation of Measurement Uncertainty
3
Sequence
Quantification of Measurement Quality
 Recap of Last Lecture
 Uncertainty as a Tool for Quantifying Measurement Quality
 Why to quantify measurement quality?
 Why use uncertainty as a tool for measurement quantification?
 Introduction to Uncertainty
 Old Concept
 New Concept
 Total Uncertainty
 Bias Uncertainty
 Precision Uncertainty
 Evaluation of Precision Uncertainty
 Theory Based on Population
 Theory Based on Sample
 When n ≥ 30
 When n < < 30
 Few Problems
4
Error in Measurement…..Recap
5
Introduction to Uncertainty….Recap
 As error is inherent in all kind of measurements, so we cannot
know the true value & thus can never know exact error of a
measurement.
 However, we can estimate an interval of measurement error.
 This estimate of error interval is also called uncertainty bound (ie

error value).
6
Uncertainty as a tool for Quantifying
Measurement Quality
 Why ascertain Measurement Quality
 Why Uncertainty for ascertaining

Measurement Quality
 Olde Concept
 New Concept
7
Quantifying Measuring Quality
 Why to Ascertain Measurement Quality?

 Measurement data is used in experiments/ calibrations & its
quality “goodness of measured data” must be known to validate/
authenticate the experiment/ calibration.
 Quantification of measurement quality can easily be done by

representing the measured value with maximum expected
error…. “lesser the error, better the measurement
quality”……………………..Old Concept
8
Quantifying Measuring Quality…Uncertainty
 Why Uncertainty for quantifying measurement quality?
 ………We don’t know the exact error value……….
 Error is inherent in each measurement…. as we don’t

know true value, we don’t know exact value of
error…..also error is expected to change each time a
measurement is taken due to nature of errors present
like random errors….“Repeatability”
 Due to the mentioned reasons, we cannot quantify

“goodness of measurement data” by mere representing
maximum expected error…….. we need some other
tool…..Uncertainty.
9
Introduction to Uncertainty
 Measurement data is used in experiments & its quality “goodness
of measured data” must be known. Quality of a measurement can
be evaluated/ ascertained by employing any of the two concepts:-
 Old Concept
 Maximum expected error in measurement was regarded as

the tool for expressing measurement quality or goodness of
measured data.
 Old concept for quantifying measurement quality was based

on assumption that True value is known.
 Therefore it has been discontinued due to not knowing

exact error (why… because we don’t know true value) of a
measurement & expected variation in error (Random) in
repeat measurements.
10
 New Concept
 Measurement Uncertainty Bound is regarded as the tool for

expressing measurement quality or goodness of measured
data.
 Measurement Uncertainty is “experimenter’s best estimates

of how far an experimental qty might be from the true value
(with certain confidence) based on his knowledge of
measurement process”.
- Uncertainty of a measurement is always computed through taking

repeat measurements.
- Maximum Expected Error in terms of Accuracy is specified by OEM.
11
 In other words:
 Measurement uncertainty is the doubt that exists about
a measurement result. The doubt mainly due to
Random errors & to some extent due to Bias error….
 Doubt due to Bias???... because we might not be able

to identify all Bias errors. You don’t know the true
value… so you can’t know exact error even the bias
error.
 Every measurement - even the most careful - always has

a margin of doubt….. Uncertainty
12
Total Uncertainty
 As we know that there are two different classes which contribute
error in measurement i-e Bias & Precision errors.
 So we need to ascertain Uncertainty due to both type of errors.
 After determining the individual bias & precision uncertainty in a

measurement, we must combine them to obtain Total Uncertainty.
 Also when bias & precision uncertainties are estimated for 95%
confidence level then Total Uncertainty is also an estimate of 95%
confidence level.
 Formula
13
Evaluation of Uncertainty in Measurement
 Evaluation of Uncertainty in Measurement
 Bias Uncertainty
 Precision Uncertainty
14
Evaluation of Uncertainty in Measurement
Method
 Bias Uncertainty Bias uncertainty is in form of expected

errors in measurement and are specified by OEM or we
obtain them through calibration with a more accurate &
precise standard e.g Linearity error, accuracy error etc.
 Precision Uncertainty Evaluation of precision uncertainty

is carried out through statistical methods.
15
Evaluation of Precision Uncertainty
 Evaluation of Precision Uncertainty
 Theory Based on Population
 Theory Based on Sample

