Optical Fiber Communications

Prepared by Dr. Po Kimtho

Electricity and Electronic Engineering
Norton University

1
 Brief Information
• Education Background:
– Ing. in Electrical Engineering, Institute of Technology of
Cambodia (ITC)
– Master of Engineering (M. Eng.) in Electrical Engineering ,
Chulalongkorn University (CU), Thailand
– Doctor of Engineering (D. Eng) in International Development
Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology (TIT)
• Place of work:
– Institute of Technology of Cambodia, since 2000
• Contact Address:
– Mobile Phone: 017 89 45 46
– Email: pokimtho@gmail.com
 Analog Optical Link

• Main parameters:
– CNR (carrier to noise ratio)
– Nonlinearities of transmission system  signal distortion
– Modulation techniques
• AM, FM and SCM (subcarrier multiplexing)
– Applications of analog fiber optic system:
• Subscriber services using hybrid fiber/coax (HFC)
– Cable television (CATV) and video distribution
 Carrier and Noise Powers
• Carrier power:
1 𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝐶 = (𝑚ℛ0 𝑀𝑃)2 where 𝑚 =
2 𝑃𝑡
• Photodiode noise power
𝑖𝑁 2 = 𝜎𝑁 2 ~2𝑞 𝐼𝑃 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑀2 𝐹 𝑀 𝐵
• Preamplifier noise power
2 2
4𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑖 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑇 ~ 𝐵𝐹𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑞
• Relative intensity noise (RIN) power:
2
𝑖𝑅𝐼𝑁 2 = 𝜎𝑅𝐼𝑁 2 = 𝑅𝐼𝑁(ℛ0 𝑃)2 𝐵, where 𝑅𝐼𝑁 = (Δ𝑃𝐿 )2 / 𝑃𝐿
• CNR
1
𝐶 (𝑚ℛ0 𝑀𝑃)2
= 2
𝑁 𝑅𝐼𝑁(ℛ 𝑃)2 𝐵 + 2𝑞 𝐼 + 𝐼 𝑀2 𝐹 𝑀 𝐵 + 4𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐵𝐹
0 𝑃 𝐷 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑡
 Carrier to Noise Ratio
• CNR limiting
conditions:
– @ low 𝑃𝑅 
Preamplifier
(thermal) noise
dominates
– @intermediate
𝑃𝑅 Quantum
(shot) noise
dominates
– @ high 𝑃𝑅  RIN
dominates
Increase CNR limit by increase m
Multichannel Transmission Techniques

• N signals are frequency division multiplexed (FDM) and used to modulate a single
optical source
𝑁 2
• The optical modulation index 𝑚 of 𝑁 channels is 𝑚 = 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
• Nonlinear device produces intermodulation products:
• Triple-beat IM products: 𝑓𝑇𝐵 = 𝑓𝑖 + 𝑓𝑗 − 𝑓𝑘
– Concentrate in the middle of channel bandpass
• Two tone third order IM products: 𝑓𝑇𝑇 = 2𝑓𝑖 − 𝑓𝑗
– Evenly spread over the channel bandpass
WDM Transmission Windows
• WDM channels must be
properly spaced to avoid
interchannel interference
• ITU-T Recommendation G.692:
channel frequency grid
# Ch =100
∆𝜆 = 80 𝑛𝑚 # Ch =150
referenced to 193.100 THz
∆𝜆 = 120 𝑛𝑚 (1552.524 nm) and 100 GHz (0.8
nm at 1552 nm) spacing
• WDM channel spacing
𝑐
conversion: Δ𝜈 = Δ𝜆
𝜆2
 WDM System and Components

• Capacity upgrade:
– Network capacity increases # WDM channels, easy to upgrade
• Transparency:
– Each 𝜆 can support an independent network and carry different data formats over same fiber.
• Wavelength routing:
– Using multiple 𝜆 adds another dimension to the time and space in designing network routing
• Wavelength switching
– Allows reconfigurations of optical layer and network topology, but requires key components.
 WDM System and Components
• For implementing WDM various passive and active components are
required to combine, distributed, isolated and to amplify optical
power at different wavelength.
• Passive components are mainly used to split or combine optical
signals. These components in optical domains. Passive components
don’t need external control for their operation. Passive components
are fabricated by using optical fibers by planar optical waveguides
• Commonly required passive components are
1. NxN couplers
2. Power spliters
3. Power taps
4. Star couplers
• Most passive components are derived from basic star coupler
• A device with two inputs and two output is called as 2x2 coupler.
 Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
Requirements • Passive Optical Components
• Multiplexer – Optical fiber coupler
– Low excess and insertion losses – Waveguide couple
• Demultiplexer – Mach-Zehnder interferometer
(MZI) multiplexer
– Narrow spectral bandpass with
sharp wavelength cutoffs – Fiber grating filter
• An acceptable interchannel crosstalk – Phased arrayed based WDM device
level of -30 dB • Fundamental technologies
– Optical fibers
0 dB level relative to the input power – Integrated optical waveguides
– Bulk micro-optics
Power Amplitude, dB

