Recruitment and Selection

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Recruitment and selection
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DOI: 10.4135/9780857021496.n9
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PART II
Fundamentals of Human
Resource Management
[12:34 14/4/2009 5298-Wilkinson-Ch09.tex] Job No: 5298 Wilkinson: The SAGE Handbook of Human Resource Management Page: 133 133–154
9
Recruitment and Selection
Filip Lievens and Derek Chapman
RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION into consideration. For example, creating an

effective recruiting strategy (some would
Few people question that recruitment and describe this as a macro process) requires
selection are key strategic domains in HRM. considerable understanding of the decision
At the same time, recruitment and selection making processes of potential applicants
also have an image problem. First, recruitment (viewed as micro processes). The same can
and selection are often viewed as ‘old’ be said with respect to designing effective
ingrained HRM domains. It seems like the selection systems, etc.
traditional recruitment and selection proce- The challenge for many researchers then
dures have been around for decades, which has been to demonstrate how scientifically
is at odds with the ever changing internal derived recruiting and selection practices add
and external environment of organizations. value to organizations. Unfortunately, when
Hence, practitioners often wonder whether the quality and impact of recruitment and
there are any new research-based ways for selection procedures for business outcomes
recruiting and selecting personnel. Another are investigated, they are often described
image problem for recruitment and selection in rather simplistic terms. For example, in
is that a false dichotomy is often created large-scale HR surveys (e.g., Becker and
between so-called macro HR (examining Huselid, 1998; Huselid, 1995; Wright et al.,
HR systems more broadly) and micro HR 2001; 2005) ‘sound’ selection practice is
(examining individual differences). It is often equated with whether or not formal
further sometimes argued that organizations tests were administered or whether or not
should value macro approaches and write structured interviews were used. Similarly,
off micro approaches as not being relevant effective recruitment is associated with the
to the business world. We posit that these number of qualified applicants for posi-
image problems and debates only serve to tions most frequently hired by the firm.
distract and fracture the field and hide the Although such questions tackle important
fact that excellent HR research and practice aspects of recruitment and selection we also
needs to take both macro and micro issues feel that such descriptions do not capture
136 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
the sophisticated level that recruitment and technologies have created both problems
selection research and practice has attained in and opportunities for organizations. Orga-
recent years. This oversimplification in large- nizations can significantly reduce costs to
scale HR surveys is understandable due to the advertise positions by using third party
difficulty of getting usable survey data across job boards (e.g., Monster.com) or through
a diverse set of companies. However, the company websites. The inexpensive nature
goal of demonstrating the utility of recruiting of online recruiting permits the conveyance
and selection systems may be undermined of large amounts of information to potential
by this practice and risks setting the field applicants at a minimal cost relative to tradi-
back if the results are interpreted out of tional advertising venues such as newspapers.
context. Media content can be substantially richer
In light of these issues, the aim of this including graphics, photos, interactive text,
chapter is to highlight key new research and video (Allen et al., 2004). The potential
developments in recruitment and selection. also exists for the immediate tailoring of
The general theme of this chapter is: ‘Which recruiting information to target the needs of
new research developments in recruitment prospective applicants (e.g., Dineen et al.,
and selection have occurred that advance 2002; 2007). For example, after completing
recruitment and selection practice?’ In terms a needs questionnaire online, a prospective
of time period, our review primarily focuses applicant could conceivably be provided
on developments between 2000 and 2007. with targeted information about the organiza-
Given the huge volume of work published tion, its benefit programs, and opportunities
during this time frame we do not aim to be that addresses their individual needs. Along
exhaustive. Instead, we aim to cover broad these lines, Dineen et al. (2007) discovered
themes and trends that in our opinion have that customized information about likely
changed the field. fit (combined with good web aesthetics)
decreased viewing time and recall of low-
fitting individuals, suggesting a means to
OVERVIEW OF KEY RESEARCH avoid these individuals of being attracted to
the organization. Clearly, customized real-
FINDINGS IN PERSONNEL
time recruiting approaches are within the
RECRUITMENT realm of existing technologies.
Despite the benefits and efficiencies of
In this section, we review recent develop-
online recruiting, a downside is that many
ments in the field of recruiting since 2000.
employers complain about the flood of
For an excellent and comprehensive review
unqualified applicants that can result from
of earlier recruiting research, we recommend
online advertising (Chapman and Webster,
Barber (1998) or Breaugh and Starke (2000).
2003). This deluge of applicants can inflict
Tight labor markets in North America have
considerable costs on the organization if the
helped fuel interest in recruiting research
online recruiting process is not accompanied
and considerable progress has been made
by an effective and efficient screening tech-
in the recruiting field over the past seven
nology. The importance of integrating effi-
years. As noted above, we especially focus
cient screening tools and online recruitment
on research that has practical implications for
needs to be emphasized to a greater extent in
organizations.
HR practice.