 When n ≥ 30
 When n < < 30
16
Evaluation of Precision Uncertainty
 General principle to ascertain precision uncertainty is as

follows:-
 Obtain Average (Mean) of repeatedly measured values of a
result.
 Obtain Average deviation (precision error) of repeated
measurements from the Mean value. i-e find Std Deviation.
 Estimate a bound around error with confidence interval
(probability) of 95%.....2 sigma limit i-e
 True value is likely to fall within interval of μ + 2σ , μ - 2σ
 i-e 19 out of 20 times of repeat measurements, error is
likely to remain within the estimated error bound.
“S t A t I s T i C s B e G i N s”
17
Precision Uncertainty
Theory Based on Population
 In last slide, we have made certain assumptions:-
 That population of the infinite measurement repetition is known & it is normal.
 Thus Population mean μ & Population Std Dev σ are known or computed.
 The knowledge of the population, enables us to predict uncertainty
in measurement result for any repetition with certain level of
confidence (e.g 95.45%) using μ + 2σ ≤ Xt ≤ μ - 2σ
18
μ & σ can be estimated

through x̅ & Sx .
 For 95.45%, it is μ + 2σ ≤ Xt ≤ μ - 2σ
 For 95.0%, it is μ + 1.96σ ≤ Xt ≤ μ - 1.96σ ; x̅ ≈ μ & Sx ≈ σ
 ie for 19 out of 20 repetitions, precision error in measurement will

not exceed from ±1.96σ.
 95% Confidence interval is also called as odds of 20:1 ie error in one of
19 the 20 repetitions will exceed the established interval.
 Now the PROBLEM arises, can we know the entire population ie

infinite repetition of measurement?
 Answer…………….a Big No
 & even in some cases, we would not be able to repeat the
measurement experiment for even second time.
 Then, we resort to Theory Based on Samples
(In previous slides, by computing sample Mean & Std Dev, we

basically obtained fair estimates of population mean & Std Dev.)
20
Theory Based on Samples
Samples Theory: Objective No 1
{We would like to have some assurance that x̅ ≈ μ & Sx ≈ σ}
 When we talk of samples, then there remains uncertainty about sample mean & Sample
Std Dev that
 “Can these be the best estimate for Population mean & Std Dev?”
 This uncertainty about the sample mean & Std Dev can be evaluated/ computed with
certain level of confidence.
Samples Theory: Objective No 2

{To infer Prob Distribution of the population from that of the sample}
 Sample distribution with large samples can be assumed normal in view of CLT regardless
of underlaying population distribution.
 For Small samples, T-distribution comes to help by assuming that underlying population
can be approximated to be normal.
Above 2 Objectives can be accomplished independently

for following two cases:
 When Sample Size is large enough (n ≥ 30)
 When Sample Size is less than 30 (n < 30)
21
Uncertainty Interval for x̅ to estimate μ
 When Sample Size is large enough (n ≥ 30)
 Assumptions :
 CLT with n ≥ 30 & n is random, then sample distribution (of samples’
means; more than one sample) would always be Normal regardless of
population distribution. Assumption here would be; we take single sample
with n ≥ 30 & assume that it satisfies CLT with n ≥ 30.
 σ is unknown, however, Sx is reasonable approximation to σ for large
samples (n ≥ 30), thus Sx ≈ σ
 With 95% Confidence, we can estimate μ with an interval around sample

mean by
x̅ - Z.475 σ/ √n ≤ μ ≤ x̅ + Z.475 σ/ √n ; Sx ≈ σ
22
Uncertainty Interval for x̅ to estimate μ

