ECE666 Module 1 Part 1: Economic Load Dispatch and Multi-Area Dispatch

ECE666: Power Systems Operation
Module-1: Power System Economic Operation

Part-1: Economic Load Dispatch, Multi-Area Dispatch and Power Pools
Prof. Kankar Bhattacharya

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, N2L 3G1, Canada
kankar@uwaterloo.ca
1 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

Coverage
• Power system operational timeframes

• Steam generator characteristics
• The ELD problem
• KKT conditions of optimum, concept of marginal cost
• Solution of the ELD problem
• ELD with transmission losses
• Loss formula, ELD model formulation, Concept of loss coefficients and
penalty factor, coordination equations and their solution
• Power Pools and Multi-Area Interchanges

Vertically Integrated Power Systems
Utility-1 Utility-2
Generator Generator
Wholesaler / Wholesaler /
Transmitter Transmitter
Distributor Distributor
Customer Customer
Energy sales
Money flow
Energy flows in same company

Power Systems Operation and Planning
Time-frame Activity
10 years ahead Planning to expand generation & transmission system
to meet the demand
1–2 years ahead Planning for fuel supply contracts (coal mine
allocations, transport linkages); develop
generating unit maintenance schedules; medium-
term production schduling
1–7 days ahead Schedule hydro reservoir drawdown, decide on which
generators should be committed / de-committed
at what hours
5–30 min ahead Decide which unit should bear the load increments or
decrements following deviations from load
forecast. Run load-flows to evaluate system
status and take preventive actions- capacitor
switching, load curtailment, etc.
1–300 seconds Tackle faults, disturbances, short-circuits, oscillations

Module-1,
5 ECE666: Winter 2021
Part-1
Power System Operations
• Short-term Operations (Pre-dispatch)

• Extends from 1-week to 1-day ahead. A short-term load forecast
available. Schedules for unit operations are drawn up for the said
period- can include scheduling of hydro generators, depending on
reservoir levels, and power exchanges with other regions
• Real-Time Operations
• Dispatch: about 30 minutes ahead; load flow analysis and
economic dispatch, operator has close forecast of system load,
including exchanges scheduled and decides on necessary reactive
support, load curtailment, if any; maintains adequate reserves to
call at short notice
• Instantaneous dispatch: 5-min ahead, implements pre-dispatch /
dispatch plans with continuous improvements using real-time
data; initiates secondary frequency control actions updates
generation schedules

Steam Generator Characteristics: I/O
• The Input / Output (I/O) characteristic of a steam generator

is an important parameter in understanding economic
operations
• Power output of a generator (MW output) depends on the
fuel input (in the boiler) and hence the heat input
• “Gross heat input” at boiler end and “net power output” are
used for I/O characteristics
• Net Power Output = Total power generated – Power consumed
by plant auxiliaries

I/O Characteristics… contd.
• Actual operating data from a steam generator is used to

develop its I/O characteristic
• Hi(Pi) is the heat I/O characteristic of generator i which
denotes the heat required (in MBTU) to generate a certain
MW of power, Pi, per hour
• Hi(Pi) is represented in MBTU/h
• Typically, Hi(Pi) is a polynomial function of Pi
H i Pi   f Pi 
• For example,
H i Pi   f Pi   a / Pi2  b / Pi  c /
• Parameters a/, b/ and c/ are determined from field tests

• The cost I/O characteristic of generator i, Ci(Pi), can

therefore be obtained using Hi(Pi) and the fuel cost, FC
Ci Pi in $/h    FC in $/MBTU  H i Pi in MBTU/h 
• Typically, the cost I/O characteristic is thus,
 
Ci Pi    FC H i Pi    FC a / Pi2  b / Pi  c /  aPi2  bPi  c

• A plot of generator input (heat or cost) versus net output

(power) is shown
• Typically the I/O characteristic representation is of second order
polynomial; which is an “ideal” form as a smooth convex curve
Ci Pi   ai Pi 2  bi Pi  ci
Cost ($/h) or Heat Input (MBTU/h)
PMin PMax MW

Minimum Loadability of Steam Generators
• Observe that the I/O characteristic is within the PMin and PMax
limits of the generator
• The PMin limit defines a Minimum Loadability of the steam
generator- the minimum load at which the unit can operate
• This is determined by the fuel combustion stability and other
steam generator design constraints
• Most super-critical units cannot operate below 30% of their
design capacity
• Super-critical units: advancement of conventional coal-fired steam
generation, involving use of supercritical steam pressure and steam
temperatures > 1100 F
• A minimum flow of 30% is required to adequately cool the tubes in the furnace of the
steam generator

