Communication skills

Learning outcomes
The intended learning outcomes are that the student will be able to:

CS1.1 identify the phases in the communication cycle and demonstrate effective verbal
communication in one to one and in group situations.

CS1.2 demonstrate effective listening skill and techniques and use different questioning
techniques in order to gain information and understanding.

CS1.3 identify the elements of a written report and the formal presentation of references and
supplementary information.

CS1.4 explain the use of information technology for the effective search and presentation of
information.

CS1.5 outline the skills needed to effectively organise, run and control both formal and
informal meetings.

CS1.6 discuss how style of leadership and management can influence individuals and can
help to resolve conflict.

Contents
CS1.1 Verbal communication
The communication cycle
Barriers
Features of communications
Presentation skills

CS1.2 Effective listening

CS1.3 Written communications

Formal report writing

CS1.4 Information Technology

CS1.5 Meeting skills

CS1.6 Interpersonal skills

CS1.1 - Verbal communication
The communication cycle
Communication is a skill that we take for granted. Like any other skill some people are better at it
than others. The purpose of this document is to provide the reader with some of the basic
principles.

Communication is a two-way process where the needs of the receiver are equally as important as
the needs of the speaker. Because it is a two-way process, both participants must be sure they are
using the same language (e.g. British Rail’s previous use of the term ‘wait whilst red light shows’ at
all rail crossing compared with the Yorkshire use of the term whilst, meaning until. …. the red light
shows). Assumptions that the receiver of a communication understands the speaker should not be
made. To ensure the success of a communication:

 Use clear and unambiguous terms.

 Have an open mind.
 Consider the views of the other person
 Be assertive but nor aggressive
 Use open ended questions and avoid questions which yield yes/no answers,
 Avoid entering communication with a view to apportioning blame.
 Do not assume receivers will understand.
 Use the ‘why’ question to investigate.
 Check to ensure you have been understood.

SIX SIMPLE RULES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Direct yourself towards and reach the intended recipient.

2. Communicate in a form capable of being understood by the recipient.
3. Ensure the recipient understands.
4. Be as concise as the content requires.
5. Budget time to encourage feedback.
6. Evoke and monitor the desired response.

PERSONAL INFLUENCE (INTERPERSONAL SKILLS)

The medium by which people influence each other is called ‘communication’ and, when a person
influences the behaviour of another, they are communicating – even if no words are spoken. In the
theory of communication two people talking to each other re referred to as the ‘transmitter’ (A) and
the ‘receiver’ (B). Diagrammatically it can look like this:
The two arrows emphasise the point that communication only takes place when ‘B’ gives feedback
to ‘A’. This feedback can, of course be in the form of total silence or even withdrawal, and this is
the basis for the first ‘law’ of communication:

“It is not what ‘A’ says which is true, but what ‘B’ understands”

We all process the information we receive, and what we understand to be real is simply out
perception of the truth. Recognising this, ‘A’ needs to make sure that his/her communication is as
clear as possible. In other words, whoever communicates information to another must make sure
that the receiver has picked p the information correctly. It is the transmitter’s responsibility to elicit
feedback. This leads to Communication Law 2:

“If ‘B’ misinterprets the information ‘A’ give him/her, it is ‘A’s’ fault.”

Communication involves more that the words spoken and even if it is only cold silence or
withdrawal, it is impossible not to communicate. The very presence of another person is enough to
make us change our behaviour. Thus, Communication Law 3 is: “It is impossible not to
communicate.”

How we are influenced is affected not only by what is said (content), but how it is said (the
relationship it implies).

All communication has two aspects:

Content - We can be influenced by the facts, opinions, suggestions put forward. We are
influenced by the additional content.

Relationship - We are also influenced by the ‘way’ the content is presented and the
relationship it suggests between the speaker and us.

This leads to Communication Law 4:

“Every type of communication has both a content aspect and a relationship aspect.”

Take, for example, the responses:

“We are unable to accept your findings as they do not take into account the rate of inflation,” and,

“This is abysmal, we can’t accept this!”

Both have approximately the same content but define very different relationships. This relationship
aspect, which is part of all communication, establishes the way in which the content is to be
received. When communication is assertive, the relationship is established as honest, direct and
fair. Thus more detailed attention can be directed toward the content.
Where it is aggressive, passive or devious, the relationship itself limits the content and the
information that can be discussed.

Barriers
TO RECEPTION

There are a number of reasons why the message communicated is not being received. The person
on the receiving end of the information may have sensory problems (deafness, partial deafness, ear
infection) or they may be wearing hearing protection, which may prevent the message being
received. The communication may also be taking place in a noisy environment or where they are
may distractions.

TO UNDERSTANDING
The lack of understanding of the message could be a language problem: different first languages,
with either the speaker or recipient having to cope with the other’s partial understanding of the
language used; different accents, i.e. the way the words are pronounced; different dialects, i.e.
different words being used for the same thing, e.g. snap, piece, bait, sandwiches, packed lunch, all
refer to the same thing.

The language used may contain technical terms or jargon which the recipient does not understand.
Health and safety is full of jargon that the experts forget is not part of everyone’s vocabulary, for
example. referring to “Regs” or “COSHH”.

The speaker could be trying to pass on information that he himself does not quite understand. It is
difficult to explain something clearly if you only partially understand it yourself.

TO ACCEPTANCE

The acceptance of the information may be affected by the relationship between the speaker and
recipient. The recipient may not want to accept information from someone he sees as not as
experienced as himself. “What does he know, straight out of college.” There may also be dislike
between them so although the recipient looks as though he is listening, he is in fact ignoring the
message.

The recipient might be in awe of or frightened of the speaker and this could cause a lack of real
attention to the actual words spoken.

Features of communications
NON-VERBAL INFORMATION

We convey as much, if not more information through non-verbal ways as we do through the spoken
word. It is far easier to tell lies on the phone than in a face-to-face situation because the recipient
does not see the facial expressions, body language or gestures.