 When Sample Size is Small (n <<< 30)
 Assumptions :
 Underlying population distribution satisfies normal distribution.
 σ is unknown & Sx cannot be approximated to σ due to smaller sample
size.
 Here t-distribution comes into play; which is dependent on number of
samples taken through degrees of freedom, ν = n - 1
 With 95% Confidence, we can estimate μ with an interval around
sample mean by
x̅ - tα/2,ν Sx / √n ≤ μ ≤ x̅ + tα/2,ν Sx / √n ; (α = 1 - C%)
For 95% confidence, α = 0.5 & α/2= 0.025 (for two tailed curve)
23
Few Numericals
 A brass rod is held under a fixed tensile load and the axial strain
in the rod is determined using a strain gage. Thirty results are
obtained under fixed test conditions, yielding an average strain of
520 micro strain . Statistical analysis of the distribution of
measurements gives a precision uncertainty of Px = 29 micro
strain with odds of 19:1. The bias uncertainty is estimated as
Bx= 21micro strain with 95% confidence. What is total
uncertainty.
24
Few Numericals
 For calibration of a pressure guage a constant pressure of 4.00
Mpa was applied. 100 readings were taken at this pressure
under same conditions. Mean value of these readings came out
to be 4.008 MPa & standard deviation as 0.014 MPa.
(a) Find the uncertainty interval at the odds of 19:1.
(b) Find the uncertainty interval with 68% confidence level.
(c) The manual of pressure guage under test specifies calibration
results with possible Bias uncertainty as
+-(0.5% of reading+.05% FSR+1MPa); find Total uncertainty for
the instrument at 4.00 MPa
25
Few Numericals
 We are measuring a DC voltage with a multimeter (5 digit
instrument in high resolution mode). Instrument range is 0-10 V.
Instrument reads the voltage as 7.2587, 7.2595, 7.2576, 7.2568,
7.2583, 7.2592, 7.2581 V during repeated measurements under
same conditions. The instrument manual specifies accuracy as
+-(0.02% of the reading+.01% FSR)
 Find out total uncertainty.
26
Summary
 Recap of Last Lecture
 Uncertainty as a Tool for Quantifying Measurement Quality
 Why to quantify measurement quality?
 Why use uncertainty as a tool for measurement quantification?
 Introduction to Uncertainty
 Old Concept
 New Concept
 Total Uncertainty
 Bias Uncertainty
 Precision Uncertainty
 Evaluation of Precision Uncertainty
 Theory Based on Population
 Theory Based on Sample
 When n ≥ 30
 When n < < 30
 Few Problems
27
Accuracy, Precision & Uncertainty
 The degree of accuracy and precision of a measuring system are
related to the uncertainty in the measurements.
 If measurements are not very accurate or precise, then the uncertainty
of obtained values will be very high. In more general terms,
uncertainty can be thought of as a disclaimer of the measured values
i-e measurement quality.
28
Ascertaining Precision Uncertainty
As we know that:-
 Uncertainty is due to Randomness ie precision errors in
our case & randomness (errors’ behavior) can only be
predicted through statistics. &
 Precision errors in measurement are random in nature.
 Random variable values in a sample represent a Normal