Incremental Cost Characteristic
• The incremental cost characteristic is obtained as the

derivative of the I/O Characteristic. For the given second-
order polynomial, we have,
dCi Pi 
 2ai Pi  bi
dPi
• The incremental cost characteristic denotes the additional

cost required to produce an extra MWh of energy
Incremental Heat Input (MBTU/
Incremental Cost ($/MWh) or
MWh)
PMin PMax MW
Module-1,
Part-1
Net Heat Rate Characteristic
• Heat Rate (HR): defined as the amount of heat required to

generate 1 unit (kWh) of electricity
• Denoted by BTU/kWh
• In effect, this is the reciprocal of the generator’s efficiency
• Example:
• Generator HR = 9000 BTU/kWh
• We know, 1 kWh = 3412 BTU thermal equivalent
• Thus Generator HR = 9000 BTU/3412 BTU
• Implying that 3412 BTU of equivalent heat is produced when the input is
9000 BTU. Thus the unit’s overall conversion efficiency is
•  = (3412/9000)x 100 = 37.91%

Net Heat Rate Characteristic
• The heat rate characteristic is a plot of the unit HR versus

the power output. It is a function of the generator’s
design parameters.
• The lowest HR (i.e. highest efficiency) operation is
attained at P=PRated Unit heat rate, H/P (Btu/kWh)
Output, P (MW)
PMin PRate PMax
d
ax

The Economic Load Dispatch Problem
Module-1,
Part-1
Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) Problem
• The ELD problem primarily involves allocating the total load

between all available and synchronized generating units
• The main objective is that the total cost of operation, i.e.
the total generation cost, be kept at a minimum
• An ELD is executed in the dispatch stage (every 5 minutes)
• Hence the solution algorithm should be efficient
• However, the ELD should also represent the system in as much
detail as possible

The ELD Problem… contd.
• Consider a system of N generating units (i  1, 2, …, N)

• Each unit feeds power, Pi, to the transmission system,
serving a total load PD
P1
G1
P2
G2 Transmission
system
PD
PN
GN

The ELD Problem- Assumptions
• Vertically integrated environment

• The system operator has access to all generators’ cost
functions and is responsible for their dispatch
• System load is aggregated for the whole system at a single
node. Spatial distribution of loads is ignored.
• Transmission losses are usually neglected
• Or a simplistic representation is used
• Reactive power demand is neglected

• Consequently all bus voltages and reactive power relations are
ignored
• Generating units that are committed for the given time
interval are only considered for ELD
• A decision making has already taken place as to what units will
be on-line at that time interval

ELD Mathematical Model
• Objective Function: Minimize the total cost of generation

from all generating units in the system
• Using the quadratic cost function, we have
N N
J   Ci Pi    ai Pi 2  bi Pi  ci
i 1 i 1
• Demand-Supply Balance: The operator dispatches the

generators to meet the total system demand
N
P
i 1
i  PD
• Upper and Lower Limit on Generation: Generation from a

unit is constrained by the limits
Pi Min  Pi  Pi Max i  N

ELD Mathematical Model… contd.
• The overall model is thus,

N N
• Minimize J   Ci Pi    ai Pi 2  bi Pi  ci
i 1 i 1
• Subject to,
N
 Pi   0  PD   Pi  0
i 1
g Pi   0  Pi Min  Pi  0 i  N
hPi   0  Pi  Pi Max  0 i  N

Structure of a General Optimization Problem
Minimize J
 i  X   0  i iN
Subject to 
 g j  X   0   j  jM
• The above is a constrained minimization problem which can

be converted to an unconstrained minimization problem by
defining a new function, the Lagrange Function or
Lagrangian, as follows:
N M
F ( X , i , i )  J   i  X    i g i  X 
i 1 j 1
• F(.) is formed by augmenting objective J with equality and inequality
constraints, using multipliers, i and j.
• These multipliers, i and j, known as Lagrange multipliers, are unknowns,
and are simultaneously determined from the optimization solution.

