Chemistry

Notes
C1 – Atoms, Bonding and Moles:

C1.1 – Atomic Structure – (30.09.19):

- Elements contain only one type of atom.

- Compounds contain more than one type of atom.
- Mixtures contain more than one type of atom, though they are not
chemically bonded.
- An atom has a tiny nucleus at its centre, surrounded by electrons.

C1.3 – Separating Mixtures – (30.09.19):

- Filtration = the method of separation of a soluble and insoluble substance

in a solvent.
- Crystallisation = to obtain a sample of pure salt from a salt solution
following filtration.
- Distillation = when a solution is heated to evaporate the solvent, which is
then collected.

C1.6 – Structure of the Atom – (30.09.19):

- Proton -> charge = +1 / Relative mass = 1

- Neutron -> charge = 0 / Relative mass = 1
- Electron -> charge = -1 / Relative mass = 1/2000
- Atomic Number = the number of protons in each atom of an element.
- Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of their atomic
(proton) number.
- Mass Number = the number of Protons plus Neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
C1.6 – Structure of the Atom – (30.11.19): M

- Atoms contain an equal number of protons and electrons and so have no

overall charge.
- Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons and
electrons in their atoms.

C1.7 – Ions, Atoms & Isotopes – (30.11.19): M

- Ion = a charged atom which has lost or gained electrons to become

positive or negative.
- A person has an estimated 7 billion, billion, billions atoms in their body.
- Isotope = an atom of the same element (no. of protons) with a different
number of neutrons.
- Isotopes have identical chemical properties but different physical ones
(e.g. density).

C2 – The Periodic Table:

C2.1 – Development – (09.09.19):

- In 1869, Dimitri Mendeleev composed the ‘Periodic Table’, by

organising the known elements (around 50) into a table categorised by
their atomic weights in a periodic (regular) pattern.

C2.2 – Electronic Structures – (09.09.19):

- Chemical elements are placed in order of their atomic (proton) number;

this arranges them into Groups (vertical columns) with similar properties.
- Group number, in the periodic table, tells you the electron number on the
outermost shell.
- Elements in groups 1 to 3 tend to lose electrons and form negative ions.
- Elements in groups 5 to 7 tend to gain electrons and form positive ions.
They attain the electronic structure of the Noble Gas at the end of their
Period (horizontal rows).
- Group 0 = The Noble Gases (very stable due to their electron
arrangements).

C2.3 – The Alkali Metals – (28.11.19):

 - Group 1 = The Alkali Metals.
- Melting and boiling points decrease moving down the group.
- React with water to produce hydrogen and an alkaline solution containing
metal hydroxide.
- Reactivity increases as you move down the group.

C2.4 – The Halogens – (02.12.19): M

- Group 7 = the Halogens.

- The halogens typically have low melting and boiling points and are poor
conductors.
- They are a group of toxic, non-metals.
- The halogens all have a 7 electron outer shell (highest energy level), they
to gain just one electron by reacting with non-metals to become a stable,
noble gas.
- The reactivity of halogens decreases moving down the group.
- A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen.

C2.5 – Explaining Trends – (02.12.19): M

- As you go down a group, the number of electron shells increases by one

per period, this means that elements lower down can more easily lose
electrons and less easily gain them.

C3 – Structure and Bonding:

C3.1 – States of Matter – (02.12.19): M

- In boiling and melting, energy is transferred from the substance to the

surroundings.
- In freezing and condensing, energy is transferred to the surroundings to
the substance.

C3.2 –Atoms into Ions – (02.12.19): M

- Elements react to form compounds by losing, gaining or sharing

electrons.
- Group 1 elements react with those in group 7, giving an electron to form
a stable, noble gas.
- Sodium reacts with chloride to form stable sodium chloride.
C3.3 – Ionic Bonding – (02.12.19): M

- Ionic Bonding = when ionic compounds are held together by the strong
forces of attraction between their oppositely charge ions.

C3.4 – Giant Ionic Structures – (02.12.19): M

- Ionic bonds operate in all directions and are very hard to break.
- Ionic compound have very high melting points and are solids at room
temperature.
- Molten or dissolved ionic compounds conduct electricity as ions become
mobile.

C3.5 –Covalent Bonding – (02.12.19): M

- Covalent Bonds are formed when atoms of non-metals share pairs of

electrons with each other (E.g. Water  2x Hydrogen atoms with 1
electron each + Oxygen with 6 electrons.)
- Atoms share an outer shell to achieve the atomic structure of a noble gas
(stable).

C3.6 – Structure of Simple Molecules – (02.12.19): M

- The forces between molecules bonded together by a very strong covalent

bond tend to be weak; therefore these substances have low melting and
boiling points.
- Simple molecules have no overall charge and cannot carry electrical
charge.