distribution even if the underlying population does not
show a normal distribution.
 Once we know that the data distribution is Normal then
we can have fair estimates of mean, std deviation & PDF.
 A fair estimate of error with certain level of confidence
can be given by knowing the characteristics (ie mean, std
dev, PDF) of normally distributed data.
29 x̅ - Sx < Xt< x̅ + Sx without any confidence
Further Statistics for Measurement Uncertainty
 Recall the General principle & concept of randomness in
measurement we discussed in previous slides.
Problem
 Few repeated measurements of a particular quantity ….
may lead to “bias mean & std deviation” due to less sample
values ie no knowledge of distribution of underlying
randomness in measurement process.
Solution
 We need to workout/ estimate a bound around the Mean &
Std Deviation values with certain level of confidence like we
did for the measurement error.
 Why to estimate Mean & Std Deviation
30
Further Statistics for Measurement Uncertainty
 An other way to answer ‘Why to estimate Mean & Std
Deviation’
 Can we compute entire population (infinite measurement
repetition)………….No
 Then What …….In real life, we deal with samples from a
population & not the population itself…. ‘Measurement’
 We calculate sample mean as an approximation to population
mean.
 We calculate sample std deviation as an approximation to
population std deviation
 Naturally we would like to have some assurance that sample
mean & std deviation reasonably approximate corresponding
values of population mean & std deviation.
 Thus, while dealing with samples, there is an uncertainty in
estimating sample mean & std deviation and we need to
31 compute that
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Measuring Units
& Concept of Significance Digits
Lecture No 14
2
Learning Objective
 Dimensional units of Measurement
 Significant figures/ digits in Measurement
 Calculations with Significant Figures
3
Sequence
 Basic definitions of terms
 Dimension
 Dimensional units
 Standards
 Fundamental, Supplementary & Derived Units
 Various system of Units
 Concept of Significant Figures in Measurement
 Calculations with Significant Figures/ digits
 Addition/ Subtraction
 Multiplication/Division
4
Standards & Dimensional Units of
Measurement
 Dimension …… defining characteristics of an entity to
be measured….. “the measurand” e.g. length
 Dimensional unit is the basis for quantification of the
measurand (what quantity it is?) e.g. cm
 Standards which define a dimensional unit are called
dimensional standards
 Systems of Units Various systems of units exist across
the globe e.g for length…. Feet, meter, inches, cm etc
 These systems of units must be in conformance to some
established standard & agreed upon by all systems
5
Dimensional Standards
 Standards are prescribed and defined by a legal

or recognized agency for example
 NIST (National Institute of Standards and
Technology)
 ISO (International Standards Organization)
 ANSI (American National Standard Institute)
 An important characteristic while defining a
standard is that it should be reproducible and
interpreted similarly by all
6
Dimensional Standards
7
Fundamental & Supplementary Units
8
Derived Units
9
Derived Units (Cont’d)
10
Various Systems of Units
11
Concept of Significant Figures/ Digits
12
Significant Digits/ Figures in Measurement
 Measurement results must express precision of the measurement tool
in their representation.
 e.g 1 , 1.0 , 1.00 are these measurement results same? No
 2nd & 3rd figures are measured with more precise tool having precision to
nearest 10th & 100th of measuring units (mm, inches etc) respectively.
 Zero(s) after decimal show that they are the outcome of measurement &
 They have not been put in result arbitrarily as in general terms they mean
nothing.
Thus
 Results’ digits must not over represent precision of the tool.
 e.g If a result is obtained with a standard ruler,
 its result must not be represented in 10th or 100th or above of an ‘mm’
 because a standard ruler precision is to the nearest ‘mm’.
13
Significant Digits/ Figures in Measurement
 Significant digits in a measurement result express the precision of a

measuring tool.
 Precision of a measuring tool is related to size of its measurement

increments ie Resolution.
 Smaller the measurement increment (finer resolution), the more

precise the tool will be.
 e.g a ruler can measure to nearest “mm” & a caliper can measure to
nearest “0.01mm”.
Thus caliper is more precise because it can measure smaller

differences in length than a ruler.
14
Significant Digits
 Purpose of Significant Digits

“The measured amount is not over representing
the precision of tool”.
 3/7=0.428….
These digits do not represent precision of a measurement
system…these are basically outcome of a division.
“In measurements, knowing, how many digits out of these are
significant w.r.t precision of measuring tool, is essential.”
 Rules for Identifying Significant Digits
 Thumb rule is… digits which are giving info about
“how precise the measuring Instrument is?”
Are Significant Digits.
15
Significant Digits
 Few Examples
(i) 0.00700 Km with measuring tool precision is to
nearest cm
“3 significant digits”…..7, 0 & 0
0 . 0 0 7 0 0 7.00 m
zerors.. shifted as too precision is till unit cm… so tool has obtained
from ‘m’ to ‘Km’ correct measurement till second 0 ie nearest“cm”
otherwise putting right end zeros after decimal are as
such not required.
(ii) 0.052 two significant digits, left zero is outcome of

decimal shifting
(iii) 370. three significant digits… point at the end represent that the
measurement has not been rounded off from 371 or 369….370 is the precision
value measured by the tool.
16
Significant Digits
 Few Examples
(iv) 10.0 3 significant digits… tool precision is to nearest
10th of the measuring units.
(iii) 705.001 6 significant digits…
tool precision is to nearest 1000th of
the measuring units (m, inches etc).
 Rules for Significant Digits Identification