The ELD Lagrangian
• The ELD Lagrangian can accordingly be written as:

N N
F ( Pi ,  , i ,  i )  J ( Pi )   Pi    i g i Pi     i hi Pi 
i 1 i 1
N  N 
F Pi ,  , i ,  i    Ci Pi     PD   Pi 
i 1  i 1 
    
 1 P1Min  P1   2 P2Min  P2  ...   N PNMin  PN 
  P  P
1 1   P  P        P
1
Max
2 2 2
Max
N N  PNMax 

Module-1,
Part-1
Conditions for Optimum
• The conditions for optimum are based on the same principle

of finding the minima of a function
• Except that, the full derivative of the function is replaced by
partial derivative of Lagrangian
F
a. 0  i  1,......, N
 Pi
F
b.  0   Pi   0

• The above conditions yield N+1 equations in (N+1) variables,

Pi (i = 1, 2, …, N) and , and can be solved uniquely

Conditions for Optimum… contd.
• Complementary Conditions
If g i(Pi )  0 (binding constraint ), then i  0
c.  i g i Pi   0  i  1,...., N 
i  0  If g i(Pi )  0 (not binding) , then i  0
d .  i hi Pi   0  i  1,...., N If hi(Pi )  0 (binding constraint ), then  i  0


i  0  If hi(Pi )  0 (not binding) , then  i  0
• The complementary conditions implies:
If Pi  PiMin (binding constraint ) then i  0


 If Pi  PiMin (not binding) , then i  0
If Pi  PiMax (binding constraint ), then  i  0


 If Pi  PiMax (not binding) , then  i  0

Conditions of Optimum… contd.
• The optimization problem is first solved assuming

• i = 0 and i = 0, for all i
• Which means the inequality constraints are not “binding” and all
generation variables (Pi) are within their limits
• The conditions of optimum are the well known, Karush-
Kuhn-Tucker’s (KKT) conditions of optimality
• Applying KKT conditions on the ELD Lagrangian, we obtain
F dCi Pi 
0    i   i  0 iN
Pi dPi
F N
 0  PD   Pi  0
 i 1

Module-1,
Part-1
Module-1,
Part-1
Module-1,
Part-1
KKT Conditions Applied to ELD… contd.
• Applying the complementary conditions, we obtain:
 
1 P1Min  P1  0, 1  0  
 1 P1  P1Max  0,  1  0
 
 2 P2Min  P2  0,  2  0  
 2 P2  P2Max  0,  2  0
....
 
 N PNMin  PN  0,  N  0  
 N PN  PNMax  0,  N  0

KKT Conditions on ELD... Contd.
• From the first KKT applied on ELD, we obtained
dCi Pi 
   i   i  0  i  1,..., N
dPi
• Case-1: All Pi within limits, i = 0, i = 0

i   i  0 i  1,..., N
dCi Pi 
 
dPi
• When all generators operate within limits, optimal dispatch is

at equal incremental cost

KKT Conditions on ELD… contd.
• Case-2: Let P1=P1Max, • Case-3: Let P1=P1Min,

all other Pi within limits all other Pi within limits
1  0
1  0
 i  0 i  2,..., N
i  0 i  2,..., N
i  0 i  1,..., N
 i  0 i  1,..., N
dCi Pi 
  i  2,..., N dCi Pi 
dPi   i  2,..., N
dPi
For i  1,
For i  1,
dC P 
 1 1    1 dC P 
dP1  1 1    1
dP1
dC1 P1  dC1 P1 
   
dP1 dP1

To Summarize
• Conditions for optimum of a constrained ELD problem are:
dCi Pi 
 PiMin  Pi  PiMax
dPi
dCi Pi 
 Pi  PiMax
dPi
dCi Pi 
 Pi  PiMin
dPi
• The ELD is first solved without the inequality constraints;

if generator limits are binding, the specific limiting
constraints are included in the Lagrangian, and KKT
conditions re-determined.
• In such cases, it is always necessary to verify that the
conditions for optimality are satisfied
•  is known as the System Marginal Cost (SMC), the cost to
supply 1 additional MWh of energy in the system
Module-1,
Part-1
Module-1,
Part-1
Economic Load Dispatch Considering
Transmission Losses
Module-1,
Part-1
ELD Problem With Transmission Losses
• So far we considered the ELD problem by ignoring

transmission losses
• However, transmission losses can alter dispatch solutions
and need to be taken into account for system economic
operation
• Representation of transmission losses in ELD problems is
usually approximate
• Use of Loss Formula Coefficients

Kirchmayer’s Loss Formula
• System loss is expressed in terms of active power
generation
• Commonly referred to as the B-Matrix Loss Formula
k k k
PLoss P1 , P2 ,..., PN    Pm Bmn Pn   Bmo Pm  K lo
m 1 n 1 m 1
• PLoss : Power loss

