Roberto’s Notes on Integral Calculus

Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13

The method of partial fractions

Preparation steps
What you need to know already: What you can learn here:
 Indefinite integrals and basic integration  The preparatory steps for the method of partial
formulae. fractions.

By using the method of substitution or an appropriate inverse substitution, you


can verify the following formulae.
x 1
 dx  c
  
n 1
a2  x 2 n
2 1  n  a 2  x 2
Knot on your finger

1
Finally, the integral dx can be

If a is any real number: n
a2  x2


1
 dx  ln a  x  c computed by using an inverse substitution and a
ax power reduction formula, although this can lead to a
lengthy solution.

a
1 1 x
 dx  tan 1  c
2
x 2
a a
Moreover, if n  1 is a positive integer: We can?


1 1 Yes, and, as a warm up exercise, you should check them all!
 dx  c
a  x 1  n  a  x 
n n1 Notice that the integrand in all of the above integrals is a rational function, that
is, a ratio of two polynomials. Rational functions are the next simplest functions
after polynomials and all polynomials are easy to integrate, so it would be interesting
to find a method to integrate any rational function.

Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 1
And I assume that such a general method exists, right?
The answer is a very firm “yes, but not quite!” By that I mean that there is Strategy for the
method, but it only works theoretically, since one of its main steps cannot always be
implemented in practice. Let’s see how this comes about, starting from its name. method of partial fractions
To integrate a rational function:
Definition 1. Put it in the form of a polynomial plus a proper
fraction.
The method of partial fractions 2. Factor the denominator of the proper fraction
completely.
The method of partial fractions is aimed at
computing the general antiderivative of a rational 3. Split the fraction by reversing the common
function, that is, an indefinite integral of the type: denominator procedure.
a p x p  a p 1 x p 1  ...  a1x  a0

4. Integrate the polynomial and each individual
q 1
dx
bq x  bq 1x
q
 ...  b1x  b0 fraction by using basic integration methods.

And how does that work?
It is a rather convoluted process, and we shall examine its details over four
sections. As the name says, the general idea of the method is to split the function
into small fractions that are easy to integrate. In fact, we will split any rational
function into a sum of terms each looking like one of the integrands in the list of the
previous page.
There are many details to look at and some new – or revisited – terminology,
but once it is all in place and you will have practiced enough with it, the method will
appear in its simplicity.
As a starting point of reference, here is an outline of the whole procedure.
The list of integrals of the previous page – plus what we know about integrating
polynomials – address the last step. In this section we’ll deal with the first two steps,
while the third will be addressed in the next three.
To implement the first step we need to know what a proper fraction is.
Definition
A rational function is a proper fraction if the degree
of the numerator is lower than the degree of the
denominator.

Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 2
 Example: x5  3x  1
Example: f  x  
The function f  x  
x2  5
is a proper fraction, since 2  5 .
x2  5
x5  3x  1 To apply long division to this function, we begin by setting up the division:
x  3x  1
5
x 2  5 x5  3x  1
The function f  x   is not a proper fraction for the same
x2  5
reason! Notice that I placed the terms of both polynomials in decreasing order of
power. Notice also that the numerator is missing some powers, but we may
need them in the process, so we reserve some space for them:
x 2  5 x5  0 x 4  0 x3  0 x 2  3x  1
Why is this important?
Because the third step of the procedure works well in general only for proper 5
Now we divide the highest power term of the numerator, which is x , by the
fractions. However, implementing the first step of the strategy, thus being left with a
proper fraction, is fairly simple. highest power term in the denominator, which is x 2 . We use the resulting
quotient of x 3 as the first term of the quotient:
x3
Partial fractions strategy, step 1: x 2  5 x5  0 x 4  0 x3  0 x 2  3x  1
Write the function as a polynomial Now we multiply this new term by each term of the denominator and place
plus a proper fraction each of the products under the corresponding power of the numerator:
x3
If the rational function to be integrated is not a proper
fraction, use long division or other algebraic methods x 2  5 x5  0 x 4  0 x3  0 x 2  3x  1
to change it into the sum of a polynomial and a x5  5 x3
proper fraction.
Now we subtract these products from the original denominator and focus on
the remainder:
x3
You may want to refresh your memory on how to do long division of x 2  5 x5  0 x 4  0 x3  0 x 2  3x  1
polynomials. You can do that by using your old notes, or watching the video linked
here (and any other related videos showing up), or the written document linked here, x5  5 x3
or any other resource you can find.
0 5 x3  3x  1
In any case, for your convenience, here is one example of how to do it.
Now repeat the same procedure. This time, we divide the highest power term
of the remainder, which is 5x3 , by the highest power term in the
Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 3
 2
denominator, which is always x . We use the resulting quotient of 5x as
the second term of the quotient: x5  2 x3  5
Example:
x3  5 x x3  1
x 2  5 x5  0 x 4  0 x3  0 x 2  3x  1 We can use long division, but we are going instead to add and subtract a term
in the numerator:
x5  5 x3
 