C3.7 – Giant Covalent Structures – (02.12.19): M

- Graphite contains giant layers of covalently bonded carbon atoms,

however, there are no bonds between layers so they slide over each other
- this is how a pencil works.
- Graphite can conduct electricity due to the delocalised electrons that
move between layers.
- Diamond has a rigid covalent structure of carbon atoms; this makes it
very hard.

C3.8 – Fullerenes and Graphene – (02.12.19): M

 - Fullerenes = large, hollow, cage like structures and tubes formed of
hexagonal rings of covalently bonded carbon atoms.
- Fullerenes can be used as catalysts and to reinforce composite materials.
- Graphene = a single layer of graphite (one atom thick) which is a great
electrical conductor.

C3.9 – Bonding in Metals – (02.12.19): M

- Atoms in metals are closely packed and arranged in regular layers.

- Metals are a lattice of positively charged ions surrounded by a ‘Sea of
Delocalised Electrons’.

C3.10 – Giant Metallic Structures – (02.12.19): M

- Alloy = a mixture of two or more elements where at least one is a metal.

- Metals can be bent and shaped (malleable) as layers of ions slide over
each other.
- Alloys are harder than metals as the regular atomic layers are distorted.
- The Delocalised Electrons in a metallic structure allow thermal and
electrical electricity to be transferred easily throughout the substance.

C4 – Chemical Calculations:

C4.1 – Relative Mass and Moles – (02.12.19): M

- Mole = the relative atomic mass in grams of a substance.

- Number of Moles = Mass (g) / Relative Atomic (or formula) Mass.
- ‘Relative Formula Mass’ of a compound is the sum of the Atomic Masses
of its elements.

C4.2 – Equations and Calculations (Higher Tier) – (02.12.19): M

- The above calculation can be rearranged to find any of the variables.

C4.3 – From Masses to Balanced Equations (Higher Tier) - (02.12.19): M

- Limiting Reactant = the one that is used up first and is not in excess.
- The amount of product produced in a reaction is determined by quantity
of a limiting reactant.

C4.4 – Expressing Concentrations – (02.12.19): M

 - Concertation (g/dm3) = Amount of Solute / Volume of Solution
(g/dm3).
- Concentration can be increase by adding more solute or evaporating off
some water.

C5 – Chemical Changes:

C5.1 – The Reactivity Series – (23.09.19):

- Metals are placed in order of reactivity by their reactions with dilute acid
and water.
- Hydrogen is given off during these reactions and can be identified by the
‘squeaky pop test’.
- The Reactivity Series:

C5.2 – Displacement Reactions – (30.11.19): M

- A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its aqueous
solution.
- OIL RIG – ‘Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain’.

C5.3 – Extracting Metals – (30.11.19): M

- A metal ore contains enough of a metal to make it economical to extract

it.
- The oxides of the metals below carbon in the reactivity series can be
reduced by carbon to give the metal element.
- Metals above carbon must be extracted by the electrolysis of their molten
metal compounds.

C5.4 – Salts from Metals – (30.11.19): M

 - Metal + Acid  A Salt + Hydrogen.
- The metal must be above hydrogen in the reactivity series for this
reaction to take place.
- The salt can be crystallised after this reaction via filtering and
evaporation.
- During this reaction, the metal is oxidised and the hydrogen is reduced.

C5.5 – Salts from insoluble Bases – (30.11.19): M

- Neutralisation = Acid + Base  A Salt + Water.

- A pure, sample of the salt made in an acid – base reaction can be
crystallised by filtering and evaporating off any solution (water).

C5.6 – Making More Salts – (30.11.19): M

- Acid + Alkali  A Salt + Water.

- A Carbonate + Acid  A Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide.

C5.7 – Neutralisation and the pH Scale – (30.11.19): M

- Acids = Substances which produce H+(aq) ions when you add them to
water.
- Bases = Substances which neutralise acids (metal oxides / hydroxides).
- Alkali = a soluble hydroxide which produces OH-(aq) ions when added to
water.

C5.8 – Strong and Weak Acids (Higher Tier) – (30.11.19): M

- Strong Acids (Hydrochloric, Nitric and Sulfuric) have a lower pH than

the same concentration of Weak Acids (Ethanoic, Citric and Carbonic).
- As the pH of a solution decreases, the hydrogen ion concentration of the
solution increases.

C6 – Electrolysis:

C6.1 – Introduction to Electrolysis – (07.10.19):

- Electrolysis = when an electric current is used to break down an ionic

compound.
- To set up an electrolysis circuit, two electrodes are dipped separately into
an electrolyte.
 - Anode = positive electrode.
- Cathode = negative electrode.
- The electrodes are often made of unreactive (inert) materials, e.g.
graphite / platinum.
- During electrolysis, negatively charged ions move to the anode (positive
electrode) and positively charged ions move to the cathode (negative
electrode) as opposite charges attract.
- When ions reach electrodes, they lose their charge and become elements.
- Ionic compounds can only be electrolysed when they are molten or
dissolved in water (aqueous), as this makes their ions free to move around
and carry charge to electrodes.