• Pm, Pn: Power generation from all sources
• Bmn: Loss coefficients in Watt/MW2
• A linear term ΣBm0Pm and a constant Kl0 are also included

ELD Considering Losses
• The same ELD objective is considered, that of minimizing

the total cost of generation,
N N
J   Ci Pi    ai Pi 2  bi Pi  ci
i 1 i 1
• Demand-supply balance: the generators meet the total

system demand and losses
N
P  P i D  PLoss P1 , P2 ,..., PN 

i 1
• Upper and lower limit on generation: generation from a unit

is constrained by the upper and lower limits
Pi Min  Pi  Pi Max i  N
• For the present discussions, generation limits are not

considered. But these can be introduced in the same manner,
as before

ELD Mathematical Model With Losses
• The Lagrangian of the ELD problem with transmission
losses, can be formulated as follows
N
 
F   Ci ( Pi )    PD  PLoss P1 , P2 ,..., PN    Pi 
i 1  i 
• The above can be written in elaborate form as:
F  C1 ( P1 )  C2 ( P2 )  ...  C N ( PN )
  PD  PLoss P1 , P2 ,..., PN   P1  P2  ...  PN 

• The KKT condition can be applied to the Lagrangian, and
we obtain therefore, a set of N- equations, as follows:
F dC1 PLoss
    0
P1 dP1 P1
F dC2 P
   Loss    0
P2 dP2 P2
...
F dC N P
   Loss    0
PN dPN PN

• In general form, these can be re-organized as,

F dCi  P 
    Loss  1  0  i  1,..., N
Pi dPi  Pi 
• We can further re-write as,
 
 
 1   dCi  
 PLoss  dPi
 1  P 
 i 
PLoss
Pi is Incremental Loss Factor at bus i
• Denotes sensitivity of system loss to power injection at
bus i
• Power injection at a bus i, Pi, is given by, Pi = PGi - PDi
• Pi increases when PGi increases or PDi decreases
• Pi decreases when PGi decreases or PDi increases

Incremental Loss Factor… contd.
• If losses increase, for an increase in power injection at a

bus i
• Incremental Loss > 0
• A generator / customer at this bus contributes directly to
system losses when it injects power by increasing generation /
reducing load
• If losses decrease, for an increase in power injection at a
bus i
• Incremental Loss < 0
• A generator / customer at this bus contributes inversely to
system losses when it injects power by increasing generation /
reducing load

Loss Penalty Factor
• The Loss Penalty Factor for bus i, pfi, is defined using the
Incremental Loss Factor as follows:
1
pf i 
PLoss
1
Pi
• If incremental Loss > 0, Penalty Factor >1

• If injection at a bus contributes directly to losses,
the penalty factor acts as a “penalty”
• If incremental Loss < 0, Penalty Factor <1
• If injection at a bus contributes “inversely” to
losses, the penalty factor acts as a “credit”

Coordination Equations
• The conditions for optimum can be written in terms of loss
penalty factors, as follows:
dCi
pf i   i  1,...,N
dPi
• The above is termed as Coordination Equations, which

needs to be solved to obtain the economic dispatch.
dC1
pf1  
dP1
dC2
pf 2  
dP2 Composite ELD Model
.... with Losses
dC N Considered
pf N  
dPN
P  P i D  PLoss P1 , P2 ,..., PN 

i 1

Coordination Equations… contd.
dC1/dP1 With penalty factor

dC2/dP2 dC3/dP3
pf > 1 pf > 1 pf < 1
’

P’1 P1 P’2 P2 P3 P’3

MW MW MW
No penalty factor
The criterion of equal incremental cost operation can be extended

from ELD without losses, to an ELD with losses, considering that for
a generator with pf > 1, its incremental cost curve is scaled up while
for one with pf < 1, the incremental cost curve is scaled down

Iterative Solution of ELD with Losses
Choose starting value of Pi, i = 1,…,N
Calculate PLoss and hence penalty factor at bus i
Choose starting 
Solve for each Pi

Adjust 
dFi Pi 
pf i   for i  1, ..., N
dPi
NO
P P i D ?
YES
Compare Pi to Pi of previous iteration and save Max |Pik-1 - Pik|
NO
Pi k 1  Pi k   o ? YES
STOP

Power Pools and Multi-Area Interchanges
Module-1,
Part-1
Power Pools
• Pools existed as a reaction to increasing price of electricity

• Reduce utilities’ operating cost by sharing cheaper generation
• Pooling was desirable because they

• Enhanced reliability and reduced costs
• Load change shared by all generators in the interconnection
• Pool ELD can be obtained if all cost information was available
• Structure of the Pool depended on

• Role of Pool Operator-
• Generation dispatch, unit commitment, setting up transactions,
maintenance scheduling and even long-term expansion planning
• How transactions were set up
• Joint dispatch of generation for all areas simultaneously
• Energy Brokerage System- transactions based on bid / offer system
• How cost savings were allocated to pool participants
• Split the savings equally, proportional, etc.