3 2 3

x5  2 x3  5 x5  x 2  x 2  2 x3  5 x x  1  x  2 x  5
2

0 5x 3
 3x  1 x3  1 x3  1 x3  1
Next we multiply this new term by each term of the denominator, place each Now we have on top the same factor as the bottom, but to cancel it we have to
of the products under the corresponding power of the remainder and subtract first split the fraction:
  x
like terms to get a new remainder:
x 2 x3  1 2
 2 x3  5 2 x3  x 2  5
x3  5 x   x 2

x3  1 x3  1 x3  1
x 2  5 x5  0 x 4  0 x3  0 x 2  3x  1
We can do this again, but in a slightly different way: we’ll split the constant:
x5  5 x3
2 x3  x 2  2  3 2 x3  2 x 2  3 x2  3
 x2   x 2
   x 2
 2 
0 5x 3
 3x  1 x3  1 x3  1 x3  1 x3  1
5x 3
 25 x And this is a polynomial plus a proper fraction.
0 22 x  1
At this point the remainder has degree lower than the denominator, so we can
Now that we can restrict our efforts to rational functions in proper form, we’ll
stop the process and conclude that:
shift our attention to the denominator.
x5  3x  1 22 x  1
f  x   x3  5x  2
x 5
2
x 5
Notice that we have written the original function as the sum of a polynomial Partial fractions strategy, step 2:
part, which can be easily integrated, and a rational function in proper form on
which we shall focus from now on. Factor the denominator
To prepare a proper rational function for integration,
There are other methods to obtain this split and they involve adding-and- factor its denominator into a product of linear and
subtracting and/or factoring. They can be useful and effective in special situations, irreducible quadratic factors.
but I suggest you become familiar with the long division approach for the moment,
as it will work in a systematic way in all cases, and it is a good mathematical
technique to know any way!
You make it sound easy, but can that always be done?
Here is an example of such different methods, so that you know what I am
referring to and so that you can use it, if you so wish.

Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 4
 Here is where a firm “yes, but not quite!” comes in. By now, you have seen
several basic factoring methods (you may want to refresh your memory on them),
but they don’t seem to always work. So, can this step always be accomplished?
The theoretical answer is yes, according to a very important mathematical fact.
Technical fact: the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Every polynomial with real coefficients can be
factored into a product of linear and irreducible
(meaning, non-factorable) quadratic factors.
The proof of this very important fact is beyond the scope of this course and
requires advanced mathematical methods. If you are curious, the internet will
provide several resources that explain some aspects of the proof. What it tells us is
that the factorization we need is possible theoretically.
But?
But it does not tell us how to achieve it, and there are not enough methods to
actually do it!
22 x  1
Example: f  x  
x2  5
The denominator of this function can be written as:
  
x2  5  x  5 x  5
which is the product of two linear factors.
Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods
22 x  1
Example: f  x  
x3  8
By using a difference of cubes formula, the denominator of this function can
be written as:

x3  8   x  2  x 2  2 x  4 
which is the product of a linear factor and an irreducible quadratic factor.
The quadratic formula tells us that it is irreducible: no roots!
Unfortunately, it is a well known fact of mathematics that there are no general
formulae for factoring polynomials of degree higher than 4. Mind you, I am not
saying that we have not found them yet, but that there cannot be such formulae!
Therefore, given any polynomial in the denominator of our rational function, we
know that a factorization into linear and quadratic factors exists, but we may not
know how to get it.
x2  5
Example: f  x   5
x  3x  1
The denominator of this proper rational function is a polynomial of degree 5
and, according to the FTA, it is factorable. But how? There is no formula
that allows us to get the exact factorization, so we cannot continue with the
method we are constructing! 
That is why the method of partial fractions allows the integration of all rational
functions only theoretically: if the factorization we need cannot be accomplished, we
are stuck! But take heart: this factorization will be possible, and easily, in all tests!
I would hope so! But what is this factorization good for?
We shall see that in the next three sections. For now, make sure to be clear and
proficient with the first two steps, by doing as many practice questions as you need,
both from this section and any other resource you can find..
Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 5
 Summary
 In order to integrate a rational function, we need to prepare the function first, by reducing to proper form with long division, and by splitting it into smaller fractions with a
reversal of the common denominator process.
 An important technical fact, known as the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (FTA) assures that this preparation can always be done theoretically, but the lack of methods to
factor high degree polynomials prevents us from implementing in practice.

Common errors to avoid

 Practice enough with long division and with factoring polynomials, so as to be able to do both steps correctly.

Learning questions for Section I 2-13

Review questions:

1. Explain what it means to put a rational fraction in proper form. 2. Describe how to perform long division of polynomials.

Memory questions:

1. Which is the first step of the method of partial fractions? a

4. Present an antiderivative of y  .
2. Which major theorem of algebra assures us that any polynomial is the product of
 x  b 2
repeated linear and irreducible quadratic factors?
a
5. Present an antiderivative of y  .
3. Present an antiderivative of y 
a
.
x  b2
2

xb
6. Which algebraic method is reversed when integrating by partial fractions?

Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 6
 Computation questions:
In questions 1-4, write the given rational functions in proper form.

x4  2 x 1 x4
1. 3.
x3  x x3  1

x2  4 x3  2 x 2  2 x
2. 4.
x2  4 x3  2 x 2  3x

Theory questions:

1. Can the method of partial fractions be used always in theory, in practice, both or 3. When can the method of partial fractions be used to integrate a function that is
neither? not rational?

2. What is the role of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra in the method of 4. Are there formulae to solve a polynomial equation of degree 5?
partial fractions?

Proof questions:

1. Prove all the integration formulae provided on the first page by using one of the methods presented in the previous sections of this chapter.

Templated questions:

1. Construct a rational function whose numerator has a higher degree than the denominator and then put it in proper form.

Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 7
 What questions do you have for your instructor?

Integral Calculus Chapter 2: Integration methods Section 13: The method of partial fractions, preparation steps Page 8