FACIAL EXPRESSION

Facial expressions are a large part of the message being communicated. It would incongruous to
communicate bad news with a smile on your face. Along with the words spoken, facial expressions
can convey sympathy, friendliness, anger, fear, etc. The expressions can belie the words spoken,
as most of us are not capable of a “poker” face. For people with hearing difficulties, facial
expressions are more important than they realise. For example. many people swear that they can
hear better with their glasses on. Part of the glasses aiding hearing is lip-reading along with facial
expression.

GESTURES

Many people are said to “talk with their hands”. Hand gestures are very common in communication
and it is difficult to talk without using your hands. “Over there”, usually involves a pointing gesture
and talking about movement usually involves the hands rotating. Most cultures have gestures that
convey a message where no words are necessary. These may be positive or negative messages.

POSTURE

Posture conveys messages that could make the speaker more believable. For example. with an
upright stance, the speaker seems to have confidence and therefore whatever he says must be
accurate. A slumped posture does not convey confidence and may convey a lack of conviction.

EXPECTATIONS

We often hear what we want or expect to hear rather than what is said. Someone may appear to
listen, but they are not hearing the words because they expect a certain message to be conveyed.
For example, someone being told how to carry out a certain task may think they already know what
is going to be said and not actually hear the instructions.

CONTEXT

We find it easier to understand a message that is conveyed in context; demonstrating a task while
talking through it is more effective than explaining the task in a classroom setting.

VOICE QUALITIES

Voice has a variety of qualities that can relay information and tend to vary our voice without really
thinking about it. The voice pitch rising denotes frustration, anger or excitement; rising at the end of
the speech denotes a question; low pitch can show calmness, enforced calmness or menace.

We expect certain messages according to voice pitch, e.g. we do not expect to be told off if the
speaker has laughter in his voice. A soft voice quality can denote kindliness, concern or discretion.

LINGUISTIC FEATURES

Linguistic features, such as vocal sounds that are not words, but have some meaning can
communicate many meanings. For example, when listening. The recipient will often make “mm”
noises to show he is listening or ”uhuh” or “yeah” to show agreement. This is more encouraging for
the speaker than being met with silence.

Some sounds can convey a lot of information, such as a short throat-clearing noise may mean, “I
don’t believe that”, or “I am being ironic”. The meaning will be clear in context and we grow up
understanding what these linguistic features mean.

Presentation skills
EFFECTIVE USE OF VISUAL AIDS

Visual aids are something that visually increase teaching effectiveness. Not only do they add
interest to a presentation but by engaging more than one of the senses they also facilitate listening
and remembering. It is said that people remember 20% of what is hears, 30% of what is seen and
50% of what is seen and heard at the same time.

A certain willingness to experiment and the ability to improvise are especially important where aids
must be hand-made on a limited budget and with a restricted set of materials.

Visual aids may be PowerPoint presentations, flipcharts, videos/DVDs, examples of inspection

reports, examples of personal protective equipment, etc. Seeing a filled-in permit to work may be
more useful than explaining all day how t permit to work is utilised.

DEALING WITH QUESTIONS

The presenter needs to be confident in the subject matter and convey enthusiasm. Being
competent in the subject is not about knowing everything, but being confident enough to say that
you do not know the answer to a particular question, but you will find out. Pretending to know the
answer and making something up will destroy your credibility when the answer is found to be wrong.
In fact, it is a criminal offence to give false information and cause another individual to be in breach
of the law. (See also – ‘Enforcement of health and safety law, HASAWA section 36’ in Element
A7).

Questions may be dealt with throughout the presentation, as they arise, or they may be dealt with at
the end. The questions can be “parked” on the flipchart as a reminder. Questions throughout can
be disruptive and spoil the flow of the presentation. On the other hand, the questioner’s
understanding of what follows might depend on the question being dealt with.
The presenter should never suggest that a question is silly. If the recipient does not understand
something, then the presenter may not be effectively communicating the message and it is up to
him to find another way to explain it.

SECURING AUDIENCE PARTICIPATION

Audience participation can vary from listening to taking part in discussions. A certain enthusiasm is
required of the presenter, which will let the audience know that this is a topic that is worthy of
communication. Many experienced presenters will say that the audience will participate if they are
happy with the answer they get when they ask. “What’s in it for me”.

The presenter should be confident, change his voice pitch so it is not monotone, occasionally bring
up some controversial topics for discussion, being some humour into it where appropriate and be
way of using stereotypical language and ideas. For example. referring to the “ladies” in the
audience does not go down with the women, nor does suggesting that they do not understand
technical matters.

CS1.2 - Effective listening

POSITIVE LISTENING TECHNIQUES

In any significant and meaningful human interaction the listener needs to listen to what is said and
listen for what is not said. He also has to show that he is listening and interested in the outcome. In
other words, how he listens is as important as the fact that he is listening.

There are two basic types of listening; listening with the mind and listening with the body.

Listening with the mind (active listening) – this is nothing more than applying as much though and
concentration to listening as to any other mental activity which one takes seriously – writing a report,
playing a game of chess, reading a poem.

Listening with the mind consists of:

 Concentration. Shutting out all physical distractions like the phone and interruptions; and
also mental distractions - daydreaming, showing off, and pursuing irrelevancies.
 Evaluating what is said. We speak much more slowly than we think, so that the active
listener has plenty of time to think about what is said. Why did he say that? What does it
mean exactly? Does that make sense? Is there any evidence for that statement? Why did he
use that form of words?
 Evaluating what is not said. The unspoken agenda is as important as the words themselves
– perhaps more important. The active listener attends to the spaces between words –
hesitation, confusion, embarrassment and to non-verbal communication or body language.
 Neutrality. The active listener does not impose his views and comments. He attends to what
the speaker is saying. The cardinal sin is ‘yes butting’. ‘Yes butting’ is a sign that you’re more
interested in what you’re thinking than what the other person is saying.
 Listening with the body, which is an odd idea at first, but it makes sense if you think about it.
How do we know that someone is listening to us? More than anything by physical signs. If
they are leaning forward, seem eager to hear what we have to say, watch the speaker closely,
are alert and attentive, nod occasionally, we feel we are on the same wavelength. If they lean
back, look out of the window, yawn and seem physically disengaged, we feel we are not being
listened to.

