Principles of Oiled Bird Rehabilitation
Lynne Frink
Erica A. Miller, DVM
Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research, Inc.
110 Possum Hollow Road
Newark, Delaware 19711 USA
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
Oil, its additives and contaminants, through
simple physical contact, inhalation, ingestion and
transcutaneous absorption have demonstrated
detrimental effects on wildlife. These effects
include, but are not limited to, contamination of
feathers and fur, and damage to vital organ systems,
including: the lungs and air sacs, kidneys, liver,
heart, blood, and gastrointestinal tract. (Leighton,
Butler, et. al. 1983, Leighton 1991, Pierce 1991,
Langenberg 1983, Miller 1982).
Rehabilitation of oiled wildlife is a complex,
crisis-oriented endeavor requiring an experienced
staff with medical, technical and crisis-management
skills. Federal and state permits and specialized
training for Occupational Health and Safety
Administration (OSHA) compliance are also
required to conduct an oiled wildlife response.
Historically, efforts to rescue and treat wildlife
affected by oil have met with limited success. The
image of an oil-soaked bird or otter struggling to
shore elicits a tremendous emotional response in
human beings. This atmosphere of public concern
often results in well-intentioned people attempting to
do a complex job for which they lack the training
and the experience.
Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research (Tri-State)
was established in 1976 to study the effects of oil on
wildlife, design effective response mechanisms for
wildlife affected by oil, and develop appropriate
treatment protocols. Although Tri-State's scope has
broadened beyond oil-contaminated wildlife, it has
gained an international reputation for its oil spill
response and training capabilities. This paper will
provide a general overview of the effects of oil on
birds, the basic treatment protocols, the rehabilitation
and husbandry techniques, and the criteria for
pre-release evaluation currently found to be effective
by Tri-State.
Rehabilitation of oiled wildlife focuses primarily
on the adverse physiological effects of oil on
individual birds. These effects, while complex, can
often be successfully counteracted through the
Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning , 1995
cooperative efforts of veterinarians, biologists and
rehabilitators with oil spill response experience. The
primary objective of wildlife rehabilitation is to care
for injured animals and release them to their natural
environment. Wildlife rehabilitation fills two
purposes in an oil spill response:
1) philosophically, or morally, it provides a
humane response to wild animals harmed
through man-related activities;
2) biologically, it attempts to treat and return
impacted animals to healthy breeding
populations in the wild. Rehabilitation efforts
can be particularly important when endangered
or threatened species are contaminated.
THE EFFECTS OF OIL ON BIRDS
In general, the effects of oil on birds can be
characterized as environmental, external, and
internal.
Environmental Effects
Environmental effects are perhaps the broadest
category of the effects of oil on wildlife.
Environmental effects include, but are not limited to:
immediate contamination of the food source
biomass; reduction in the breeding animals and
plants that provide future food sources; contamina-
tion of nesting habitat, and reduction in reproductive
success through contamination and reduced hatcha-
bility of eggs or temporary inhibition of ovarian
function (Albers 1977, Albers 1991, Leighton 1991).
In a number of spills, the environmental effects
of the oil may be minimal (acute and temporary),
while the physiologic effects on the individual
animals and/or local populations may be life-
threatening (either acute or chronic, and often
long-lasting). For example, a tidal marsh which is
contaminated by oil early in a spill may suffer dam-
ages which are largely temporary, in that certain
types of oil may flush out of the marsh after only one
or two tidal cycles. On the other hand, more perma-
nent damage may be incurred following oil contami-
nation of adults and eggs at a nesting site of colonial
birds such as Common Murres (pelagic birds which
do not breed until they are four years old, and only
lay one egg a year). Damage to a colony of this type
could have a long-lasting effect on regional popula-
tions.