Module-1,
Part-1
Module-1,
Part-1
Power Pools-1: Economic Exchange of Energy
• Simple form of arrangement involving exchange of energy

between two utilities with significant differences in their
marginal costs
• Utility with higher operating cost purchases power from
utility with lower operating costs
• Arrangement usually on hour to hour basis and conducted by
two system operators
• Benefit from such an arrangement is ensured if savings in
production cost from two cooperating utilities is more than the
cost incurred from payments towards charges for transmission
of energy

Module-1,
Part-1
Economic Exchange of Energy… contd.
• Let, utilities U1 and U2 be involved in economic interchange

of energy at a certain hour
• U1 transferring PT MW of power to U2
• C1*: Cost of U1 on Economic Dispatch, meeting its own demand PD1
• C2*: Cost of U2 on Economic Dispatch, meeting its own demand PD2
• C1: Cost of U1 to generate extra PT MW (generating PD1 + PT MW)
• C2: Cost of U2 after receiving PT MW from U1 (generating PD2 – PT MW)
• Increased cost to U1 from the transaction is
C1  C1  C1*
• Reduction in cost for U2 from the transaction is

C2  C2*  C2
• The net savings (S) from a transaction is thus
S  C2  C1

Economic Exchange of Energy… contd.
• S>0 Feasible transaction [1 < 2]

• S<0 Infeasible transaction [1 > 2]
• 1, 2: incremental cost of exporting and importing utilities respectively
• U1 exporting PT to U2, a negative savings would occur if 1 > 2
• Seller’s advantage- when buyer’s incremental cost high
• Buyers advantage- when seller’s incremental cost low
• Savings allocation- simplest approach is to split the savings

equally
• U2 pays U1 for the PT MW import, an amount equal to U1’s
increased cost from the transaction and half of the savings
resulting therefrom

Module-1,
Part-1
Module-1,
Part-1
Module-1,
Part-1
Module-1,
Part-1
Power Pools-2: Coordinated ELD
• Independent Mode of Operation of Utilities:

• The set of M utilities obtain their own optimum schedules using
the classical ELD condition:
dC1,1 dC1,2 dC1, N1
  ...   1
dP1,1 dP1,2 dP1, N1
...
dC M ,1 dC M ,2 dC M , NM
  ...   M
dPM ,1 dPM ,2 dPM , NM
• Each utility operate at “equal incremental cost” condition
• The respective marginal costs of generation are, 1, … , M
• Each utility meets its own demand, PD1, … PDM:
P1,1  P1,2  ...  P1, N1  PD1
...
PM ,1  PM ,2  ...  PM , NM  PDM

Coordinated ELD… contd.
• All Generators Pool Dispatched to Minimize Pool Cost

• The condition for optimum can be written as:
dC ji
  j  1,..., M
dPji
i  (1,..., N1); (1,..., N 2 );...(1,..., N M )
N1  N 2 ...N M M
 Pi   PD j
i 1 j 1

Power Pools-3: Multi-area Joint Dispatch
• Central dispatcher coordinates generation dispatch

• Minimize total system cost
J   C ( Pi ,m )  i  1,..., NGm ; m  1,2,. ...., NU

m i
• k, m is the index for utility

• NU is the no. of utilities participating in the coordinated dispatch
• i is the index for generator
• NG is the no. of generators within one utility
• Transmission constraint (transportation model)- algebraic
sum of power at a node is zero
 Pi,m   Tk ,m  PDm
i k
Tk ,m  TkMax
,m

Multi-area Joint Dispatch… contd.
• Elaborate representation of transmission system is possible by

using dc power flow model
1
Tk ,m  ( k   m ) 
x k ,m
• Ideally an ac load flow is most accurate representation
• High m denotes large cost saving for system when PDm

reduces by 1 MW
• i.e. when utility m imports power from another utility
• k,m (associated with transmission constraint) is high when a

transaction between k and m reduces the system cost

Other Types of Utility-Interchanges
• Capacity interchange- agreement for peak reserve. No

energy transaction, except emergency
• Diversity interchange- energy transaction between utilities
with diversity in load curves
• Energy banking- transaction between utilities having
different generation types
• Emergency power interchange- to take care of forced
outages in one system
• Inadvertent interchange- due to error in controlling
interchange by automatic generation control