Summary

There is a difference between hearing and listening.

The impact of good listening skills on the customer is important (if it’s a telephone conversation
explain that you are taking notes, it shows that you are taking it seriously and really listening)
 The verbal give away of when someone is not listening: “Yes, but ……”
 The physical signs of not listening are leaning back, yawning, etc.

The development and application of good listening skills can often enable a customer contact
person to ‘sense’ and pre-empt complains and criticism. They are valuable skills in this contest
since some customers don’t complain, they simply take their business elsewhere.

QUESTINIGN TECHNIQUES

Types of questions:

Open ‘How’, ‘What’. ‘Tell me about’, ‘What makes it enjoyable’, i.e. you
cannot give yes/no answers.
Probing Questions ‘How have you done…?’. ‘What effect did it have?’. ‘Why do you think
that is?’. Etc.
Closed Questions Short direct answers required or even a yes/no response, not allowing
further clarification.
Restating Repeating what someone else has said in your own words to check
understanding is a type of questioning.

Open questions

Who

 Who presented the proposal?

Where

 Where did all this take place?

 Where are they faulty batches/units now

What

 What exactly is your position at the moment?

 What makes you think that this is a problem?

How

 How did you reach this conclusion?

 How does this problem affect you work?

When

 When does this problem occur?

 When will you know that this problem has been solved?

Which

 Which people are involved in this problem?

 Which issue would you like to examine first?

Use of open questions

The open question allows the recipient to talk rather than just answer. The “Can you tell me in your
own words what happened” question will get much more information that the “Did he fall over”
question, making the open question a useful tool in accident investigation interviewing techniques.
The open question is also beneficial in job interviews, allowing the interviewer to sit back and listen
and the interviewee to open up and make the bets of his application or eventually talk himself out of
the job.
Closed questions

Those questions what produce a yes/no answer, e.g.:

 Did the sales meeting go well?

 Will you increase the distribution network?
 Do you like being a manager?
 Did you get that order?
 Will you sort the problem out?
 Are you happy in your job?

DISCUSSION OF CLARIFICATION VERSUS JUSTIFICATION

In communication the recipient may occasionally need to ask the speaker for clarification, for
example, “Did you mean finish the report by lunchtime or by the close of day?” This allows the
speaker to clarify the message, “Lunchtime would be preferable”.

Justification is used if the recipient asks, “Why?” “Why must I finish the report by lunchtime?” The
speaker will than be expected to justify what he has stated. “Because…”.

Asking for clarification is an important part of communication so misunderstandings don’t arise.

However, misunderstandings can occur when clarification is asked for and the speaker believes that
he is being asked to justify what he said, “Did you mean finish by lunchtime?” “Of course I mean
lunchtime. If it’s not finished by then, we’ll never get the job”. This altercation can escalate and
leave both parties feeling aggrieved.

CS1.3 - Written communications

Formal report writing
The effective communication of the safety message is an important element of managing safety.
How we communicate will depend on the target audience and the desired effect.

GENERAL FORMAT

Layout of document to enhance clarity and visual impact

One simple structure is as follows:

 Introduction and background.

 Main body of the report.
 Recommendations
 Conclusions

Introduction and background: This section includes the title page that should clearly identify the
writer and the document. It should contain a brief explanation of the subject described in the
document title and the reason for the document. Consider the aim of the report and inform that
reader of the problem it intends to address.

Main body of the report: This section deals with details, facts and findings. Keep they style
simple and to the point. Avoid the use of jargon or embellishment. Inaccuracy, inadequate and
sloppy presentation can distract the reader and lessen the impact.
Recommendations: These should flow logically from the main body of the report.
Recommendations should consist of a plain statement of action without repeating the arguments of
the preceding section.

Conclusions: This section should contain summary of the main findings and inferences. Ideally,
the writer should end on a positive note.

If the report is also for the senior manager, then it is useful to have an “executive summary” just
behind the title page so the manager can get the gist of the findings without reading it all. The
details of the report can be dealt with by the delegated person.

A report that is just a block of text will not encourage anyone to read it. The use of sub-headings,
white space and a largish size font will make it easier to read. Also, the inclusion of photographs,
sketches and diagrams can enhance clarity and visual impact.

WRITING STYLES

Plain English is generally considered the best for report writing. It is a formal way to write, allowing
the majority of English speakers. Whether as a first or second language to understand it. It consists
of Standard English, i.e. no geographical dialect words (Black Country “doobin” for wheelbarrow), no
slang words (“gaffer” for boss) and no colloquial expressions (If the HSE come in we’ll be “up the
creek without paddle”).

Plain English is also meant to be free of jargon, acronyms and abbreviations. Health and safety,
along with other specialised subjects has many examples of these, e.g. COSHH, NEBOSH, MIOSH
RIDDOR and EMAS, which have a different meaning dependent on the writer/reader being involved
with health and safety or the environment. Jargon, which is technical terms used by a group of
people from a particular profession or similar, is acceptable if the report has a small, in-house
readership. If the report has be read by people outside the company and outside the industry, then
jargon can be impenetrable.

The use of technical terms may be necessary in a report; therefore a glossary of terms should be
included.

THE USE OF APPENDICES AND ABSTRACTS

Reports often need to make reference to other documents, which, if included in the main text, would
complicate the issues. These documents can be included at the end of the report as appendices
and referred to in the report. The reader can then turn to the relevant appendix and consider it is
whatever depth required. For example, a report with a reference to risk assessments could have a
sample risk assessment as an appendix.

An abstract is a statement summarising the important points of a text. The abstract is usually
placed at the beginning and allows the reader get a feel for the report before he begins. It may
often be fore grounded by placing it in a text box.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND ITS USE AND APPLICATION IN ASSIGNMENT REPORTS

Critical analysis is stating the strengths and weaknesses of an issue. For example, a critical
analysis of an organisation’s welfare facilities may show there to be an adequate number of sanitary
conveniences, but they are not kept clean. The critical analysis is used to show which areas need
to be improved and which just need to be maintained. It can also be used to justify
recommendations.