External Effects
The external effects of oil are the most
noticeable and most immediately debilitating (Dein
1986). Birds that are most often affected by oil spills
include those that remain on the water, such as
ducks, loons, and grebes, and those that feed in the
water, such as gulls, terns, herons, and birds of prey
including bald eagles and ospreys. Oil can
contaminate the entire bird or only parts of the bird,
depending on the amount of oil in the water and the
bird's natural behavior (swimming, wading, diving)
in the water. Oil, by disrupting the interlocking
structure of feathers, destroys the waterproofing and
insulating properties of plumage. The oiled bird may
suffer from chilling, may be unable to fly, or may be
unable to remain afloat in the water. Depending on
the degree of impact, an oiled bird may have
difficulty obtaining food or escaping predators. The
decreased foraging ability of the animal, combined
with the presence of oil in the environment, usually
results in a loss of attainable food sources. It is these
external effects of oil on birds which are most often
seen by the general public, so treatment efforts in the
past have concentrated on removing the oil from the
feathers.
Internal Effects
The internal effects of oil on birds, while not as
apparent as the external effects, are equally
life-threatening. Direct toxic effects on the
gastrointestinal tract, pancreas and liver have all
been documented (Leighton 1991, Pierce 1991,
Langenberg 1983). Ingestion of oil by birds
attempting to clean feathers through preening
frequently results in ulceration and hemorrhaging
within the lining of the gastrointestinal tract
(Langenberg 1983). This damage prevents the
animal's digestive system from utilizing food or
water, causing the animal to become progressively
weaker in a very short time. A similar irritation of
other mucosal surfaces can lead to ulceration of the
conjunctivae and corneal surfaces of the eyes, and
the moist surfaces inside the mouth.
Aspiration pneumonia is not uncommon in oiled
birds, and can occur when birds, attempting to clean
their feathers through preening, aspirate droplets of
Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning , 1995
oil. Severe and fatal kidney damage has also been
documented, both as a direct effect of the toxins in
the oil and as a result of the severe dehydration often
encountered in oiled birds (Leighton 1991).
As the oiled bird becomes more debilitated, its
immune system is compromised and the bird
becomes susceptible to secondary bacterial and
fungal infections which are potentially life-
threatening (Pierce 1991, White 1991).
Aspergillosis is a common secondary complica-
tion seen in birds which have been oiled. Aspergillus
fumigatus is an ubiquitous, opportunistic fungus that
may be present in oiled birds when they are
presented for washing and can spread through the air
or develop within rehabilitation centers if animals
are bedded in moist straw or organic material or left
in damp areas. Pelagic species which have no
resistance to this fungal infection, and oiled birds
which are stressed and otherwise immunocompro-
mised are especially susceptible to aspergillosis. A.
fumigatus forms colonies of bluish, pale green to
creamy-white fuzzy or cheesy plaques within the
body cavity. This fungal growth is frequently found
on the lungs or airsacs, but can disseminate quickly
throughout the body, occluding the trachea,
surrounding the heart, or infiltrating the liver or
kidneys. Aspergillosis is extremely resistant to
treatment, but if detected early may be controlled
with flucytosine, itraconazole, and/or amphotericin B
(Flammer 1994).
Post Mortem Examination
Any bird which does not recover should be
necropsied -- examined for both external and internal
lesions which may have contributed to the death.
Tissue samples of any unusual findings should be
collected either aseptically (for microbiology
cultures), or placed in 10% formalin for histopathol-
ogy studies. Both gross and microscopic pathology
findings can be beneficial in many ways:
a) As a rehabilitation tool, the lesions found on
post-mortem examinations can help to determine the
course of treatment for surviving animals, the
presence of disease in a flock or group of animals,
the cause for the clinical signs observed, and/or the
internal effects of the oil exposure.
b) As a research tool, the necropsy and labora-
tory results can provide data on large numbers of
birds (hematologic, histologic, etc.), measure disease
frequency or prevalence in a population or in a
geographical region, quantify the physiologic effects
of specific types of oil, and evaluate the effects of
any prescribed treatments.
c) Necropsy findings can also be useful in
chain-of-evidence inquiries and may provide other
documentable information related to the spill and
subsequent Natural Resources Damage Assessment
(NRDA).