Excess and insertion losses

3 dB drop

3 dB BW Bandpass profile
of a Demux’s
output port

𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3
 2x2 Optical Fiber Couplers
This fused fiber coupler is also
known as a directional coupler

𝑃2
• Splitting ratio or coupling ratio = × 100%
𝑃1 +𝑃2
𝑃0
• Excess loss = 10log • Splitting ratio: the percentage division of optical power
𝑃1 +𝑃2 between the output ports
• Excess loss: the ratio of the input power to the total
𝑃
• Insertion loss = 10log 𝑖 output power
• Insertion loss: the loss for a particular port to port path
𝑃𝑗
• Crosstalk: measure the degree of isolation between the
𝑃3
• Back scatter crosstalk = 10log input at one port and the optical power scatted or
reflected back into the other input port.
𝑃0
 Example
• A 2x2 biconical tapered fiber coupler has an input
optical power level of P0=200 uW. The output
powers at the other three ports are P1=90uW,
P2=85 uW and P3=6.3nW. Determine coupling
ratio, excess loss, insertion loss and crosstalk
– Coupling ratio = 48.5%
– Excess loss = 0.58 dB
– Insertion loss:
• Port 0 to 1 = 3.47 dB
• Port 0 to 2 =3.72 dB
– Crosstalk = -45 dB
Coupled Power Dependence
• Assuming a lossless coupler, by
conservation of power
• 𝑃2 = 𝑃0 sin2 𝑘𝑧
• 𝑃1 = 𝑃0 − 𝑃2 = 𝑃0 cos 2 𝑘𝑧
• Where 𝑘 is coupling coefficient
describing the interaction between
the fields in the two fibers.

• Coupled power depend on:

– Coupler draw length 𝑘𝑧
– Wavelength of coupled power
• Because 𝑘 varies with 𝜆

1300/1550 nm power coupler

 Scattering Matrix S

𝑏1 𝑠11 𝑠12 𝑎1
• = 𝑠 where coupling coefficient 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = |𝑠𝑖𝑗 |exp(j𝜙𝑖𝑗 )
𝑏2 21 𝑠22 𝑎2
represents optical power transfer from input port 𝑖 to output port 𝑗
• Reciprocity condition: 𝑠12 = 𝑠21
• Lossless condition: 𝐼0 = 𝑏 ∗1 𝑏1 + 𝑏 ∗ 2 𝑏2 = 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑎∗1 𝑎1 + 𝑎∗ 2 𝑎2
(sum of output intensity = sum of input intensity)
1−𝜖 𝑗 𝜖
• Example S =
𝑗 𝜖 1−𝜖
 Example
• Assume we have a 3-dB coupler, so that half
input power gets coupled to the second fiber.
Then 𝜖 = 0.5 and the output field intensities
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡,1 and 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡,2 can be found from the input
intensities 𝐸𝑖𝑛,1 and 𝐸𝑖𝑛,2 and the scattering
matrix. Determined the scattering matrix 𝑆
and the out put power 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡,1 and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡,2
 2x2 Planar Waveguide Coupler
Symmetric/asymmetric couplers
 Coupler Power Distribution
• Power distribution vs guide length
• In real waveguide with
the absorption and
scattering losses:
• 𝑃2 = 𝑃0 sin2 𝑘𝑧 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧
• Where 𝛼 is optical loss
coefficient in waveguide
• Complete power transfer
to 2nd guide occurs when
𝜋
𝐿 = (𝑚 + 1) with
2𝑘
𝑚 = 0,1,2, … .
 Example
• A symmetric waveguide coupler has a
coupling coefficient 𝑘 = 0.6𝑚𝑚−1 . Find the
coupling length 𝐿 for 𝑚 = 1.

– 𝐿 = 5.24 𝑚𝑚
 NxN Star Couplers
• Star coupler
– Combine powers
from N inputs &
divide them equally
among N output

4x4 fused fiber star coupler fabricated by

twisting, heating, and pulling on four
A single input power 𝑃𝑖𝑛 and 𝑁 output
fibers to fuse them together

Total loss = splitting loss +

excess loss
Splitting loss =10log𝑁
Fiber star excess loss =
10log(𝑃𝑖𝑛 / 𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑖 )
 NxN Star Couplers
8x8 star coupler by cascading
twelve 2x2 couplers