LITERATURE SEARCH TECHNIQUES

Books and papers necessary for research can be found by author’s name, title, topic, year of
publication or the International Standard Book Number (ISBN)/ Libraries have facilities for finding
publications by any of these methods. The books in the libraries are shelved by subject, in
alphabetical order and numbered according to the Dewey system.
The Internet can also be used to find publications by typing any of the above into the search engine/
This type of search can also be used to find the source of chunks of text, which allows the source
document to be read and referenced as necessary. The latter method can be used by examiners/
markers to check that an assignment report is the candidate’s own work if no reference to other
authors is made.

METHODS FOR REFERRING TO PRIMARY SOURCES

Primary sources are “first-and” sources, such as interviews, case studies, conference papers, and
raw data.

Précis

A précis of the whole report should be complete and intelligible by itself. For reports to business
managers this is often called an executive summary which is often a critical portion of the report as
they will delve no further unless the executive summary interests them.

The précis is a highly structured four sentence paragraph that records the essential elements of a
unit of spoken or written discourse, including the name of the speaker/writer, the context of the
delivery, the major assertion, the mode of development and/or support, the stated and/or apparent
purpose, and the relationship established between the speaker/writer and the audience (the last
element is intended to identify the tone of the work). Each of the four sentences requires specific
information; you are also encouraged to integrate brief quotations to convey the author’s sense of
style and tone.

Direct quote and paraphrasing

If you have included the exact words of an author, you are using a direct quotation. These directly
taken words must have quotation marks placed around the, and you must also provide attribution:
the author’s name and the year of publication. If you have used the idea of an author but have
communicated that idea in your own words, you are employing a paraphrase, which does not
receive quotation marks, but does-and this a very important to follow-receive the same attribution as
a direct quotation. Always provide an attribution to someone else’s writing or ideas-whether the
words come from your professor, a text, a film, an interview, or online.

METHODS AND NOTATION FOR REFERENCEING RESEARCHED SOURCES

In-text citation

It is important to acknowledge the sources that are used so the writer is not accused of plagiarism.
Plagiarism is using the words or ideas of another and passing them off as one’s own.

Citation and reference are synonymous terms. There are many variations on reference styles and
whichever is chosen, it is important that it remains consistent and is the style recommended by the
tutor.

Two styles for citing are the Harvard and Vancouver: for example, in the Harvard style the reference
can be immediately acknowledged by giving (in parentheses) the author’s surname and the year of
publication, e.g. (Darwell 2001). Page numbers may also be included: p. for one page and pp. for a
range of pages, for example (Darwell 2001, p.4)

Alternatively, the author’s name may be left out of the parentheses, e.g.

According to Darwell (2001, p.7) several types of cutting edges are used.

Using the Vancouver style, references are numbered in the order that they appear in the test. For
example. ….as one author states, “pre-HSWA, accidents were of greater severity” [1]

The author’s name can also be part of the text, e.g.

Darwell [2] has argued that ….

The brackets can be square or curved, but should be consistent. Superscripts can be used instead
of brackets, e.g. …as was stated. 1

End reference lists

The end reference list in the Harvard is in alphabetical order by author name or title when there is
no author. If there is more than one work by an author, they should be listed in publication date
order starting with the earliest, e.g.:

1. Adamson, J. 1999, Engineering Methods, Longman, UK.

2. Adamson, J. 2002, Engineering and Design, Longman, UK.
3. Bateman, D. 1998, Ergonomics in Practice, Oxford Press, UK

In the Vancouver style, references are listed at the end of the paper in numerical order, e.g.:

1. Smith AB. Health and Safety for Professionals 2001; 140-5.

2. Brown FB. Starting Out 1999; 23-8.

Bibliography

A bibliography is a list of every item that was read in the preparation of the assignment whether
referred to in the work or not. It goes at the end and is in alphabetical order, just the same as the
Harvard method of referencing.

Footnote systems

There are two kinds of notes: reference notes, which cite authority for a statement or cross
reference a sources, and content notes, which contain acknowledgements or make incidental
comments that would otherwise interrupt the flow of the paper. Whether you are making a reference
or content note, the place in the text whether the note is introduced is indicated by a superscript (an
Arabic numeral raised slightly above the line). The note number follows all punctuation except a
dash and ideally comes at the end of a sentence. Do not follow the superscript with a period.

Footnotes are placed in numerical order at the bottom of the page on which the reference occurs
just below a separator, which is a shot line of twelve spaces. The first line of each note is indented
five spaces and indicated by an Aarbic numeral (not a superscript) followed by a period and a
space. Notes may be single spaced with a blank space between. The following are sample
footnote examples.

Book footnote

1. William Faulkner, The unvanquished (New York: Vintage, 1991). 27.

Anthology footnote

2. Plato, Republic, in Classics of Moral and Political Theory, 2nd ed., ed. Michael Morgan,
(Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1992). 63.

Journal article footnote

3. Bernard Williams, “Pagan Justice and Christian Love, “ Apeiron 26, no 3-4 (Sept.-Dec. 1993):
196.

Citing electronic sources

 There are two basic types of electronic sources: physical entities such as CD-ROMs and online
sources such as networks and bulletin boards. Online! Makes the following recommendation for
documenting a file available from the World Wide Web:

Author’s name (if known).

Title of document (in quotation marks).
Title of complete work (in italics or underlined).
Date of publication or last revision (if known).
URL, in angle brackets.
Date of access in parentheses.

Your citation would then look like this (from Online!):

1. Leslie R. Shade, “Gender Issues in Computer Networking,” 14 February 1994,

http://liquid2-sun.mitt.edu/fells.shrt.html> (26 November 2004).

Subsequent footnote references to a source

After the first full citation of a work, an abbreviated citation is used for all subsequent references.
This includes the author’s name followed by the page number of the references and looks like this:

2. Mason, 18.

If you are using more than one text by the same author, an abbreviated title is also given. (In one
method of the Chicago system, an abbreviated title is always given, but we will use the simpler
method.)
When references to the same work follow one another with no intervening references, then ibid.
may be used. The reference would look like this:

3. Ibid.

Or, if page numbers are different, like this:

4. Ibid., 17.

CS1.4 - Information Technology

THE USE OF INFORAMTION TECHNOLOGY

Bullet-pointing
A bullet point is not a sentence. Too many times an author puts an entire sentence as a bullet point.
This defeats the entire purpose of the bullet point, which is to convey the key point only.