TREATMENT OF OILED BIRDS
Rapid retrieval, stabilization and cleaning of
oil-soaked birds is vital to successful treatment. Each
bird receives a temporary, numbered, plastic leg
band and individual records are kept on each animal.
Accurate records ensure continuity of care at all
times during captivity and provide data for
subsequent analysis.
Stabilization / Medical Treatment
Stabilization efforts may be initiated in the field
(Table 1), but complete medical care is often not
provided until the animal arrives at the clinic. In
addition to a complete standard physical examina-
tion, weight and cloacal (rectal) temperature are
measured and recorded.
Mucosal membranes are cleaned by removing
oil from the mouth and the nares (nostrils) with
cotton swabs, and flushing the eyes with warm ster-
ile saline or ophthalmic irrigation solution. The
mucosal surface of the gastrointestinal tracts of less
debilitated birds is treated with calculated amounts
of warm gavages (fluids administered via stomach
tube) of electrolyte solution and an enteric coating
agent. [NOTE: weak birds which cannot maintain
head carriage or may not be able to swallow should
NOT be given oral fluids]. The electrolyte solution
(Lactated Ringers & 2.5% Dextrose, Pedialyte, etc.)
serves to flush the ingested oil from the gut, and also
helps to rehydrate the bird. The enteric coating
agent, bismuth subsalicylate (Peptobismol, Procter &
Gamble, Cincinnati, OH) is then administered orally
via stomach tube at 2 cc / kg to assist in protecting
the mucosa and to decrease further absorption of
toxic components of the oil (Welte 1991).
Oiled birds are dehydrated as a result of reduced
food and water intake and/or as a result of enteritis
(inflammation of the lining of the gastro-intestinal
tract). Dehydration is a serious condition resulting in
an actual reduction in circulating blood volume,
which can lead to compromised kidney function and
subsequent permanent kidney damage, with the
ultimate sequella of acidosis, clinical shock and
death.
For a severely dehydrated bird, aggressive fluid

Table 1. Overview of Stabilization Protocols

For active, alert birds.

1. Check for bleeding / treat if present
Check for traumatic injuries; determine if injury prohibits cleaning
2. Take cloacal temperature (n. =102-106 F) / weight.
3. Assess condition of plumage and skin.
4. Flush eyes with warmed sterile physiologic saline.
5. Clean mouth / nares.
6. Administer warmed parenteral fluids as indicated:
Lactated Ringers & 2.5% Dextrose, 15- 30 cc / kg
IV - Medial metatarsal vein
SQ - Inguinal (leg), cervical dorsal (back of neck) area
7. Provide oral fluids by gavage
15 -30 cc / kg Lactated Ringers & 2.5% Dextrose w/ 2 cc/kg Peptobismol at 100°F.
Note: Only animals that are alert enough to maintain head carriage should receive oral fluids.
8. Place animal in quiet ventilated stabilization area away from drafts, humans, noise, with free access to
(and away from) heat lamps.

Birds presenting with signs of clinical shock receive step 6 first, followed by steps 1-5, omit step 7.
Discretionary: Dexamethasone at 3 mg / kg SQ.

Allow one hour for rest. Transport as soon as possible.

Note: Crate and transport vehicle must have adequate ventilation and avoid temperature extremes.

Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning , 1995
retrieval. At this point in the treatment, dehydration
may be the most life-threatening problem the animal
faces. Only with aggressive fluid therapy can blood
volume and circulation be increased and normal
function of lungs, heart and all basic metabolic
activity down to the cellular level be restored. When
blood circulation is significantly reduced, the animal
is very hypo- or hyperthermic, and/or the lining of
the intestinal wall is too damaged to take up orally
administered fluids, subcutaneous or intravenous
fluids must be administered. Parenteral fluid
administration must be done as aseptically as
possible as to not introduce any contaminants
including bacteria or petroleum products into the
bird. The principles of fluid therapy have been
addressed elsewhere (Redig 1993, Tri-State 1990)
and usually involve bolus injections into the medial
metatarsal (leg) or cutaneous ulnar (wing) vein at a
rate of 15 - 35 cc / kg, three times a day (Welte
1991).