(These Rules are applicable to values which are outcome of a
measurement & representing precision of the measuring tools)
Rule 1 (In-between zeeros’ & Non-zero digits) All non zero &
in-between zero digits in a measurement value are significant digits
e.g 305, 10.01 etc
17
Significant Digits
 Rules for Significant Digits Identification

Rule 1 (In-between zeros & Non-zero digits) All non zero & in-
between zero digits in a measurement value are significant digits
e.g 305, 10.01 etc
Rule 2 (Leading zeros) All leading zeros are non significant
digits
e.g 0.00700 three leading zeros are non significant
Rule 3 (Trailing zeros)…..2 types
(i) If there is decimal in figure…..then trailing zeros are significant
e.g 0.00700, 10.0, 370. etc trailing zeros significant
(ii) If there is no decimal….Then trailing zeros are non significant
e.g 3700, 10000 etc trailing zeros non significant
In case zeros in 3700 value were obtained from a precision tool
then trailing zeros were significant but should have been
2
18 represented in scientific notation. i-e 37x10
Significant Digits
Rule 3 (Trailing zeros)…..2 types

(i) If there is decimal in figure…..then trailing zeros are significant
e.g 0.00700, 10.0, 370. etc trailing zeros significant
(ii) If there is no decimal….Then trailing zeros are non significant
e.g 3700, 10000 etc trailing zeros non significant
In case, zeros in 3700 value were actually outcome of precision

tool then trailing zeros were significant .
However, non decimal values having trailing zeros as significant,

must have been represented in scientific notation. i-e 37x102
19
Calculations With Significant Digits
 Addition & Subtraction In addition & subtraction, the
result should be rounded off to least precise figure of inputs.
(Note: values below are represented according to Sig digits Rules)
e.g 1 . 2 6 m + 2 . 3 m = 3.56 m
more precise less precise round off to least precise i/p
= 3.6 m (rounded off)
1 . 9 0 1 m + 2 . 0 9m = 3.991 m 3.99 m
 Further example
350 ft (tool precision is 10 ft…. I 2 sig digit …less precise)
+ 8 ft (tool precision is 1 foot…1 Sig digit…….more precise)
= 358 ft (digits showing precision to nearest 1 foot; which is wrong)
“Round off result to least precise figure of inputs”
THUS result is 360 ft (2 sig digits & precision is to nearest 10 ft)
Note: If tool precision was to nearest 100 ft in 350 then we would have rounded off
the result 358 to 400 .
20
 Further example
For whole numbers ending with non zero numbers (358, 3501), the
precision of tool will always be nearest measuring unit (ie a meter, a mili meter, an
inch, a foot etc)
For whole numbers ending with zero(s), the precision of the tool cannot
be to nearest measuring unit (a m, a mm, an inch etc)
350 ft tool precision will be taken as nearest 10 ft instead of 1 ft
3500 ft tool precision will be taken as nearest 100 ft instead of 1 ft
Note: If tool precision was to nearest 100 ft in 350 then we would have rounded off
the result 358 to 400 .
21
 Multiplication & Division

 Rule 1: The significant digits in product result or quotient cannot be
more than least number of significant digits of inputs.
(Note: values below are represented according to Sig digits Rules)
e.g 1 . 69 m (3 sig digits) x 2 . 09 m = 3.5321 m2
Thus Round off to least number of to least significant digits i-e 3
3.53 m2
Further example
 Rule 2: Don’t round off the figure till the time all the calculations are
not done.
e.g 12 . 07 ft (4 sig digits) x 10.1 ft (3 sig digits) = 121.907 ft2
121.907 ft2 / 10.07 = 113.93177 ft2