Reveal the key idea only. A bullet point is supposed to be a short summation of the key point that
you want to make. It should not reveal all you know about the idea, or there is nothing left for you to
say. For each idea you want to convey, consider what the key point is and put that as a bullet point.
Then add to the bullet point by the words that you speak during the presentation.

When using bullet points, make sure that they have a consistent style. This means that:

 Each bullet point starts with either a verb or a noun – a verb is more action oriented and is
usually preferred.
 If using verbs they are all in the same tense – the most common is the present tense with the
past tense being the next most common.
 The use of capitalisation is the same in teach bullet point – usually the first letter of the first
word is capitalised and the rest of the words are in lower case unless it is a proper name.
Use of graphics

Purpose

Both quality and number of visual aids should enhance, not distract from message – display or
distribute an outline to help audience follow long or group presentations – use variety to increase
interest; remember the value of pictures, graphs, symbols and objects.

Appearance

Use a plain font (e.g. Swiss or Helvetica) of substantial size (18 point or more) – if you use colour,
don’t use more than three colours – ask yourself – Can the audience quickly and easily grasp what
they see? – Are they spending time reading and not listening?

Text

Make only key point per visual unless the audience is very familiar with the subject – organise
material into natural categories and contrasts before vs. after, problem and solution, advantages vs.
disadvantages, beginning to end; costs vs. benefits – include no more than three or four points
under one heading – don’t use whole sentences or paragraphs – use bulleted words or short
phrases only, except for quotes.

Graphs

No more than three curves on a line chart or graph – don’t use a page full of numbers – translate
complex numbers into representative pie charts or bar graphs – use diagrams or models to present
complex concepts; use multiple charts illustrating different stages or parts of the full model; start
with simple framework and build components successively in to the full model or process.

Typefaces

Type is important. The right typeface can encourage people to read your message. The wrong
typeface or bad typography can make your message go unread. The two most important things to
remember …

1. Type is on the page to serve the text. It should make the words easy to read and provide a
suitable background. Type should not overpower the text.
2. There are not good and bad typefaces; there are appropriate and inappropriate typefaces.
Think about your reader and the feeling you want to convey, and then choose a typeface that
fits.
INTERNET SEARCH ENGINES AND THE SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF INTERNET
INFORMATION SOURCES
Uses and limitations
Advantages
Data- and information-rich, including a range of media
Anyone can publish online
Learners can become researchers because of easier
access to data
Search engines that are fast and powerful
Easy to use
Smaller, faster, cheaper all the time
Ability to link to people and places immediately
Global dissemination of information
Motivation for students in sharing their work online with the
world
Evaluating websites
Evaluation of web documents:
Accuracy of web documents
 Who wrote the page and can you contact him or her
 What is the purpose of the document and why was it
produced?
 Is this person qualified to write this document?
Authority of web documents
 Who published the document and is it separate from
the “Webmaster?”
 Check the doman of the document, what institution
publishes this document?
 Does the publisher list his or her qualications?
Objectivity of web documents
 What goals/objectives does this page meet?
 How detailed is the information?
 What opinions (if any) are expressed by the author?
Currency of web documents
 When was it produced?
 When was it updated?
 How up-to-date are the links (if any)?
Coverage of the web documents
 Are the links (if any) evaluated and do they
complement the documents’ theme?
 Is it all images or a balance of text and images?
 Is the information presented cited correctly?
Limitations
Knowledge-poor; information overloaded
No librarians for quality control
Need for quality control in the data that students find and
use
Search engines that show results based on who pays the
most
Not enough training for effective use
Push to upgrade constantly
Speed take precedence over quality
Risk of a growing information gap between haves and
have-nots
Copyright issues – it’s easy to get caught, so teachers need
to make sure their students follow the rules.
How to interpret the basics:
Accuracy
 Make sure author provides e-mail or a contact
address/phone number.
 Know the distinction between author and Webmaster
Authority
 What credentials are listed for the authors?
 Where is the document published? Check URL domain.
Objectivity
 Determine if page is a mask for advertising; if so
information might be biased.
 View any Web page as you would an infomercial on
television. Ask yourself why was this written and for
whom?
Currency
 How many dead links are on the page?
 Are the links current or updated regularly?
 Is the information on the page outdated?
Coverage
 Is page requires special software to view the
information, how much are you missing if you don’t
have the software?
 Is it free or is there a fee, to obtain the information?
 Is there an option for text only, or frames, or a
suggested browser for better viewing?
Putting it all together
 Accuracy. If you page lists the author and institution that published the page and provides a
way of contacting him/her and.
 Authority. If you page lists the author credentials and its domain is preferred (.edu, .gov, .org,
or .net) and …
 Objectivity. If you page provides accurate information with limited advertising and it is
objective in presenting the information and …
 Currency. If you page is current and updated regularly (as stated on the page) and the links (if
any) are also up-to-date, and
 Coverage If you can view the information properly – not limited to fees, browser technology, or
software requirement, then …
 You may have a Web page that could be of value to your research.

GENERATION OF VISUAL AIDS

A good presentation with visuals is much more effective than a good presentation without them!
Visual aids are used to enhance a presentation and can include a whole range of still or moving
images: video or film, whiteboards or flipcharts, PowerPoint slides or overhead transparencies,
35mm slides, models or handouts. A picture is worth a thousand words … try to be creative. The
visual aids will help the listener to retain the information better than by just hearing the words
spoken. They should:

 Explain, simplify, clarify or highlight points.

 Hold the attention and help concentration.
 Add interest and variety.

If the design and use of visual aids is not planned and relevant, it will detract from the presentation
and confuse rather than help the audience.

1. Draw out the key points. What are the key points you want to make? Are you trying to put
across too much information in one go? Does each key point need to be reinforced by one or
more visual laid? Are there secondary points that would benefit from the use of visual aids?
Remember, too many secondary points will be likely to distract your audience from your key
points.