Blood samples are collected in micro-
hematocrit tubes to determine the packed cell vol-
ume (percentage red blood cells) and total plasma
solids; these diagnostic tests can indicate degree of
dehydration, anemia, or possible infections.
Some clinical findings associated with oil con-
tamination are presented in Table 2.
Because external oiling impedes a bird's ability
to thermoregulate, oiled birds are usually either
hypothermic or hyperthermic, depending on the
ambient temperature (i.e., hypothermia is a problem
in the winter, whereas hyperthermia may be a
problem in the summer). An early return to normal
body temperature may be crucial to the animal's
survival; all attempts to stabilize the body tempera-
ture should be made prior to oral fluid administration
or washing. While a bird may be rapidly warmed or
cooled by many methods, gradual changes in the
body temperature are much less stressful on the
already taxed animal. Slow warming is best
achieved by using radiant heat lamps placed so that
the bird can move away from the direct beam to
avoid overheating. Hot water bottles and heating
pads placed under a portion of the cage/holding box

Table 2. Clinical Findings Associated with Oil Contamination

Oiled birds can present any or all of the following physical and clinical signs:
- oil, moderate to severe, on feathers and skin
- irritation, thickening, cracking and / or bleeding of skin
- hypothermia (reduced body temperature)
- hyperthermia (increased body temperature)
- inflammation of conjunctiva and corneal surface of the eyes
- oil in mouth, nares, vent
- feather loss
- acute respiratory distress
- tarry black (bloody / oiled) or green (bile stained) droppings
- sternal recumbency (inability to stand)
- ataxia (weakness / incoordination)
- tremors, seizures, or other signs of CNS / neuromuscular toxins
- shock

Further examination and diagnostic testing can reveal:

- dehydration
- anemia
- reduced kidney function
- pulmonary edema
- electrolyte imbalance
- acidosis
- fungal / bacterial / viral infections
- capture myopathy
- other capture-related injuries

Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning , 1995
are also very effective for warming smaller birds; hot
water bottles can also assist in core warming of
larger birds when placed under the wings (i.e., along
the body). Birds can be gradually cooled by lower-
ing the ambient temperature (air conditioners or
indirect fans), or by placing cold water bags in the
cage/holding box--but not directly against the body.
Heavily oiled birds are not permitted free access
to water and food because their oiled bodies
frequently contaminate their source of food and
drinking water. Nutrients are provided subsequent to
the initial rehydration via supplementation of the oral
solution, and tube-feeding is repeated every 4-8
hours until the birds are given free access to food and
water after cleaning.
The birds are kept warm and quiet, away from
people and other stressors. In most circumstances,
the animal is not washed until it is alert, responsive,
and restored to normal fluid balance and body tem-
perature. Efforts are made to stabilize the bird and
wash it within 24 hours.
Once the bird has been stabilized (normal body
temperature, mucosal membranes cleaned, treat-
ments administered for shock or any serious trau-
matic injuries), the physical exam is continued. The
vent is checked for oil and matted feathers which
might lead to cloacal impaction.
Removing the Oil From the Feathers
A bird's abilities to fly and to remain waterproof
are dependent on the interlocking structure of feather
barbs, barbules and barbicels. Oil contamination
disrupts the intricate, complex interlocking network
within feathers; to restore the waterproofing and
insulating properties, oil must be removed from the
feathers without damaging the delicate feather
structure.
Oiled birds cannot be washed unless large
amounts of hot water are available. At least three
hundred gallons of 103-105°F water are needed over
a 20-minute period to wash one duck. This volume
of hot water can only be assured with industrial hot
water heaters. Water over 105°F can harm the bird,
but the water must be above 102°F in order to lift the
oil.