Some Important References
• Z. X. Liang and J. D. Glover, “Improved cost functions for economic dispatch computations”, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, May’91, pp.821-829.
• B. H. Chowdhury and S. Rehman, “A review of recent advances in economic dispatch”, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Nov. ’90, pp. 1248-1259.
• H. H. Happ, “Optimal power dispatch- A comprehensive survey”, IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-96, May / June 1977, pp.841-854.
• C. B. Somuah and N. Khunaizi, “Application of linear programming re-dispatch technique to
dynamic generation allocation”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Feb.’90, pp. 20-26.
• G. Demartini, G. P. Granelli, P. Marannino, M. Montagna and M. Ricci, “Coordinated economic and
advance dispatch procedures”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Nov. ’96, pp. 1785-1791.
• N. A. Chowdhury and R. Billinton, “Risk constrained economic load dispatch in interconnected
generating system”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Nov.’90, pp.1239-1247.
• N. S. Rau and C. M. Necsulescu, “A model for economy energy exchanges in interconnected power
systems”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Aug. ’89, pp. 1147-1153.
• L. Zhang, P. B. Luh, X. Guan and G. Merchel, “Optimization-based inter-utility power purchases”,
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, May ’94, pp.891-897.
• F. N. Lee, “A new multi-area production costing method”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Aug.
’88, pp. 915-922.
• K. W. Doty and P. L. McEntire, An analysis of electric power brokerage systems, IEEE Trans Power
Apparatus and Systems, Feb 1982
• G. Fahd, D. A. Richards and G. B. Sheble, The implementation of an energy brokerage system using
linear programming, IEEE Trans Power Systems, Feb ’92
• D. Chattopadhyay, An energy brokerage system with emission trading and allocation of cost
savings, IEEE Trans Power Systems, Nov’95

ECE666 Module 1 Part 1: Economic Load Dispatch and Multi-Area Dispatch

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ECE666 Module 1 Part 1: Economic Load Dispatch and Multi-Area Dispatch

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ECE666: Power Systems Operation

Module-1: Power System Economic Operation

Prof. Kankar Bhattacharya

1 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Power system operational timeframes

2 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

3 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

4 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Short-term Operations (Pre-dispatch)

6 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The Input / Output (I/O) characteristic of a steam generator

7 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Actual operating data from a steam generator is used to

H i Pi   f Pi   a / Pi2  b / Pi  c /

• Parameters a/, b/ and c/ are determined from field tests

8 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The cost I/O characteristic of generator i, Ci(Pi), can

Ci Pi in $/h    FC in $/MBTU  H i Pi in MBTU/h 

• Typically, the cost I/O characteristic is thus,

9 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• A plot of generator input (heat or cost) versus net output

10 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

11 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The incremental cost characteristic is obtained as the

• The incremental cost characteristic denotes the additional

• Heat Rate (HR): defined as the amount of heat required to

14 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The heat rate characteristic is a plot of the unit HR versus

15 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The ELD problem primarily involves allocating the total load

17 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Consider a system of N generating units (i  1, 2, …, N)

18 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Vertically integrated environment

• Reactive power demand is neglected

19 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Objective Function: Minimize the total cost of generation

• Demand-Supply Balance: The operator dispatches the

• Upper and Lower Limit on Generation: Generation from a

20 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The overall model is thus,

21 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The above is a constrained minimization problem which can

22 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The ELD Lagrangian can accordingly be written as:

23 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The conditions for optimum are based on the same principle

• The above conditions yield N+1 equations in (N+1) variables,

25 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

d .  i hi Pi   0  i  1,...., N If hi(Pi )  0 (binding constraint ), then  i  0

• The complementary conditions implies:

If Pi  PiMin (binding constraint ) then i  0

If Pi  PiMax (binding constraint ), then  i  0

26 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• The optimization problem is first solved assuming

27 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Applying the complementary conditions, we obtain:

31 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• From the first KKT applied on ELD, we obtained

• Case-1: All Pi within limits, i = 0, i = 0

• When all generators operate within limits, optimal dispatch is

32 Module-1, Part-1 ECE666: Winter 2021

• Case-2: Let P1=P1Max, • Case-3: Let P1=P1Min,