Researchers have also begun to focus
more specifically on what makes an effec-
The impact of technology on
tive company website for recruiting pur-
recruiting
poses (e.g., Cober et al., 2004; 2003;
Organizations have had to adjust to the Lee, 2005). Specifically, these authors sug-
new reality of online recruiting. These gest that web site content (e.g. cultural
RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION 137
information), appearance (e.g., use of colors

The renewed importance of the
and pictures) and navigability (e.g. links
recruiter
to job applications and useable layout) are
all important for recruiting purposes. Cober A longstanding debate in the recruitment field
et al. (2003) found that perceptions of the has examined the role that recruiters play
website aesthetics and usability accounted in influencing applicant decisions. Earlier
for 33 per cent of the variance in pursuit work suggested that recruiters play either
intentions and 31 per cent of the variance in no role or a minor one in determining
recommendation intentions. Clearly, invest- applicant decisions. However, research since
ing resources in web site aesthetics such as 2000 has confirmed that recruiters in fact,
the use of pleasing colors, pictures of smiling do play a significant role in applicant job
employees, and easy to navigate functions choice (Chapman et al., 2005). In their
such as direct links to application forms meta-analytic review, Chapman et al. tested
can have appreciable benefits for recruiting. several models to account for how recruiters
A study of Williamson et al. (2003) provided influence job choice. Their best fitting model
another practically important finding. They involved job and organizational character-
discovered that setting up a recruiting- istics as mediators of recruiter influence
oriented web site (instead of a screening- on attraction and job choice. In other
oriented web site) was associated with words, recruiters appear to influence job
significantly higher attraction by prospective choices by changing applicant perceptions
applicants. of job and organizational characteristics.
Even more importantly, this influence was
most pronounced for the best candidates-
Applicant quality as recruiting
those with multiple job offers (Chapman and
outcome
Webster, 2006).
Traditional recruiting outcomes have been Ironically, there is little guidance in the
categorized into four major constructs: selection literature regarding how to identify
Job pursuit intentions, organizational attrac- and select individuals well suited for recruit-
tion, acceptance intentions, and job choice ing. Early studies showed that applicants pay
(Chapman et al., 2005). Breaugh and Starke attention to and are positively influenced by
(2000) presented a large number of potential recruiter behaviors such as being informative
organizational goals that recruiters could and expressing warmth (Chapman et al., 2005)
strive to reach from shortening recruiting pro- but we know little about individual differences
cessing to reducing turnover. More research that may be associated with recruiting success.
is emerging on these additional outcomes. A recent meta analysis demonstrated that
For example, although recruiters have always simple demographic factors (e.g., recruiter sex
been concerned about the quality of applicants or race) are not good predictors (Chapman
attracted, few researchers have focused on et al., 2005). However, there are potentially
this area. This area has perhaps become many more individual differences such as
more popular recently due to the concerns personality traits and cognitive ability that
about online applicant quality noted in may predict recruiting outcomes. We believe
the technology section. Specifically, Carlson that more work on individual differences in
et al. (2002) argued that assessing the recruiting success is critical.
quality of the applicants attracted is a useful Despite the growing role of technology in
tool in assessing the overall utility of the the recruiting process, most employers and
recruiting/selection system. To this end, they applicants continue to value an opportunity for
provided a useful assessment framework. face-to-face interaction at some point in the
This outcome has become an important recruitment process. Employers who imple-
focus of recruiting research (e.g., Collins and ment effective technology-based screening
Han, 2004; Turban and Cable, 2003). practices find that their recruiters are freed
up from the manual sorting of resumes in image demonstrated that applicants ascribe
order to spend more ‘face time’ with qualified human personality traits such as sincerity,
candidates. Interestingly, this is the opposite excitement, competence, sophistication, and
of what most employers fear when they ruggedness to organizations (Aaker, 1997;
consider implementing online recruiting and Lievens and Highhouse, 2003). In general,
screening processes. Rather than becoming people seem to be more attracted to orga-
cold, sterile places, they actually have more nizations whose traits and characteristics
time to interact with their top prospects to are perceived to be similar to their own
connote empathy and warmth; exactly the (e.g., Slaughter et al., 2004).
recruiter traits most associated with applicant Another approach to organizational image
attraction (Chapman et al., 2005). has focused on the issue of corporate social
responsibility (CSR), also termed corporate
social performance (CSP). Applicants have
Organizational image and
been shown to take note of CSR information
employer branding
such as an organization’s environmental
It is clear that applicants consider the practices, community relations, sponsorship
image of an organization as an important activities, and treatment of women and
factor for evaluating employers. Chapman minorities (e.g., Aiman-Smith et al., 2001;
et al.’s (2005) meta-analysis on organizational Backhaus et al., 2002; Turban and Greening,
image in recruiting found a corrected mean 1997). For instance, Greening and Turban
correlation of 0.50 between image and job (2000) found that organizational CSP appears
pursuit intentions, 0.40 for attraction, and 0.41 to influence the attractiveness of a company
for acceptance intentions. to applicants, such that all four of the
In recent years, a lot of work has emerged CSP dimensions were significantly related
on how applicants form images of orga- to job pursuit intentions and the probability
nizations. One simple mechanism appears of accepting both an interview and a job.