Numerous cleaning agents have been tested for
their ability to remove oil from feathers (Bryndza
1991, Frink 1987). A cleaning agent must be non-
irritating to both animals and humans, and it must be
able to lift the oil and maintain it in suspension. The
cleaning agent must rinse quickly and completely
from the feathers. Very few cleaning agents meet
these criteria. In a series of reproducible, quantifi-
able tests of cleaning agent efficacy, DawnTM
Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning , 1995
dishwashing detergent (Procter & Gamble, Cincin-
nati, OH) has produced the best results (Bryndza
1991).
During major oil spills, many salespersons or
independent peddlers attempt to promote their
products and machines for use in cleaning animals.
Only previously tested and accepted detergents
should be used on oiled animals. Because safe,
effective cleaning agents already exist, product test-
ing or experimentation should not be allowed during
an oil spill response.
Each bird is cleaned by a team of 3 - 4 trained
people in a warm, quiet area, free from drafts. Large
tubs, holding 10 - 20 gallons of a 1% - 8% DawnTM
and water solution at 103 - 105°F are utilized.
The bird is submersed in the tub and gently
restrained to facilitate cleaning. While modifications
are made by species, basic techniques remain the
same.
The bird's head is gently restrained to prevent it
from ducking into the soapy water. The head is held
by grasping the bases of the jaw or, temporarily,
holding the bill. Many water birds have soft bills, so
this hold should be used with caution.
It is not advisable to tape a bird's bill closed
during cleaning. Many seabirds do not have external
nares (nostrils) and can suffocate if their bills are
taped. Even species with external nares may have
difficulty breathing with taped bills because of in-
flammation or oil-plugged nares.
The bird's body is held with feet supported; the
wings are held against the body and are gently
extended only for cleaning.
Soapy water is agitated through the feathers by
hand, systematically addressing every portion of the
bird's body, and concentrating on belly, underwings,
vent, and legs. Washcloths are sometimes used,
stroking the feathers in the direction of feather
growth, to force contact of the detergent solution
with all areas of the feathers.
The head is gently cleaned, using small pieces of
washcloth, a soft toothbrush or dental swabs, and,
depending on the species and type of oil, a Water
PicTM. The eyes are flushed frequently with a sterile
saline solution to ensure that soap and oil do not
damage the corneal surfaces.
When the first tub of water is dirty, the bird is
lifted out of the tub, excess oils and soap are rinsed
from the bird or gently squeezed out, and the bird is
placed in a second tub of cleaning solution. This tub
may contain a lower concentration of cleaning agent.
The entire cleaning process is repeated. As
many as five or six tub washes may be required for
large, heavily oiled birds. Cleaning must be thor-
ough, but efforts should be made to clean animals as
quickly as possible.
When an experienced team member judges the
bird to be free of oil, birds are taken to a rinse
station.
Rinsing Cleaning Agents from the Feathers
After all of the oil is removed from all parts of
the feathers, a bird is completely rinsed with warm
clean water. Since detergents are hydrophylic, and
actually serve as wetting agents, any soapy residue
can impede water-proofing. Rinsing is carried out
with a combination of spray rinses and tubs of clean
water at 103-105°F. The bird is not acceptably rinsed
until beads of water roll freely from the feathers, and
the down feathers begin to fluff up and actually
appear dry. This is the one sign of a successfully
cleaned oiled bird, and is recognized as the end point
in every oiled bird cleaning effort.
The failure to rinse a bird adequately is probably
the most common cause of unsuccessful rehabilita-
tion efforts. Because even minute quantities of oil
can impede waterproofing, all cleaning station
materials are clearly marked. Clean rinse buckets
and hoses are kept separate from buckets and hoses
used to transfer soapy water or waste water.
A newly-rinsed bird is blotted with clean, dry
towels and placed in a clean holding pen to complete
the drying process. The bird should not be returned
to its original housing as that housing is oil-contami-
nated. Tri-State utilizes solid-sided, netting-topped
pens of various sizes ranging upwards to 8 x 8 x 4 ft..