2. Think about your audience. You should have a good picture of your likely audience. Think
about their level of knowledge because this will affect the level of detail you can communicate
to them successfully and perhaps give you some pointers about the sort of visual aids which
might help get your message across.

3. Think about the content, format and style. Now you can consider what will be best in
helping you get across your key points. Text may be suitable for most occasions, either as
bullet points or short individual sentences, but remember, a word only slide isn’t really a true
visual aid. Graphical displays can be computer generated and include drawings, graphs,
diagrams or charts, or photographs. Make sure all the visual aids you intend to use are clearly
legible from the back of the room you will be using and, if they’re not, change them! How often
have you heard presenters say “you won’t be able to read all this, but I’ll put the slide up all the
same”? Whatever the presentation remember that:

 Visual aids can be used in combination and are often much more effective because
of the different formats.
 Colour should be sued sparingly for maximum impact and minimum confusions; the
eye is drawn to the brightest spot so choose your colours for the best effect.
 Dark backgrounds work best for slides; light backgrounds can be a nightmare,
showing every speck of dust or fingerprint, and the glare from the screen can be unpleasant for
the audience.
 Excessive detail will only cause confusion.
 You may need to break down complex points into several visual aids, but you should
try to show how they all fit together.
 The best slides should need the presenter’s words to complete them; they are not
supposed to be able to stand alone and they are not supposed to be your script.
4. What equipment are you going to use? Find out what equipment is available and, if you
need to book it for your presentation, make sure you do so well in advance.

Make sure the equipment can be used successfully at your venue. For example, if you are using a
PowerPoint presentation, overhead transparencies or slides, can you black out the room enough for
them to be visible? Will you need some extra help to pull blinds or curtains or to dim lights so that
you minimise any disruption to your presentation? Will the size of the room and audience mean that
you need extra screens or monitors, or audio speakers?

Can you operate the equipment, to enlarge, reduce or focus images? If you don’t know how, make
sure you have someone who can at hand to help you.

1. Prepare your visual aids. Are there some already prepared and available in-house? Who
should prepare them: you, someone in your team, or is there an in-house department to help
you? Allow plenty of time for the production of your visual aids, including any corrections and
amendments. Do make sure they are worded properly, that spelling and figures are accurate
and that the slides are numbered in sequence. Is there a house style to follow? Even if there
isn’t, make sure you use a uniform layout for all your visual aids and avoid distracting leaps
from one style to another. Visual aids should be cost-effective so bear in mind not just the
costs involved in preparing them, but also hiring in any equipment.

2. Plan your use of the visual aids and rehearse your presentation using them. Carefully
plan when you will introduce your visual aids during your presentation. A visual aid will focus
attention away from you and that might not be what you want, especially at the beginning of
your talk. You may want to vary the timing so consider the pros and cons of each approach.
For example. you might decide to introduce one point before showing the accompanying visual
aid, but to display another one ”cold” and wait a few seconds for your audience to take it in
before you start to speak. Make a note on your prompt cards so you know when to introduce
each visual aid.

Handouts can be given out at the end as a summary. If you decide to hand them out at the
beginning, remember there is always the danger that you audience will end up reading your handout
rather than listening to you.

Keep any visual aid concealed from your audience until you are ready to use it and, after it has
served its purpose. Remove it so that it won’t distract attention. You should allow enough time for
people to take notes if they want, but generally 40 seconds should be enough.

Have at least one full rehearsal, using all your visual aids, to ensure a smooth transition between
your speaking and the visual aids. Ask a colleague to sit in and give you some feedback on how
well it is working. Make sure you don’t end up standing with your back to the audience, talking at
the screen or flipchart.

3. Make a final check. Get to the venue early enough to make sure that all your equipment has
arrived and is working properly. Run through your slides and make sure they are in the correct
order. Check right down to last detail. You might not have thought about the flipchart pens, but
are they still usable? Any mishap of this kind when you are giving your presentation will
undermine your confidence, look unprofessional to the audience and detract from the overall
impact you make.

4. Have an alternative plan! If, in spite of your best efforts, the equipment does break down,
have an alternative plan prepared as back up so you can still carry on with your presentation.
This may mean having a second projector available, or an alternative way of making your
presentation (e.g. on OHP instead of PowerPoint).
Do’s and don’ts for the effective use of visual aids

Do:

 Make sure each visual aid, or combination of visual aids, is the best for the job.
 Ask yourself, can I manage just as well without it? If the answer is year, get rid of it.
 Ask yourself, is it really a visual or is it just a visible verbal prompt to me?
 Try to find out as much as possible about your audience.
 Make sure you know how to operate the equipment you are going to use.

Don’t:

 Display a visual aid for too long because it will only distract your audience.
 Put too much detail into any one visual aid – if every detail is essential, provide it as a handout
to be taken away instead,
 Forget to rehearse your complete presentation, with visual aids, at least once.

SEARCHING LITERATURE SOURCES

Effective searching of the literature primarily needs a methodical approach and some advanced
planning. Journal articles provide the most up-to-date source of published research and often cover
subjects not readily to be found in book format. Some articles, known as review articles, provide
overviews of a subject often with extensive reference lists and they can make excellent starting
places for research. The principles of searching for articles can also be usefully applied to
searching for other types of literature.

It is worth bearing in mind that you will frequently have to search beyond the confines of your
subject area to find relevant literature so you may need to look in journals in related subject areas
such as psychology, sociology, education etc to locate relevant material.

CS1.5 - Meeting skills

DESIGNING MEETINGS

Meetings can range from short informal “chats” between two people to formal presentations with
dozens of participants. They can be scheduled regularly, like a weekly production meeting for
example, or ad-hoc, “something needs to be fixed”.

The selection of members

It’s often obvious who should attend; sometimes it isn’t/ Consider inviting representatives from
other departments to your own department meetings – they will appreciate being asked, and it will
help their understanding of your issues. Having outside guests from internal and external suppliers
helps build relationships and strengthen the chain of supply, and they can often also shed new light
on difficult issues too. Use your discretion though – certain sensitive issues should obviously not be
aired with ‘outsiders’ present. Avoid and resist senior managers and directors attending your
meetings unless you can sure that their presence will not be intimidating. Senior people are often
quick to criticise and pressurise without knowing the facts, which can damage team relationships,
morale, motivation and trust.