• Modularity limitation: 𝑁 = 2𝑛 with integer 𝑛 ≥ 1

𝑁
• #3 dB couplers needed is 𝑁𝑐 = log 2 𝑁
2
• Excess loss = −10 log 𝐹𝑇 log2 N ,
• Where 𝐹𝑇 traversing power fraction for each 3 dB coupler
• Total loss = splitting loss + excess loss =
− 10 log 𝐹𝑇 log2 N /𝑁 = 10(1 − 3.322log𝐹𝑇 ) log𝑁,
 Problem
• Consider a commercially available 32x32
single mode coupler made from a cascade of 3
dB fused fiber 2x2 couplers, where 5% of
power is lost in each element. Find the excess
loss and splitting loss.
 Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
Multiplexer

• 2x2 MZI consists of 3 stages:

– 3 dB power splitter MZI is used to make wavelength
– Phase shifter dependent multiplexers. These devices
2𝜋𝑛1 2𝜋𝑛2 can be either active or passive.
• ∆𝜙 = 𝜆
𝐿 − 𝜆
𝐿 + ∆𝐿
• Case: 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
2𝜋𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
• ∆𝜙 = 𝜆
∆𝐿 = 𝑘∆L
– 3 dB power combiner
 MZI Multiplexer
The condition of multiplexer (all the input powers to leave the same output port):
1 1
(𝑘1 −𝑘2 )Δ𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 − Δ𝐿 = 𝜋
𝜆1 𝜆2
Interferometer length difference
−1
1 1 𝑐
Δ𝐿 = 2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 − =
𝜆1 𝜆2 2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 Δ𝜐
where Δ𝜐 is the frequency separation of the two wavelength.
• 4 channel 𝜆 multiplexer using 2x2 MZI elements
𝑐
Δ𝐿1 = Δ𝐿2 =
2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 (2Δ𝜐)
𝑐
Δ𝐿3 = 2Δ𝐿1 =
2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 (Δ𝜐)
 Example
• Assume that the input wavelength of a 2x2
silicon MZI are separated by 10 GHz. With
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1.5 in a silicon waveguide
a. Find Δ𝐿
b. If the frequency separation is 130 GHz, find Δ𝐿.
Ans.
Δ𝐿 = 10mm
Δ𝐿 = 0.77mm
 Fiber Grating Filter

Periodic Structure

• Use to combine and separate individual wavelengths

• Grating: a periodic structure or perturbation in a material
• 2 types:
– Reflection grating
– Transmitting grating
 Fiber Grating Filter

When a multiwavelength
signals encounters the
grating, those
wavelengths that are
Change in core’s refractive index phase matched to the
Perturbation Bragg reflection condition
are not transmitted.
in material
• Constructive Interference occurs at 𝜆 when satisfy the Grating
equation:
• Λ sin𝜃𝑖 − sin𝜃𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆
• First order diffraction: 𝑚 = 1
 Fiber Bragg Grating
• Bragg grating constructed from an • Reflection wavelength: 𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 =
optical fiber constitutes. 2Λ𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
• All fiber device with many advantages • Peak reflectivity: 𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 = tanh2 (𝑘𝐿)
– Low cost, low loss (~0.1dB), ease of • Full bandwidth of peak reflectivity:
fiber coupling, polarization insensitivity,
low temperature coefficient 𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 2
(<0.7pm/oC), and simple packaging. • Δ𝜆 = (𝑘𝐿)2 +𝜋 2 1/2
𝜋𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐿
• A narrowband reflection grating filter
• Grating (variation in fiber core’s • FWHM bandwidth
refractive index) is fabricated through • Δ𝜆𝐹𝑊𝐻𝑀 =
a photoimprinting process 𝛿𝑛 2 Λ 2 1/2
– Germanium (Ge) doped silica is highly 𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 𝑠 (2𝑛 ) +( 𝐿 )
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
photosensitive.

1 𝜆 demultiplexer using a fiber 𝜋𝛿𝑛𝜂

grating and an optical circulator 𝑘=
𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔
 Example
• The table below shows the values of maximum
reflectivity 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 for different value of 𝑘𝐿
kL 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 (%)
1 58
2 93
3 98