Soft-sided baby playpens are also used to house birds
either singly or in pairs. The pen is lined with sheets
or tightly woven towels and curtained to minimize
human intrusion. Ventilation is provided to individ-
ual pens and/or rooms as needed. Free access to
(and away from) heat lamps allows a bird to find a
comfortable ambient temperature. Cleaned birds, if
warm and not stressed, will usually begin to preen
immediately, and will dry in a short period of time.
Once a bird has been stabilized and cleaned, it is
allowed free access to water and a variety of foods.
The staff monitors the birds to see which ones are
self-feeding. The droppings are checked for the
presence of blood or oil; birds in which blood is
present in the feces, or in which oil persists in the
feces for more than 24 hours, are treated for enteritis
and fed easily-absorbed nutrients by stomach-tube.
Restoration of Waterproofing
Within twenty-four hours of being cleaned, the
birds are allowed to swim. They need free access
into and out of large amounts of water where they
Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning , 1995
can actively swim and preen. Pools must be kept
clean; constant overflow and/or filtration are recom-
mended. A bird can become re-contaminated by oil
and other materials released into the water through
droppings.
Water birds usually take to the water readily;
when they begin to get wet, they leave the water to
preen. As a bird continues its efforts to swim, then
preen, it realigns its feathers to restore the original
feather arrangement. This alignment of the feathers
is what insures the bird's waterproofing. The feather
structure does not require, but is further enhanced by,
the application of preen-gland wax from the bird's
own uropygial gland. The uropygial gland wax
enhances, but is not necessary for water-proofing
(Ridjke 1970). This natural oil seems to assist in
maintaining the feather alignment, much as hair
spray might hold a hairstyle.
Birds which are waterproof will demonstrate the
beading of water on their feathers. They will also be
able to remain in the water, for many hours in the
case of diving birds, without getting wet (both cov-
erts and down feathers should be dry).
Water Hardness as a Determining Factor in
Waterproofing
One vital consideration for diving birds is the
hardness of the rinse and swimming water. While
water of a certain hardness is necessary to facilitate
the rinsing of the detergent from the feathers, water
that is too hard will seriously impede water-proofing.
The mineral salts (calcium and magnesium) in hard
water infiltrate the microscopic feather structure and
prevent the proper realignment of the feathers.
A bird rinsed in hard water will look
well-rinsed; when placed in a swimming pool it will
appear waterproof for a short time, but will gradually
become wetter and wetter, and eventually leave the
water for good. Deposits of mineral salts or gummy
detergent residues in the interstices of the feathers
will prevent the bird from restoring waterproofing,
despite heavy preening and/or swimming. It will be
impossible to restore waterproofing to this bird with-
out a light wash to remove the unseen mineral salts,
followed by a thorough rinse and subsequent pool
swims in water between 2-3 grains of hardness.
After the feathers are restored to their interlocking
positions, they form an impenetrable barrier and
harder water and ocean water do not seem to cause
any problems.
Pelagic species (all diving birds) should be
rinsed in water of 2.5-3.5 grains hardness. The
degree of water-proofing should be evaluated by
observing the birds swimming in sizeable pools. In
these species, waterproofing cannot be evaluated by
lightly spraying a hose on the back of a bird (a suit-
able method for songbirds and raptors).
REHABILITATION
CONSIDERATIONS FOR WILD
ANIMALS
An injured wild animal reacts to the stresses of
captivity differently from a domestic pet, making it
more difficult to treat and decreasing its initial
prognosis. Wildlife rehabilitators and wildlife
veterinarians are familiar with this pattern of re-
sponse to the captive situation and adapt their care
methods accordingly. An oiled bird does not
recognize the good intentions of its caregivers and
may view man as a predator, fearing for its life
throughout its treatment. This fear causes the animal
to produce elevated levels of corticosteroids (such as
norepinephrine, or adrenalin) which assist the animal
in coping with stressful situations but which also
have potentially adverse effects, including the
reduction of the immune system defenses, rendering
the animal vulnerable to secondary diseases. These
natural steroids may be produced as a response to
acute stress such as that experienced during capture,
or to chronic stress, such as the stress of being oiled
for several days. All of these stresses combine to
lower the immune level of the birds and predispose
them to secondary disease.