The request/control of their input

They key to success is keeping control. You do this by sticking to the agenda, managing the
relationships and personalities, and concentrating on outcomes. Meetings must have a purpose.
Every item must have a purpose. Remind yourself and the group of the required outcomes and
steer the proceedings towards making progress, not hot air. Politely suppress the over-zealous, and
encourage the nervous.

THE PREPARATION OF THE AGENDA

Produce the meeting agenda. This is the tool with which you control the meeting. Include all the
relevant information and circulate it in advance. If you want to avoid having eh ubiquitous and time-
wasting ‘Any Other Business’ on your agenda, circulate the agenda well in advance and ask for
additional items to be submitted for consideration.

Formal agendas for board meetings and committees will normally have an established fixed format,
which applies for every meeting. This type of formal agenda normally begins with:

Apologies for absence.

Approval of previous meeting’s minutes (notes).
Matters arising (from last agenda).
And then the main agenda finishing with ‘any other business’.

MEETING SKILLS

Formal

Before any meeting, try to plan as thoroughly as possible. The last thing you want is to be surprised
at the meeting, whether you are in charge if it, or simply attending.

For each item, explain the purpose, and if a decision is required, say so. If it’s a creative item, say
so. If it’s for information, say so. Insert timings, or time-per-item, or both (having both is helpful for
you as the chairman). If you have guest speakers or presenters for items, name them. Plan coffee
breaks and a lunch break of relevant, and ensure the caterers are informed. Aside from these
formal breaks you should allow natural ‘comfort’ breaks every 45-60 minutes, or people lose
concentration and the meeting becomes less productive.

Informal

For more common, informal meetings, try to avoid the formality and concentrate or practicality. The
important thing to keep in mind is not the quantity (length or frequency) of a meeting but the quality
of a meeting. A well-planned and executed meeting always bears more fruit than something thrown
together at the last minute with no clear purpose.

PREPARATION FOR A MEETING

The environment

Venue choice is critical for certain sensitive meetings, but far less so for routine, in-house
gatherings. Whatever, there are certain preparations that are essential, and never leave it all to the
hotel conference organiser or your own facilities department. They do their best but they’re not you,
and they can’t know exactly what you want. You must ensure the room is right – mainly big enough
with all relevant equipment and services. It’s too late to start hunting for a 20 ft power extension
lead five minutes before the meeting starts. Other aspects that you need to check or even set up
personally are:

 Table and seating layout

 Top-table (if relevant) position.
 Tables for demonstration items, paperwork, hand-outs, etc.
 Electricity power points and extensions.
 Heating and lighting controls.
 Projection and flip chart equipment positioning and correct operation.
 Whereabouts of toilets and emergency exits – fire drill.
 Confirm reception and catering arrangements.
 Back-up equipment contingency.

All of the above can and will go wrong unless you check and confirm – when you book the venue
and then again a few days before the meeting. For a big important meeting, you should also arrive
an hour early to check everything is as you want it. Some meetings are difficult enough without
having to deal with domestic or logistics emergencies; and remember if anything goes wrong it
reflects on you – you lose credibility, reputation and control.

Support materials

Positioning of seating and tables is crucial. Ensure the layout is appropriate for the occasion:

 Presentations to large group s- heater-style – the audience in rows, preferably with tables,
facing the chairman.
 Medium-sized participative meetings – horse-shoe (U) table layout with the open part of the U
facing the chairman’s table.
 Small meetings for debate and discussion – board-room style – one rectangular table with
chairman at one end.

Your positioning in relation to the group is important. If you are confident and comfortable and your
authority is in no doubt you should sit close to the others, and can even sit among people. If you
expect challenge or need to control the grou0p strongly set yourself further away and clearly central,
behind a top-table at the head of things.

Ensure everyone can see screens and flip charts properly – actually sit in the chairs to check –
you’ll be surprised how poor the view is from certain positions. You don’t need an acetate to check
the focus of an overhead projector – laying a pen on the glass works just as well.

Set up of projectors and screens is important – strive for the perfect square image, as this gives a
professional, controlled impression as soon as you start. Experiment with the adjustment of
projector and screen until it’s how you want it. If you are using LCD projector and overhead
projector you m ay need two screens. A plan white wall is often better than a spoor screen.

People from the western world read from left to right, so if you want to present anything in order
using different media, set it up so that people can follow it naturally from left to right. For instance
show introductory bullet points (say on a flip chart on the left – as the audience sees it) and the
detail for each point (say on projector and screen on the right).

Position screens and flip chart where you can use them comfortably without obscuring the view.

Ensure extension leads and loose wiring is taped to the floor or otherwise covered and protected.

Support additional flip chart easels and paper, or write-on acetates and pens, for syndicate work if
applicable. You can also ask people to bring laptops for exercises and presentations to the group,
assuming you have LCD projector available and compatible.

CHAIRMANSHIP SKILLS

Opening

 Be sure meeting input materials are prepared and brought to the meeting.
 Introduce any guests or new members to the group.
 Verify that a quorum exists.
 Review the group’s goals and progress on the foals.
 Agree on the meeting’s desired outcomes.
 Finalise the meeting agenda, including asking for any new agenda items.
 Prioritise the agenda items with items requiring the most participation coming first; estimate
times for each agenda item.

Concluding meetings

 Summarise all action items and decisions.

 Plan next meeting; desired outcomes, agenda items, and any meeting inputs.
 Identify roles and responsibilities for next meeting; meeting leader, recorder, etc.
 Critique the meeting and overall teamwork.
 Prepare and distribute minutes of the meeting.

Encouraging participants and controlling meetings

The key to success is keeping control. You do this by sticking to the agenda, managing the
relationships and personalities, and concentrating on outcomes. Meetings must have a purpose.
Every item must have a purpose. Remind yourself and the group of the required outcomes and
steer the proceedings towards making progress, not hot air.