to be familiarity. Applicants are generally Aiman-Smith et al. (2001) conducted a policy-
more attracted to companies that have name capturing study and found that a company’s
or brand recognition (Cable and Graham, ecological rating was the strongest predictor
2000; Cable and Turban, 2001; Collins and of organizational attraction, over and above
Stevens, 2002; Turban, 2001), although it pay and promotional opportunities. These
should be acknowledged that being familiar authors and others (see Greening and Turban,
and having initially negative views of the 2000; Turban and Cable, 2003; Turban and
organization can have deleterious effects on Greening, 1997) suggest that attraction stems
recruiting outcomes (Brooks et al., 2003). from interpreting company image information
Efforts then to invest in becoming more as a signal of working conditions – a proxy
recognized within a targeted applicant pop- of ‘organizational values’ – and applicants
ulation are generally likely to prove useful for develop an affective reaction to these signals
organizations. For example, for organizations which may manifest in being attracted to that
who recruit primarily on university campuses, organization.
sponsoring events attended by students and At a practical level, this increased research
advertising broadly within the campus com- interest in organizational image is paralleled
munity should increase both familiarity and by the approach of employer branding (Avery
attraction. and McKay, 2006; Backhaus and Tikoo, 2004;
Beyond brand recognition, Lievens and Cable and Aiman-Smith, 2000; Cable and
Highhouse (2003) suggest that in forming Turban, 2003; Lievens, 2007a). Employer
images of organization individuals draw branding or employer brand management
symbolic associations between the organiza- involves promoting, both within and outside
tion and themselves. This anthropomorphic the firm, a clear view of what makes a
approach to conceptualizing organizational firm different and desirable as an employer.
According to Backhaus and Tikoo (2004), to older workers (Hedge et al., 2006).
employer branding is essentially a three-step Clearly, more empirical data are needed to test
process. First, a firm develops a concept of many of the ideas posited for attracting older
what particular value (‘brand equity’) it offers workers.
to prospective and current employees. The
second step consists of externally marketing
Attracting temporary workers
this value proposition to attract the targeted
applicant population. To this end, early One response to staffing highly volatile work
recruitment practices have been found to demands has been to rely more heavily on
be particularly useful (Collins and Stevens, temporary workers, interns, and employment
2002). The third step of employer branding agency employees. This approach represents a
involves carrying the brand ‘promise’ made significant recruiting challenge as employers
to recruits into the firm and incorporating often offer lower pay, few benefits, and
it as part of the organizational culture. little training to these temporary workers
Recent evidence has shown that a strong as compared to core employees. There has
employer brand positively affected the pride been little empirical work examining the
that individuals expected from organiza- attraction of temporary employees, however,
tional membership (Cable and Turban, 2003), research conducted on cooperative education
applicant pool quantity and quality (Collins programs show that temporary employees
and Han, 2004), and firm performance tend to be attracted to many of the same
advantages over the broad market (Fulmer organizational and job characteristics as
et al., 2003). full time employees. Therefore, employers
offering better pay, prestige, locations, and
opportunities for advancement are likely to
Addressing aging populations
be more successful in attracting temporary
Whereas traditional recruiting research has employees. As many of these employees use
predominantly examined attracting young internships and temporary work as a stepping
employees from universities and colleges, stone to full-time employment, employers
looming demographic realities involving a would benefit considerably from considering
major shift in the age of employees are their temporary hires as a potential full-time
forcing employers and researchers to learn talent pool and treat them accordingly.
more about attracting and retaining older
workers. Information about attracting older
Applicant reactions to
workers has just recently begun to emerge.
selection procedures
For example, Rau and Adams (2004) exam-
ined the growing area of ‘bridge employ- Although recruitment and selection are often
ment’ whereby older workers seek out a viewed as separate processes, recent studies
semi-retirement opportunity. This typically are increasingly showing that the two pro-
involves part-time employment that can serve cesses have considerable interactive effects.
to supplement retirement income as well Negative reactions to selection procedures
as serve to fill a variety of social and have been shown to correlate with attraction,
esteem needs in older workers. Emphasiz- intent to pursue, job recommendations, and
ing equal opportunity for older workers, intentions to accept a job offer (see meta-
flexible schedules, and pro older worker analysis of Hausknecht et al., 2004).Applicant
policies have been shown to interact to reactions are a complex phenomenon. For
improve attraction of older workers (Rau instance many researchers have emphasized
and Adams, 2005). Other suggestions for the perceptions of injustice as the primary out-
appealing to older workers include flexible come of applicant reactions (e.g., Gilliland,
compensation and benefits programs, and 1993; Bauer et al., 2001), whereas others
job redesign to accommodate and appeal have called for more behavioral outcomes
such as effects on attraction and job choice through online assessments it may be possible
(e.g., Chapman and Webster, 2006; Ryan and to identify that an applicant has higher poten-
Ployhart, 2000). What is well established tial person-job fit than person-organization fit.