• Consider a fiber grating with the following parameters: L=0.5

cm, 𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 = 1530 nm, 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 1.48, 𝛿𝑛 = 2.510−4 and
𝜂 = 82%
– Compute coupling coefficient 𝑘, and Δ𝜆
– Ans: 𝑘 = 4.2𝑐𝑚−1 and Δ𝜆 = 0.38 𝑛𝑚
Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG)
• Grating equations:
• 𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑛𝑐 ∆𝐿 = 𝑚𝜆
• Path length difference:
𝜆
Δ𝐿 = 𝑚 𝑐
𝑛𝑐
• Channel spacing in 𝜆
𝑥 𝑛𝑠 𝑑 𝑛𝑐 𝑥 𝜆0 𝑑 𝑛 𝑠
• Δ𝜆 = =
𝐿𝑓 𝑚 𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑓 Δ𝐿 𝑛𝑔
• Free spectral range in
• AWG structure frequency:
– 𝑀𝑖𝑛 and 𝑀𝑜𝑢𝑡 slab waveguide 𝑐
arrays • Δ𝜐𝐹𝑆𝑅 =
𝑛𝑔 (Δ𝐿+𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 +𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 )
– Two focusing planar star
couplers
– 𝑁 grating array waveguides
 Example
• Consider an NxN waveguide grating
multiplexer having 𝐿𝑓 = 10 𝑚𝑚, 𝑥 = 𝑑 =
5𝜇𝑚, 𝑛𝑐 = 1.45, and a central design
wavelength 𝜆𝑐 = 1550 𝑛𝑚. Suppose 𝑚 = 1.
a. Compute the waveguide length difference Δ𝐿
b. If 𝑛𝑠 = 1.45 and 𝑛𝑔 = 1.47, compute Δ𝜆
 WDM Lasers
• Many different laser designs have been proposed to
generate the spectrum of wavelengths needed for WDM.
One can choose from 4 basic options:
1. A series of DFB (Distributed Feedback) or DBR (Distributed
Bragg Reflector) lasers:
– Simplest: 1 laser  1 𝜆
– Expensive: high laser cost, require temperature controller
2. Wavelength-tunable (or frequency tunable) lasers:
– Tuning via temperature (~0.1nm/oC) or current (0.008-0.04
nm/oC)
– Single source: 1 laser  multiple 𝜆
– Expensive: high laser cost, require temperature controller &
current tuning circuitry
 WDM Lasers
3. An array of tunable lasers (to implement in large WDM networks):
– Most laser arrays are 𝜆/4 shifted DFB MQW (multiple quantum well)
• 𝜆/4 shifted DFB sets the lasing wavelength = 𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 = 2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 Λ
• MQW increases carrier & optical confinement in active area allowing lower
threshold current
– More flexible: multiple lasers  multiple 𝜆
– Possible to integrate laser arrays with a multiplexer on the same
substrate
– Expensive: high laser cost, require temperature controller & current
tuning circuitry
4. Spectral slicing
– Integration of a broadband light source, waveguide grating
multiplexer, and an optical amplifier
– Possible to integrate all components on the same substrate
– Expensive: many components
– Devices includes dominant noise from the optical amplifier
Wavelength Tunable Lasers
• Tunable range: Δ𝜆𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑒 =
Δ𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝜆
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
• To avoid interchannel
crosstalk, channel spacing:
Δ𝜆𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 ~10Δ𝜆𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
• Maximum # channels:
Δ𝜆𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑒
𝑁=
Δ𝜆𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
• Tuning range of a current
injection tunable three section
DBR laser
– Gain section:
• Control max. optical output
power
– Bragg section:
• Select lasing wavelength
– Phase section:
• Adjust lasing mode stability
 Tunable Optical Filters

Optical filter is used to increase

the flexibility of a WDM network.
It is dynamically tunable over a
certain optical frequency band.

• Tuning range ∆𝜈
– Reasonable and adequate rage to cover the transmission window or gain bandwidth of the
network’s optical amplifiers
• Channel spacing 𝛿𝜈
– Channel separation that guarantees a minimum interchannel crosstalk below 30 dB
• Maximum # channels 𝑁 = ∆𝜈/𝛿𝜈
– Max. # packed channels while maintaining an adequately low interchannel crosstalk
• Tuning speed
– Determine how fast the filter can be reset from one frequency to another
 Tunable Optical Filters Types
• Tunable 2x2 directional couplers (Figure 10-24)
– Apply a specific voltage to the multiple electrodes placed on coupling waveguides
• Tunable Mach-Zehnder interferometer (Figure 10-25)
– Use either thermo-optic or electro-optic mechanisms to change the length of interferometer
arms
• Fiber Fabry Perot filters (Figure 10-26)
– Interference of the incident beam with itself in a mirrored resonant cavity creates
transmission peaks and nulls. Apply voltage to the piezoelectric crystals to adjust cavity
spacing
• Tunable waveguide arrays:
– A combination of AWG and either optical amplifiers (amplify or attenuate) or optical switches
(on/off setting) at each array output,
• Liquid-crystal Fabry Perot Filters
– Apply voltage across the high speed liquid crystal inside Fabry Perot cavity in order to change
the refractive index and hence optical path length.
• Tunable multigrating filters (Figure 10-27)
– A series of N electrically tunable filter based reflection gratings placed between two 3 port
optical circulars can be used to add & drop any # of N 𝜆
• Acoustic optic tunable filters (AOTFs) (Figure 10-28)
– An artificial grating is produced in a solid crystal, such as LiNiO3, via the interaction of photons
and acoustic waves.
 Examples of Optical Add/Drop
Multiplexers
• Tunable multigrating filters: it is used to add or drop any number of N
different wavelengths.