Thus Round off to obtain final result according to least number of significant digits
in input quantities and i-e 3 significant digits.
114 ft2 (3 sig digits)
22
Summary
 Basic definitions of terms
 Dimension
 Dimensional units
 Standards
 The SI System of Units
 Fundamental, Supplementary & Derived Units
 Concept of Significant Figures in Measurement
 Calculations with Significant Figures/ digits
 Addition/ Subtraction
 Multiplication/Division
23
Q&A
24
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Concept of Errors
Lecture No 14
2
Learning Objective
 Concept of Errors in Measurement
 Types of Errors
3
Sequence
 Error in Measurement is Inherent
4
Errors in Measurement is Inherent
 Can True Value be Obtained?
5
 What is Measurement? “Measurement of a quantity” is

generally defined as quantitative comparison of this quantity with
another which is homogeneous to the measured one.
 What is Measurement Error “Measurement Error” is defined

as difference between measured & true values of the measurand.
 Why we study Measurement Error? “Error in measurement”

is studied to ascertain the “goodness of measurement data (or
measurement quality)”.
6
 Main Problem… Can the true value of measurand be

obtained/measued?
 Answer… Negative…..
 Why? there are numerous error contributors in a

measurement process which liable the measured value to deviate
from true value. e.g measurand, operator, instrument etc
7
Corollary Error is inherent in all kind of measurements, so we
cannot know the true value &
 thus can never know exact error of a measurement. However, we

can estimate an interval of measurement error.
 This estimate of error interval is also called uncertainty bound (ie

error value).
8
 The Contributors
 Instrument
 The Operator
 Measurement Method
 Measurement Standard
 s
9
10
 The Measurand it gets modified sometime during measurement or

our knowledge about its behavior is limited etc
 The Instrument It gets affected due to non ideal components

(manufacturing flaws), internal generated noise, its sensitivity to
environmental conditions, lack of calibration, wear & tear due to aging.
 The Operator Operator inability to measure “just in time”, pointer

exact displacement, post processing omissions etc contribute in
overall measurement error.
11
 Measurement Method The measurement methods are based on

some physical phenomenon/ interactions like mechanical,
electromechanical, electromagnetic etc and these interactions may not
produce expected results due to interaction by other phenomenon like
friction in mechanical sys will eat up some of input qty etc.
 Measurement Standard It may not be able to give exact value or a

value to desired accuracy ie less precision standard.
12
13
Common Types of Errors & Their Sources
 Systematic/Bias Errors
 Random/Precision Errors
 Sources of Systematic/Bias Errors
 Error Sources within Instrument
 Error Sources outside Instrument
 Sources of Random/Precision Errors
 Human Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Fluctuating Experimental Conditions
 Sources of Other Errors
 Illegitimate Errors
14
Common Types of Errors
 For setting up of uncertainty bound/ estimate of error interval of a
measurement, the first step would be to identify its possible
causes/contributors/sources (briefly covered in previous slides).
Here we will discuss categories of these errors/ error contributors.
(i) Bias or Systematic Errors
(ii) Precision or Random Errors
 (i) Bias or Systematic Errors “Errors which occur the same

way each time a measurement is made” e.g a scale consistently
reads 5% above true value ie the measurement is biased +5% to
true value.
 OR “Errors in output readings of an instrument that are consistently
on one side of the true value ie either all errors are +ve or -ve”.e.g
bent needle of dial, zero drift of instrument etc.
15
 (ii) Precision or Random Errors “Errors which are different for
each successive measurement but have an average value of zero”.
e.g vibrations may cause fluctuations in readings about true
value…sometime reading high & sometime low….this will create a
distribution surrounding the true value.
 OR “Errors in output readings which occur at either side of the true

value”. These are caused by random & unpredictable effects. The
+ve & -ve errors occur in approximately equal number for a series
of measurements of same qty.
 OR “Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction)

in the measured data. Random errors can be evaluated through
statistical analysis and can be reduced by averaging over a large
number of observations.