is that applicants make inferences about As a result, a proactive recruiting approach
organizations based on how they are treated would be to emphasize the benefits for
during the selection process. In turn, these person-job fit for that individual throughout
inferences might influence how attracted they the recruiting process. This might involve
are to the organization. In designing selection presenting more detailed information to that
procedures, HR managers should balance individual on job characteristics, tasks, roles,
their recruiting and selection needs and pay etc. The aforementioned studies of Dineen and
attention to the potential effects that their colleagues exemplify how such a proactive
selection practices can have on applicant and customized fit approach might be accom-
attraction and job choice. plished in early (web-based) recruitment
stages. These studies also go beyond the
notion of fit as being a natural process whereby
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH applicants self-select into organizations.
ON PERSONNEL RECRUITMENT
Demonstrating value to
Emphasizing proactive approaches organizations
Unlike selection research which has a rich To date, recruiting researchers have largely
history of exploring very practical approaches had to rely on logical arguments to demon-
to personnel selection, recruiting research has strate the value of recruiting to organizations.
tended to focus on more distal predictor- For example, utility analyses can demonstrate
attraction relationships. For example, we still the theoretical return to the company of
lack simple descriptive information on the employing an effective recruiting system over
specific recruiting tactics used by employers. a weak recruiting system (e.g., Boudreau
As a result, there is a dearth of research and Rynes, 1985). We can also argue that
examining the effectiveness of particular effective recruiting is necessary in order to
recruiting tactics and strategies. The growing generate the types of selection ratios needed
body of research on decision processes should to make our selection systems more effective
help recruiting researchers make informed (Murphy, 1986). However, we believe that the
predictions about the likely success of time has come for recruiting researchers to
these specific tactics and provide potential capture organizational level outcomes such
moderators of these approaches. Likewise, as firm performance, organizational training
incorporating and refining theories of persua- costs, and turnover expenditures to more
sion from social psychology in the recruiting directly demonstrate the utility of recruit-
context should provide a rich source of ing practice in organizations. Along these
predictions about the crafting of recruitment lines, Breaugh and Starke (2000) provided a
messages. For instance, studies incorporating comprehensive framework for examining the
the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) can types of recruiting goals that organizations can
tell us how to craft recruitment messages align with their overall corporate strategies.
that are effective for busy job fairs or for For example, as a cost-reduction strategy HR
quiet deliberation of information from a web departments could design recruiting practices
page (e.g., Jones et al., 2006; Larsen and aimed at attracting experienced employees
Philips, 2002). who need little training, thereby saving train-
Another example of such a proactive ing costs. Alternatively, a company emphasiz-
recruiting approach might consist of organi- ing success through teamwork would benefit
zations seeking to maximize fit perceptions from recruiting practices that attracted indi-
in order to enhance attraction. For example, viduals who are comfortable and motivated
in team environments. Recruiting materials attitudinal outcomes such as attraction, job

then would display photos of employees pursuit intentions, and job acceptance inten-
engaged in team-based tasks, advertising tions. What is clear from the few studies exam-
outlets could include publications that attract ining actual job choice is that our traditional
a team focused audience, and benefits and recruiting predictors are much weaker in their
rewards should emphasize rewards for team predictions of behaviors then they are of their
performance. Other demonstrations of value predictions of attitudes. We need to pay more
to organizations can be seen in an exemplar attention to multiple outcomes, longitudinal
paper by Highhouse et al. (1999) which outcomes and behavioral outcomes if we are
showed how recruiting image information to provide organizations with information that
(i.e., an image audit) can be applied to will be practical.
real world recruiting issues (in this case,
the fast food industry). Understanding how
your organization is viewed by potential OVERVIEW OF KEY RESEARCH
employees is a first and necessary step toward FINDINGS IN PERSONNEL SELECTION
determining recruiting strategy. Generating
effective strategies to address these images In this section, we review recent develop-
(such as hiring popular students to work in ments with regard to personnel selection.
your fast food restaurant in order to attract Due to space constraints, we refer readers to
more students), can flow from studying these Schmidt and Hunter (1998) and Hough and
issues empirically. Oswald (2000) for excellent overviews of the
state-of-the art of personnel selection until
2000. Note too that this section deals only
Disentangling content from method
with developments with respect to predictors
In order to better determine recruiting effects, (although we acknowledge there have also
researchers are urged to design multiple been substantial developments in the criterion
manipulations for various recruiting tactics. domain).