Acute and chronic stress are not the only
problems inherent in the rehabilitation of wildlife. A
wild bird masks all symptoms of illness or injury,
making it difficult for caregivers to visually evaluate
the animal's true condition. Additionally, many wild
animals do not recognize food in captivity and
special techniques are required to encourage them to
eat. Most have never been confined and can injure
themselves in trying to get out of a cage. Wild
animals, in attempting to defend themselves, can also
cause serious harm to human handlers.
All treatment methods must be geared toward
reducing the stress that the animal is exposed to in
captivity, protecting the handler, and incorporating
special techniques for housing, feeding and evaluat-
ing wild animals. With oil spills, the challenge is
intensified when 50, 100, or 500 injured wild ani-
mals are delivered at once, and each animal is in
need of immediate care. Determining and carrying
out treatment and husbandry protocols for oiled birds
requires experience and technical skills not within
the general expertise of veterinarians and biologists.
At the rehabilitation center, different housing,
pools, dietary needs and general care are provided
according to each species. A Common Loon, a
Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and Contingency Planning , 1995
Great Blue Heron, or a Western Sandpiper each has
special husbandry and treatment needs that an
experienced wildlife rehabilitation staff can address
during the spill response. Specific rehabilitation
needs have been addressed in greater detail
elsewhere (Williams 1982, Welte 1990).
All rehabilitation efforts should comply with the
guidelines of the Minimum Standards for Wildlife
Rehabilitation recommended by the National
Wildlife Rehabilitators Association and the
International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council. In
1993 a committee consisting of wildlife profession-
als from the Department of the Interior, Tri-State
Bird Rescue & Research, Inc., and the International
Bird Rescue Research Center was established to set
guideline and standards for wildlife rehabilitation
after oil spills.
Criteria for Release
A bird that is deemed healthy and waterproof is
slowly exposed to temperatures comparable to
outside weather. This, of course, is more critical in
places and seasons where the outside temperatures
are more extreme.
To be a candidate for release, a rehabilitated bird
should be waterproof, well hydrated, of average
weight for its species and sex, and behaving
normally. It should be adequately muscled so that it
can forage normally in the wild. The bird must
undergo a pre-release examination by an experienced
wildlife veterinarian, and birds with any signs of
disease or debilitation should not be released into
wild populations.
Birds are banded with Fish & Wildlife Service
bands and released early in the day in appropriate,
and oil-free, habitat.
WILDLIFE REHABILITATION
NEEDS IN MAJOR SPILLS
The preceding material discussed the rehabilita-
tion of a single oiled bird. Oil spills which contami-
nate a large number of birds present a greater chal-
lenge. The intense human labor, the immediacy of
the effort, and the need for special equipment (water,
detergent, pools, medication, etc.) require significant
resources and an experienced team to manage both
the resources and the people. A spill involving one
hundred or more birds taxes the resources of even
those of us who like to think we are always prepared
for oil spills.
For example, a facility receiving fifty Canada
geese a day will need: an area 800 feet square for
initial housing of the oiled birds, a second large
enclosed area for washing the birds, a third area for
housing the cleaned birds, and yet another area for
performing physical examinations, administering
medical treatments, and maintaining records.
Additional needs include: a way to produce over
6,000 gallons of 103°F water at 60 psi in one day,
and provisions for legally-acceptable disposal of
1000 gallons of oily waste water daily.
Staff must be fully OSHA-trained and all
volunteers must receive 4-6 hours of OSHA training
and complete right-to-know information.
REFERENCES
1. Albers, P. H. 1977. Effects of external applica-
tions of fuel oil on hatchability of Mallard eggs in
Fate and Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Ma-
rine Ecosystems and Organisms. Wolfe, D.A. (ed.)
Pergamon Press, NY: 158-163.
2. Albers, P. H. 1991. Oil Spills and The Environ-
ment: A Review of Chemical Fate and Biological
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