16
 Comments on Bias & Random Errors
 Random errors can be overcome by taking same measurement a
number of times & extracting a value by averaging or other statistical
techniques.
 Bias errors cannot be treated using statistical techniques, because
such errors are fixed & do not show a distribution. However, these
errors are estimated by comparison of more accurate instrument ie
“Calibration”.
 Distinction between Random & Bias error sources is thus essential so
that an appropriate treatment can be applied. Sometime, it is difficult

to differentiate…
e.g An operator may make different reading each time but often this kind
of error is Random & can be treated through Statistical Techniques.
On the other hand, if an operator make a parallax induced error (which is
a Bias error) error value will remain constant for each repetition.
 “
17
18
 Sources of Systematic/ Bias Error Following are few Bias
error sources:-
 Error Sources within Instrument
due to defective equipment Play in
linkages, backlash in gears
Meshing of instrument, friction
force in a sliding bar type
instrument, fabrication flaws
& maintenance flaws are the
example of error sources within
Instruments.
 Calibration errors
Zero-offset & scale errors

are called calibration error.
19
 Error Sources Outside Instruments
(i) Environmental conditions like Temperature & humidity.
e.g temp variation affects friction, spring stiffness, circuit
resistance & thus cause error in measurement.
(ii) AC Power Lines Cause magnetic field & magnetic fields

may affect electrical coils if present in instrument. Electric coils
induce current from these magnetic fields due to which current/
voltage signals get affected.
(iii) Loading Effects once measuring instruments are

introduced to a measurand, they may slightly alter it by virtue of
their physical interaction/ phenomenon …. its called loading effect.
e.g coupling the RPM gauge to a motor will reduce its
speed, attaching ‘V’ meter will reduce source voltage by consuming
some current in ‘V’ meter circuit
20
Sources of Random Errors
 Human errors when operator is inconsistent in making the readings.
 Errors due to outside disturbances to instrument like temp variation

cause error in instrument itself & result in random error.
Temp---Bias--------- once temp variation occurred between time
when instrument was calibrated & measurement taken.
Temp---Random--- when test duration is too long & temp keeps
varying during the test.
 Error due to mechanical vibrations/ fluctuating experimental

conditions these cause random errors.
Also variation in measurand quantity due to intermittent leakage in
input can cause random errors.
 Errors derived from insufficient measuring sensitivity Low
sensitivity instrument will produce lower deflection in readout scale
& thus can lead to random errors.
21
Sources of Other Errors
 Illegitimate errors e.g blunders/ mistakes during measurement,

computational errors after measurement.
 Errors that are sometime Bias & sometime Random e.g errors due to
temp variation, operator’s skill level etc may be bias or random type of
errors.
22
 Remedies for Bias Errors

 Static Calibration
 Dynamic Calibration
 Remedies for Random Errors

 Statistical Techniques
23
 Remedies for Bias Errors Such errors are consistent in sign &
magnitude and because of this consistency they may be corrected
by calibration.
 For time-varying input measurand, introducing a correction is more

complicated e.g distortion caused by poor frequency response cannot
be corrected by usual “static calibration” (calibration of an instrument
when input is constant in time).
 For dynamic input we correct these errors by “dynamic calibration”.

Here we measure Op/Ip at range of frequencies of interest ie G(f) &
calibrate them.
24
 Remedies for Random Errors Such errors are

statistical fluctuations (in either direction) & are caused by random
& unpredictable effects.
 The +ve & -ve errors occur in approximately equal number for a
series of measurements of same qty.
 As such, no remedy exists to treat these errors, however, their

behavior can be predicted through Statistical Techniques where we
can estimate an error bout with certain level of confidence.
 Yet, ensuring OEM/ designer recommended experiment/measurement
conditions (like environmental temperature, operators’ skill etc) can
lead to minimize Random effects.
 Statistical techniques are always employed after ensuring
recommended conditions.
25
Distinction between Error Sources
 By now, we have come to know that treatment for both the types of
errors is different ie Calibration for Bias errors & Statistical
techniques for Random errors.
 Distinction between Random & Bias error sources is thus essential

so that an appropriate treatment can be applied.
26
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Resolution
 Sensitivity
27
 Following terms are often employed to describe quality of an