C6.2 – Changes at the Electrodes – (07.10.19): M

- OIL RIG – Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain.

- At the Anode (positive electrode), negative ions are oxidised.
- At the Cathode (negative electrode), positive ions are reduced.
- During the Electrolysis of an aqueous solution, the less reactive element
is usually produced at the cathode, whilst oxygen or a halogen is
produced at the anode.

C6.3 – The Extraction of Aluminium – (07.10.19): M

- Aluminium oxide is electrolysed in the extraction of Aluminium metal.

- Aluminium forms at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.
- Carbon anodes are replaced regularly as they gradually burn away
reacting with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas.

 C6.4 – Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions – (07.10.19): M

- The electrolysis of sodium chloride solution (brine), gives off chlorine

and hydrogen gas at the electrodes as well as sodium hydroxide solution.

C7 – Energy Changes:

C7.1 - Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions – (16.09.19):

- Exothermic Reaction = One in which energy from the reacting chemicals

is transferred to the surroundings, creating a rise in temperature.
 - Endothermic Reaction = One in which energy from the surroundings is
transferred to the reacting chemicals, recording a decrease in temperature.
- Exothermic reactions include combustion and neutralisation between
acids and alkalis.
- Endothermic reactions are much less common that Exothermic reactions.
- Endothermic reactions include thermal decomposition and the reaction
between citric acid and sodium hydrogen-carbonate.

C7.2 – Using Energy Transferred from Reactions – (16.09.19):

- Chemical body warmers and self-heating cans utilise exothermic

reactions.
- Endothermic changes can be used in instant cold packs for sporting
injuries.

C7.3 – Reaction Profiles – (28.10.19):

- The difference between energy levels is the energy change measured in

KJ/mol.
- In Exothermic energy is taken in and in Endothermic it’s released.
- Activation Energy = minimum energy needed to give colliding particles
sufficient energy to cause a reaction – the rise is often higher than overall
energy change.

C7.4 – Bond Energy Calculations (Higher Tier) – (11.11.19):

- There is a balance between the energy needed to break bonds and the
energy released when new bonds are made in a reaction; this determines
whether a reaction is Exo / Endothermic.
 - Bond Energy = the energy needed to break the bond between two atoms
(KJ/mol).
- Using bond energies, you can calculate the energy required for a reaction
to take place.

C8 – Rates and Equilibrium:

C8.1 – Rates and Equilibrium – (20.01.20):

- Rate of reaction is found by how quickly reactants are used up or

products are produced.
- The gradient of a line at any point (tangent) on a graph is the rate of
reaction at that point.

C8.2 –Collision Theory and Surface Area – (20.01.20):

- Increasing the surface area to volume ratio of a solid reactant increases

the rate of reaction.
- This is because the frequency of particle collisions between the reactants
is greater.

C8.3 – The Effect of Temperature - (20.01.20):

- Increasing temperature will increase the rate of reaction as particles gain

kinetic energy, this means that particle collisions between the reactants
will be more frequent and energised.

C8.4 – The Effect of Concentration and Pressure - (20.01.20):

- Increasing the concentration increases the rate of reaction as collisions are

more frequent.
- Increasing the pressure increases the rate of reaction as collisions are
more frequent.

C8.5 – The Effect of Catalysts - (20.01.20):

- Catalysts speed up the rate of reaction but are not used up during the
reaction.
- Catalysts decrease the activation energy needed for particles to react, as a
result, a higher proportion of particle collisions have enough energy to
react and are successful.
 - Catalyst are used wherever possible in industries to reduce costs.

C8.6 – Reversible Reactions - (10.02.20):

- A reversible reaction is one were the products can react to form the
original reactants.
- Heating blue copper sulphate crystals gives off steam and the crystals
turn white, if they are then cooled and water is added then they return to
their original colour – this is an example.

C8.7 – Energy & Reversible Reactions - (10.02.20):

- In a reversible reaction, one direction is exothermic and one is

endothermic with both transferring exactly the same amount of energy to
and from the surroundings.

C8.8 – Dynamic Equilibrium - (10.02.20):

- During a reversible reaction, in a closed system, the forward reaction

slows down as there are less reactants and more products and so the
backwards reaction speeds up.
- Eventually, the reactions are happening at the same time / rate, this is a
state of equilibrium.
- A ‘Dynamic Equilibrium’ is constantly reacting but in a balanced state.
- E.g. The Haber process = hydrogen + nitrogen  ammonia.