Too frequently, recruiting researchers have
single manipulations of information which
Rapid technological developments
makes it difficult to determine whether the
in personnel selection
approach to recruiting is driving any observed
differences or whether the content of the In the last decade, the face of personnel
single manipulation is causing the effects. For selection has changed substantially due to
example, in designing a study examining the the increased use of information technology
role of a recruiting tactic such as compar- (the internet) for administering, delivering,
ing the job opening to a competitor’s offering and scoring tests (Chapman and Webster,
versus a tactic involving simply providing 2003). Actually, use of the internet in selection
additional information about the company, is nowadays a necessity for firms to stay
researchers should endeavor to provide sev- competitive. The efficiency and consistency
eral examples of each manipulation so that the of test delivery are some of the key benefits
content of the manipulation is not confounded of internet-based selection over computer-
with the tactic. Accordingly, we can gauge ized selection. Extra cost and time savings
the relative effects of the recruiting tactics occur because neither the employer nor the
independent of the job and organizational applicants have to be present at the same
content used in the manipulation. location.
The good news is that research generally
lends support to the use of the internet as
Focusing on job choice
a way of delivering tests. Both between-
We know a lot less about behavioral outcomes subjects (Ployhart et al., 2003) and within-
such as actual job choice than we do about subjects studies (Potosky and Bobko, 2004)
have provided evidence for the equivalence the same person completed both tests, or
of internet-based testing vis-à-vis paper- alternatively, only the proctorered test is used
and-pencil testing. For example, Potosky for final hiring decisions. Other organizations
and Bobko (2004) found acceptable cross- combine this two-tiered approach with item
mode correlations for noncognitive tests. response and item generation techniques so
Timed tests, however, were an exception. that candidates seldom receive the same test
For instance, cross-mode equivalence of a items. This requires considerable sophisti-
timed spatial reasoning test was as low as cation as large databases of questions must
0.44 (although there were only 30 minutes be generated and the difficulty level of
between the two administrations). As a main each item must be determined to ensure
explanation, the loading speed inherent in parallel tests are generated each time. Once
internet based testing seems to make the test constructed, however, the organization can
different from its paper-and-pencil counter- reap the benefits of unproctored testing and
part (Potosky and Bobko, 2004; Richman extend the life of the system by making
et al., 1999). fraudulent activity less damaging.
Research with regard to transforming
face-to-face interviews to videoconferencing
The growing international face of
interviews reveals a more mixed picture.
personnel selection
While considerable cost savings are real-
ized from using these technologies, ratings The face of personnel selection has changed
have been shown to be affected by the not only due to rapid technological develop-
media used (e.g., Chapman and Rowe, 2001; ments. The globalization of the economy has
Chapman and Webster, 2001). The increased also considerably affected personnel selection
efficiency of technology mediated interviews practice and research. This internationaliza-
(e.g., videoconferencing interviews, tele- tion causes organizations to move beyond
phone interviews, interactive voice response national borders, as reflected in interna-
telephone interviews) seems also to lead tional collaborations, joint ventures, strategic
to potential downsides (e.g., less favorable alliances, mergers, and acquisitions. One
reactions, loss of potential applicants) as well-known HR consequence of this rapid
compared to face-to-face interviews, although internationalization is the need to develop
it should be mentioned that actual job selection procedures that can be validly used
pursuit behavior was not examined (Chapman to predict expatriate success. Research has a
et al., 2003). long history here (going back to the Peace
One of the more controversial techno- Corps studies). One of the problems is that
logical developments relates to unproctored the selection of people for foreign assign-
internet testing. In this type of testing, a ments has traditionally been based solely
test administrator is absent. Accordingly, on job knowledge and technical competence
unproctored internet testing might lead to (Schmitt and Chan, 1998; Sinangil and Ones,
candidate authentication, cheating, and test 2001). However, a recent meta-analysis of
security concerns. To date, there seems to be predictors of expatriate success (Mol et al.,
relative consensus that unproctored testing is 2005) revealed that there are many more
best suited for low-stakes selection (Tippins possibilities. In this meta-analysis, four of
et al., 2006). As a possible solution, some the Big Five personality factors (extraver-
organizations have moved toward a two-tiered sion, emotional stability, agreeableness, and
approach whereby unproctored internet-based conscientiousness), cultural sensitivity, and
tests are administered for screening purposes local language ability were predictive of
only, followed by on site proctored admin- expatriate job performance. A problem with
istration of a parallel test for those passing the large body of research on predictors of
the online version. Sophisticated verification expatriate success is that research has mainly
procedures are then used to examine whether tried to determine a list of (inter)personal
factors responsible for expatriate adjustment tests (Salgado et al., 2003a; b) and personality
versus failure (e.g., Mendenhall and Oddou, inventories (Salgado, 1997) as the criterion-
1985; Ones and Viswesvaran, 1997; Ronen related validity of these two predictors gener-
1989). Unfortunately, there is little research on alized across countries. Research dealing with
designing a comprehensive selection system the criterion-related validity of other selection
to predict expatriate success in overseas procedures in an international context is
assignments. scarce. One exception is a study of Ployhart
Another consequence of the increasing et al. (2004) who examined whether the
internationalization is the need for selection criterion-related validity of various predictors
systems that can be used across multiple (measures of team skills, work ethic, commit-
countries while at the same time recognizing ment, customer focus, and cognitive ability)
local particularities (Schuler et al., 1993). This differed across 10 countries. They found
is not straightforward as differences across that criterion-related validity was largely
countries in selection procedure usage are constant across countries and unaffected by
substantial. This was confirmed by a 20- culture.