Dealing with disagreement and conflict

Keep insisting that each side really tries to learn and understand the other side’s aims, objectives,
feelings, background etc. Understanding is different to agreeing – very important to keep explaining
this – by understanding each other there can be constructive debate towards agreement, with out
understanding, any agreement is impossible, so too is sensible adult discussion.

Gaining commitment

What is the meeting’s purpose? Always have one; otherwise don’t have a meeting. Decide the
issues for inclusion in the meeting and their relative priority: importance and urgency.

Controlling time

If someone persistently moans on about a specific issue that is not on the agenda, quickly translate
it into a simple exploratory or investigative project, and bounce it back to them, with a deadline to
report back their findings and recommendations to you.

Use the rules on delegation to help you manage people and tasks and outcomes through meetings.
Always look at how people are behaving in meetings – look for signs of tiredness, exasperation, and
confusion, and take necessary action.
As a general rule, don’t deviate from the agenda, but of things get very heavy, and the next item is
very heavy too, swap it around for something participative coming later on the agenda – syndicate
exercise, or a team game, a quiz etc.

CS1.6 - Interpersonal skills

THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND THE INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES ON RELATIONSPS

The consultative process depends on both personal relationships and the culture of the
organisation. Conflict will exist if managers view consultation on health and safety matters as s
burden which interferes with production. It is management’s responsibility to take execuive action
and to have adequate arrangements for regular and effective checking for health and safety
precautions and for ensuring that the declared health and safety policy is being fulfilled. The work of
consultative mechanisms such as safety committees should supplement these arrangements: it
cannot be a substitute for them. Alternatively, employees can have a negative effect on the process
if they view consultation as a way of getting back at managers without have to go through any
grievance procedures.
In essence the attitudes towards safety representatives and committees on both sides of the
management ‘divide’ say a great deal about the culture of the organisation. The general attitudes of
groups of employees can play either a positive or negative role in the consultative process. The
social need of most individuals to both belong to, and be accepted by, a group is a powerful
motivating factor. The need to belong to a group provides our need for friendship and affiliation and
supports both self esteem and identity. The attitudes of the peer group can play a powerful role in
either helping or hindering the consultation and thus the safety effort. Those who manage
organisations are well advised to influence both organisational and individual performance by
working with and through groups.

An essential condition to effective consultation is good communications between all parties. It

should be recognised that there is a genuine desire on the part of management to use the
knowledge and experience of its employees and an equally genuine desire on the part of the
employees to improve the standards of health and safety at the work place.

ASSESSING AND CONTROLLING CONFLICT

Common sources of conflict

 Unclear definition of responsibility: there will be numerous occasions for conflict to arise
over decisions made or actions taken in disputed territory.
 Limited resource: time, money, space, materials, supplies, and equipment are all valuable
resources. Competition for any of the these resources will inevitably lead to interpersonal and
interdepartmental conflict.
 Conflict of interest: individuals may fight for their personal goals and lose sight of
organisational goals. Each individual needs to know how his or her personal goals and efforts
fit within the organisational goals and efforts.

What to do: How to do it:

Talk with the other person.
Focus on behaviour and
events, not on personalities.
Listen carefully
Identify points of agreement
and disagreement
Prioritise the areas of conflict
Develop a plan to work on
each conflict
Follow through on your plan
Build on your success
 Ask the other person to name a time when it would be
convenient to meet.
 Arrange to meet in a place where you won’t be interrupted.
 Say “When this happens ….” Instead of “When you do ….”
 Describe a specific instance or event instead of generalising.
 Listen to what the other person is saying instead of getting
ready to react.
 Avoid interrupting the other person.
 After the other person finishes speaking, rephrase what was
said to make sure you understand it.
 Ask questions to clarify your understanding.
 Summarise the areas of agreement and disagreement.
 Ask the other person if he or she agrees with your assessment.
 Modify your assessment until both of you agree on the areas of
conflict.
 Discuss which areas of conflict are most important to each of
you to resolve.
 Start with the most important conflict.
 Focus on the future.
 Set up future meeting times to continue your discussions.
 Stick with the discussions until you’ve worked through each
area of conflict.
 Maintain a collaborative, “let’s-work-out-a-solution” attitude.
 Look for opportunities to point out progress.
 Compliment the other person’s insights and achievements.
 Congratulate each other when you make progress, even it it’s
just a small step. Your hard work will pay off when scheduled
 discussions eventually give way to ongoing, friendly
communication.

STYLES OF MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

Their influence on the individual

Managers have to perform many roles in an organisation and how they handle various situations will
depend on their style of management. A management style is an overall method of leadership used
by a manager. There are two sharply contrasting styles that will be broken down into smaller
subsets later:

Autocratic.
Permissive.

Each style has its own characteristics:

Autocratic: Leader makes all decisions unilaterally.

Permissive: Leader permits subordinates to take part in decision making and also gives them a
considerable degree of autonomy in completing routine work activities.

Combining these categories with democratic (subordinates are allowed to participate in decision
making) and directive (subordinates are told exactly how to do their jobs) styles gives us four distinct
ways to manage:

1. Directive democrat: Makes decisions participatively; closely supervises subordinates.

2. Directive autocrat: Makes decisions unilaterally; closely supervises subordinates.
3. Permissive democrat: Makes decisions participatively; gives subordinates latitude in
carrying out their work.
4. Permissive autocrat: Makes decisions unilaterally; gives subordinates latitude in carrying out
their work.

Situational leadership

Managers must also adjust their styles according to the situation that they are presented with.
Below are four quadrants of situational leadership that depend on the amount of support and
guidance needed:

1. Telling: Works best when employees are neither willing nor able to do the job (high need of
support and high need of guidance).
2. Delegating: Works best when the employees are willing to do the job and know how to go
about it (low need of support and low need of guidance).
3. Participating: Works best when employees have the ability to do the job, but need a high
amount of support (low need of guidance but high need of support)
4. Selling: Works best when employees are willing to do the job, but don’t know how to do it (low
need of support but high need of guidance).

The different styles depend on the situation and the relationship behaviour (amount of support
required) and task behaviour (amount of guidance required).