C8.9 – Altering Conditions Higher Tier - (16.02.20):

- Increasing the pressure on a reversible reaction at equilibrium will cause

the position of equilibrium to shift to the side with the smaller number of
molecules and decreasing pressure will cause it to shift to the side with
the larger number of molecules.
- If the reactants and products have the same number of molecules,
changing pressure has no effect on the position of equilibrium.
- Increasing concentration on one side will cause the position of
equilibrium to shift towards the other as more of the other side will need
to be produced.
- If temperature is increased, equilibrium will shift in the direction the
endothermic reaction is going so that more energy is taken in.
 - If temperature in decreased, it will shift in the direction of that the
exothermic reaction is going to increase temperature as more energy is
given off.

C9 – Crude Oil and Fuels:

C9.1 – Hydrocarbons – (16.02.20):

- Crude Oil is a finite resource formed millions of years ago from the
remains of tiny, ancient sea animals and plants (mainly plankton) that has
become a dark, smelly liquid.
- Nearly all the compounds in crude oil contain only hydrogen and carbon
atoms – these compounds are called Hydrocarbons.
- As compounds in crude oil are mixed together and not chemically
bonded, they can be separated by distillation into their fractions
(substances with similar boiling points).
- Alkanes = saturated hydrocarbons containing as many hydrogen atoms as
possible – the formula for alkanes is: CnH(2n+2).

C9.2 – Fractional Distillation of Oils – (16.02.20):

- Short chain hydrocarbons tend to be most useful; they make good fuels
and burn well with less smoky flames than longer chain hydrocarbons.
- Short chain hydrocarbons have a lower boiling point than long chains.
- Short chain hydrocarbons have a higher viscosity (tendency to turn into a
gas).
- Short chains also have a lower viscosity (thickness / runniness).
- Fractionating Column:
C9.3 – Burning Hydrocarbon Fuels – (24.02.20):

- During the incomplete combustion of a fuel, when not enough air /

oxygen is present (e.g. in a car engine), toxic carbon monoxide forms
instead of carbon dioxide.
- You can test that the correct gases form in the complete combustion of a
hydrocarbon:
- Water turns blue litmus paper pink.
- Carbon dioxide turns limewater cloudy.

C9.4 – Cracking Hydrocarbons – (24.02.20):

- The heavier fractions of crude oil are not in high demand as they are thick
and hard to burn.
- Cracking = where long chain hydrocarbons are broken down into shorter
chain hydrocarbons.
- During this process: the heavy fraction is heated to vaporise the
hydrocarbons. The vapour is then passed over a hot catalyst or mixed
with steam and heated to an even higher temperature. The hydrocarbons
are cracked as thermal decomposition takes place.
- Cracking produces saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) and non-saturated
hydrocarbons (alkenes) which turn orange bromine water colourless.
- Formula for alkenes = CnH2n.
C10 – Chemical Analysis:

C10.1 – Pure Substances and Mixtures – (02.03.20):

- Pure elements and compounds can be identified by their specific melting

and boiling points.
- Formulations = useful mixtures made in defined proportions designed to
give a product the best possible properties to carry out its specific
function.

C10.2 – Analysing Chromatograms – (02.03.20):

- Scientists analyse unknown substances in a solution using paper

chromatography.
- Retention Factor (Rf) values are measured and matched to identify
specific substances.
- Rf = Distanced moved by substance / distance moved by solvent.

C10.3 – Testing for Gases – (02.03.20):

- Positive test for hydrogen = lighted splint makes a squeaky ‘pop’.

- Positive test for oxygen = glowing splint relights.
- Positive test for carbon dioxide = limewater turns milky (cloudy white).
- Positive test for chlorine = damp blue litmus paper turns white (gets
bleached).

C11 – The Earth’s Atmosphere:

C11.1 – History of Our Atmosphere – (09.03.20):

- Scientists have reconstructed theories about what they think the earth’s
initial atmosphere must have looked like based on evidence found in gas
bubbles trapped in ancient rocks.
- The Earth’s early atmosphere was formed by volcanic activity.
- This original atmosphere consisted mostly of Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
nitrogen, water vapour, plus traces of methane and ammonia.
- Oxygen is believed to have been produced when simple organisms, like
algae, evolved to photosynthesise – this allows more organisms to thrive
and evolve.
- Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H1206 + 602.
C11.2 – Our Evolving Atmosphere – (09.03.20):

- The Earth’s original atmosphere is believed to have contained mostly

Carbon Dioxide.
- Today C02 makes up just 0.04% of our atmosphere.
- This is because it has been mostly absorbed by photosynthesising
organisms.
- Much of the C02 has also become trapped in rocks and the sea in different
forms.
- Ammonia and methane was removed from the atmosphere as it reacted
with oxygen.
- Today approximately 80% = Nitrogen and 20% = Oxygen.
- There are also small proportions of C02, water vapour and noble gases.