country study of Ryan et al. (1999).Apart from Unfortunately, no studies have examined
country differences, differences grounded in conditions that predict when the criterion-
cultural values (uncertainty avoidance and related validity of selection procedures will
power distance) also explained some of the generalize across countries. Along these lines,
variability in selection usage. Another large- Lievens (2007b) highlighted among others
scale study showed that countries differed the importance of matching predictor and
considerably in how they valued specific char- criteria in an international context. The
acteristics to be used in selection (Huo et al., importance of predictor-criteria matching
2002; Von Glinow et al., 2002). Countries can be illustrated with assessment center
such as Australia, Canada, Germany, and the exercises. The dimensions and exercises that
US assigned great importance to proven work are typically used in assessment centers
experience in a similar job and technical skills in North America and Europe might be
for deciding whether someone should have the less relevant in other countries. Perhaps, in
job. Conversely, companies in Japan, South a high power distance culture, candidates
Korea, and Taiwan placed a relatively low are extremely uncomfortable engaging in
weight on job-related skills. In these countries, role-plays. This does not imply that such
people’s innate potential and teamwork skills exercises will be invalid in these cultures.
were much more important. We need more The question is: Are these exercises indeed
studies to unravel factors that might explain relevant for the criterion domain that one
differential use of selection practices across tries to predict in these cultures? Empirical
countries. In addition, we need to know how research supports this logic. Lievens et al.
one can gain acceptance for specific selection (2003) examined whether two assessment
procedures among HR decision makers and center exercises were valid predictors of
candidates. Clearly, this is complicated due European executives’ training performance in
to tensions between corporate requirements Japan. They found that a group discussion
of streamlined selection practices and local exercise was a powerful predictor of future
desires of customized ones. performance as rated by Japanese supervisors
A final pressing issue for organizations that later on. The presentation exercise, however,
use selection procedures in other cultures was not a valid predictor. According to
deals with knowing whether a specific selec- Lievens et al. (2003), one explanation is
tion procedure is transportable to another that the group discussion exercise reflected
culture and whether the criterion-related the Japanese team-based decision making
validity of the selection procedure is gener- culture.
alizable. So far, there is empirical evidence Another hypothesis put forth by Lievens
for validity generalization for cognitive ability (2007b) is that the predictor constructs
(especially cognitive ability) will often of oneself and of others) model correlated
be very similar across cultures, but that more with cognitive ability and less with
the behavioral content and measurement of personality.
AU: Not in refs
list. Please provide these predictors will vary across cultures. Second, situational judgment tests (SJTs)
full details of For example, Schmit et al. (2000) developed are another emerging selection procedure.
publication for a global personality inventory with input SJTs present applicants with (written or video-
inclusion.
from a panel of 70 experts around the based) work-related situations and possible
world. Although all experts wrote items in responses to these situations. Applicants have
their own language for the constructs as to indicate which response alternative they
defined in their own language, construct would choose. Granted, SJTs are not new
validity studies provided support for the same selection procedures (the first situational
underlying structure of the global personality judgment tests were already used in the
inventory across countries. This might also 1930s). Yet, they have recently become
mean that ratings in non-personality situations increasingly popular in North-America. SJTs
such as assessment centers or interviews are somewhat of a misnomer because they do
might be prone to cultural sensitivity because not measure ‘situational judgment’. Instead,
there is ample evidence that the behavioral SJTs are measurement methods that can
expressions and interpretations for common measure a variety of constructs. For example,
constructs measured might differ from one SJTs were recently developed to capture
culture to another. Future research should test domains as diverse as teamwork knowledge
these hypotheses about possible moderators (McClough and Rogelberg, 2003; Morgeson
of the cross-cultural generalizability of the et al., 2005; Stevens and Campion, 1999),
validity of selection procedures. aviation pilot judgment (Hunter, 2003),
employee integrity (Becker, 2005), call cen-
ter performance (Konradt et al., 2003), or
Development and validation of new
academic performance (Lievens et al., 2005;
Oswald et al., 2004).
One of the questions at the start of this chapter One reason for the growing popularity
was whether in recent years new selection of SJTs is that they enable to broaden the
predictors have been developed. We believe constructs being measured. Research has
that three ‘relatively’ new selection proce- shown that SJTs had incremental validity
dures have gained increased interest from over cognitive ability, experience, and per-
researchers and practitioners alike. First, emo- sonality (Chan and Schmitt, 2002; Clevenger
tional intelligence measures have come under et al., 2001). McDaniel et al. (2001) meta-
scrutiny in personnel selection. Although the analyzed 102 validity coefficients (albeit
concept of emotional intelligence has fuelled only 6 predictive validity coefficients) and
a lot of criticism (Matthews et al., 2004; found a mean corrected validity of .34.