Instrument’s readings. They are related to expected errors of the
instruments:-
 Accuracy The difference between Xm &Xt is called as error ….
accuracy. “OEM will specify maximum error as Accuracy”.
OEM often neglect mentioning confidence level i-e the odds that an
error can exceed the specified maximum error.
 Precision The difference between readings during repeated
measurements of same quantity.
Typically Precision of Instrument is determined by Statistical
Analysis of the measurements.
 Resolution The smallest increment of change in input value that can

The resolution is often on same order as precision; sometime it is
smaller.
28
 Sensitivity The change in instrument output per unit change in

measurand input is called instrument sensitivity.
Typically, an instrument with higher sensitivity will also have finer
- Detection of smaller inputs

Relates with precision &
Resolution.
- High sensitivity…
Output with larger values/
scale deflection relates with
Accuracy.
29
Summary
 Errors in Measurement
30
Sources of Errors
 Without understanding sources of error, we can neither design a
good instrument nor can get less error measurement…… & error
may become so great that measurement become useless/
dangerous.
 Definition “Source of error is one which is of same nature of
signal e.g if signal is displacement, so error source will always be
of same nature….e.g ‘play’ ie empty gap…empty distance where
there is no material…play in joint or linkage etc”.
 Signal: Displacement (“friction cannot be error source for displacement”)
Error Sources: Play------------- play in joints, linkages
Backlash------- play in gears meshing
Deformation--- if a link is deformed, it will carry
error in displacement signal
 Signal: Force (“play cannot be error source for force”)
Error Sources: Friction------- friction in piston-cylinder gage
31 Any resistance/ hindrance

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Computer Aided Instrumentation

 BE Aerospace Engineering CAE,NUST

To develop understanding of:-

 What Instrumentation Refers here?

 What is Metrology & its link with this Subject?

 Why Computer Aided?

 Instrumentation…refers to measurement instrument

 With the advancement in Engineering technologies &

 Thus todays’ measuring instruments are no

Monitoring, Analyzing, Controlling, Diagnosis,

 Measurement The process by which a number (with

 What all measurement systems/Instruments are

 What all measurement systems/Instruments are

 Cabin Pressure Indicator

 Pitch/Side Slip Indicator

 Hydraulic, Pneumatic Pressure Indicator

 Engine Oil Pressure Indicator

Now What is Measurement Significance?

 Measurands’ Relation with Time

 Dynamic Variables------varying in time

Periodic, Non-repetitive/ Transient, Random

Periodic, Non-repetitive/ Transient

“The nature of these Input quantities is discussed in

 Indirect Comparison Method

 How to measure strain, voltage, pressure?

A more complex calibrated measuring system is

A more complex calibrated measuring system is

 Indirect Comparison Method

 How to measure strain, voltage, pressure?

A more complex calibrated measuring system is

A more complex calibrated measuring system is

This device uses two

Stage 1 Sensor-Transducer Element

“A transducer generally gives an electrical signal which is

 Ideally a sensor should be insensitive to every other

 A strain gauge should sense strain only

Analog Digital Hybrid

Null Type Deflection Type

Open Loop Closed Loop

Deflection Type Instrument

Analog Digital Hybrid

Null Type Deflection Type

Open Loop Closed Loop

Voltage output from

Signal after removal

To develop understanding of:-

 Importance of Instrument Performance

Accuracy (Trueness----Precision----Calibration), Resolution, Sensitivity,

 Time-Dependent Characteristics of Measurand

 Higher the performance, higher will be the cost of equipment.

 Lower or inappropriate performance characteristics can lead to

“Thus knowledge of Instrument Performance

“Thus knowledge of Instrument Performance Characteristics is a must”

 The performance characteristics of Instruments may be broadly

 The performance characteristics of Instruments may be broadly

 Static Characteristics “The instrument performance criteria for the

 Dynamic Characteristics “The instrument performance criteria for the

 Precision It is the closeness of agreement among a set of

High precision & high Accuracy are desired.

 “An instrument is said to be sensitive, when it reacts more for a given

 Sensitivity has dimensions

 Once we can detect smaller inputs, we will have better resolution.

 Once we have better resolution, then scatter of repeated measured