Landy, 2005), a breakthrough is the division Another reason is that SJTs can be used
of emotional intelligence measures into either to test large groups of applicants at once
ability or mixed models (Zeidner et al., and over the internet. Finally, research on
2004). The mixed (self-report) model assumes applicant reactions to SJTs showed that
emotional intelligence is akin to a personality SJTs were perceived as favorable and that
trait. A recent meta-analysis showed that video-based interactive SJT formats even
emotional intelligence measures based on resulted in more positive perceptions than
this mixed model overlapped considerably written SJT formats (e.g., Chan and Schmitt,
with personality trait scores but not with 1997; Kanning et al., 2006; Richman-Hirsch
cognitive ability (Van Rooy et al., 2005). et al., 2000). Given these advantages, SJTs
Conversely, emotional intelligence measures constitute an attractive alternative to more
developed according to the ability (emotional expensive predictors such as assessment
intelligence as an ability to perceive emotions center exercises or structured interviews
because SJTs can be used in early selection justification mechanisms. The basic paradigm
stages as an inexpensive screen for measur- is to present what appear to be logical
ing interpersonally-oriented competencies. A reasoning problems, in which respondents are
possible downside of SJTs is that they asked to select the response that follows most
might be prone to faking. Along these lines, logically from an initial statement. In fact,
recent research has shown that the type of the alternatives reflect various justification
response instructions affects the cognitive mechanisms. James et al. present validity
loading and amount of response distor- evidence for a conditional reasoning measure
tion in situational judgment tests (Nguyen of aggression. Other research found that
et al., 2005). Behavioral tendency instructions a conditional reasoning test of aggression
(e.g., ‘What are you most likely to do?’) could not be faked, provided that the real
exhibited lower correlations with cognitive purpose of the test is not disclosed (LeBreton
ability, lower adverse impact but higher et al., 2007).
faking than knowledge-based instructions
(e.g., ‘What is the best answer?’). In addition,
Improvements in existing
a recent meta-analysis of McDaniel et al.
(2007) reported that SJTs with knowledge
instructions correlated more highly with In recent years, some interesting develop-
cognitive ability measures (0.35) than SJTs ments with respect to existing selection
with behavioural tendency instructions did procedures have emerged. One development
(0.19). Conversely, SJTs with behavioural consists of increasing the contextualization of
tendency instructions correlated more highly sign-based predictors (cognitive ability tests,
withAgreeableness (0.37), Conscientiousness aptitude tests, and personality inventories).
(0.34), and Emotional Stability (0.35) than Although contextualization has also been used
SJTs with knowledge instructions did (0.19, in aptitude tests (Hattrup et al., 1992), this
0.24, and 0.12, respectively). These results trend is best exemplified in personality inven-
confirm that SJTs with knowledge instructions tories. Contextualized personality inventories
should be considered maximal performance use a specific frame-of-reference (e.g., ‘I pay
measures, whereas SJTs with behavioural attention to details at work’) instead of
tendency instructions should be considered the traditional generic format (e.g., ‘I pay
typical performance measures. attention to details’). Recent studies have
Third, implicit measures of personality generally found considerable support for the
have been developed as a possible alternative use of contextualized personality scales as
to explicit measures of personality (e.g., the a way of improving the criterion-related
typical personality scales). One example of validity of personality scales (Bing et al.,
this is Motowidlo et al.’s (2006) measure 2004; Hunthausen et al., 2003). Yet, some
of implicit trait theories. They theorize, questions remain. For instance, how far
and then offer evidence, that individual does one have to go with contextualizing
personality shapes individual judgments of personality inventories. Granted, adding an
the effectiveness of behaviors reflecting high at-work tag is only a start to a full contextual-
to low levels of the trait in question. Thus, it ization of personality inventories (e.g., ‘I pay
may prove possible to make inferences about attention to details when I am planning
personality from individual’s judgments of the my meetings with customers.’). In light of
effectiveness of various behaviors. Another the fidelity-bandwidth trade-off, perhaps the
approach to implicit measurement of person- answer is related to what one wants to predict.
ality is conditional reasoning (James et al., Narrow contextualized scales might be better
2005) based on the notion that people use predictors of narrow criteria, whereas more
various justification mechanisms to explain generic scales might be better predictors
their behavior, and that people with varying for a more general criterion such as job
dispositional tendencies will employ differing performance.
Another development relates to the Finally, recent research is also informative

increased recognition that practitioners as to what interventions not to undertake to
should carefully specify predictor-criterion increase criterion-related validity. For exam-
linkages for increasing the criterion- ple, it is often thought that social desirability
related validity of selection procedures. corrections (e.g., lie scales) should be used
As conceptualizations of job performance when one gathers self-report ratings (e.g., in
broaden beyond task performance to include the context of personality measurement). We
the citizenship and counter productivity have now compelling evidence that social
domains it is important for organizations to desirability corrections should not be applied.
carefully identify the criterion constructs of Schmitt and Oswald (2006) showed that
interest and to choose potential predictors correcting applicants’ scores had minimal
on the basis of hypothesized links to these impact on mean criterion performance. The
criterion constructs. All of this fits in a general futility of using social desirability corrections
trend to move away from general discussions was also demonstrated at the individual level
of predictors as ‘valid’ to consideration of (i.e., who gets hired on the basis of applicant
‘valid for what?’. This was first exemplified rankings, Ellingson et al., 1999). Although it
by the taxonomic work on the dimensionality is interesting to know that social desirability
of performance led by Campbell et al. (1993). corrections are not useful, the question
This project illustrated, for example, that remains as to what practitioners can do when
cognitive measures were the most valid applicants fake (and we know they do). In fact,
predictors of task performance, whereas isn’t it awkward that we ask applicants to be
personality measures were the best predictors honest when responding to self-reports, while
of an effort and leadership dimension and we know that this will lower their chances
a counterproductive behavior dimension of being selected. Therefore, various faking
(labeled ‘maintaining personal discipline’; reduction approaches have been tried out.
McHenry et al., 1990). Now, it is generally However, most of them (e.g., warnings, forced
acknowledged that this mechanism might choice formats) had only meager effects
increase the validity of personality inventories (Dwight and Donovan, 2003; Heggestadt
(e.g., Hogan and Holland, 2003 as the best et al., 2006). One promising approach consists
example), assessment centers (Lievens of requiring candidates to elaborate on the
et al., 2003). ratings provided, although this strategy seems
Another recent stream of research with useful only when the items are verifiable
considerable value for selection practice (Schmitt and Kunce, 2002; Schmitt et al.,
is that one should be aware of potential 2003). Last, it was discovered that faking does
interactions among predictor constructs (com- not seem to be a problem when personality
petencies). For example, interactions between inventories are used for selecting out candi-
conscientiousness and agreeableness (Witt dates (i.e., a selection process with a high
et al., 2002), conscientiousness and extraver- selection ratio, Mueller-Hanson et al., 2003).
sion (Witt, 2002), and Conscientiousness
and social skills (Witt and Ferris, 2003)
have been discovered. In all of these cases, DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
high levels of conscientiousness coupled
ON PERSONNEL SELECTION
with either low levels of agreeableness, low
levels of extraversion, or inadequate social
Disentangling content from method
skills were detrimental for performance. At
a practical level, these results highlight, In the past, selection procedures were
for example, that selecting people high in seen as monolithic entities. Recently, there
Conscientiousness but low in Agreeableness is increased recognition to make a clear
for jobs that require frequent collaboration distinction between predictor constructs
reduces validities to zero. (content) and predictor measures (methods).
Content refers to the constructs and effectiveness of a selection procedure was

variables (e.g., conscientiousness, cognitive examined for predicting individual perfor-
ability, finger dexterity, field dependence- mance. Several authors (Ployhart, 2006;
independence, reaction time, visual Schneider et al., 2000; Schmitt, 2002) have
attention) that are being measured. Methods argued that future selection research should
refers to the techniques or procedures take a more macro analytical approach to
(e.g., graphology, paper-and-pencil tests, exert a real impact on organizations and
computer-administered tests, video-based organizational decision makers. This implies
tests, interviews, and assessment centers, that the consequences of using specific selec-
work samples, self-reports, peer reports) tion procedures should also be ascertained
that we use to measure the specified content at levels other than the individual level.
(Arthur et al., 2003; Chan and Schmitt, 1997; Examples are the team, job (occupational),
Schmitt and Chan, 1998; Schmitt and Mills, and organizational level.
2001). Crossing these two features leads to To date, only a very limited number of
different modalities of selection procedures. studies have taken such an organizational
For example, a specific construct such as perspective. For instance, Terpstra and Rozell
extraversion might be measured via various (1993) correlated HR managers’ use of
methods such as interview questions, self- selection procedures with performance of the
report items or situational judgment test items. firm. As argued by Ployhart (2006), this is
This division is of paramount importance only a first step as this study was based on
because it impacts on virtually all research self-reports of firm performance. In a similar
done on personnel selection procedures. For vein, the well-known study of Huselid (1995)
example, incremental validity research of demonstrates that use of high performance
predictors (e.g., assessment center exercises work practices (e.g., Do companies use
used in addition to structured interviews employment tests prior to hiring?) are related
and self-report personality inventories) that to better firm performance. Yet, they do not
fail to take this distinction into account show that selecting better employees adds
are misleading and are conceptually difficult strategic value to the firm.
to interpret. Unless one either holds the Future research should use a truly mul-
content (constructs) constant and varies the tilevel perspective to demonstrate whether
method, or holds the method constant and validities at the individual level also translate
varies the content, one does not know what into differences at other levels (and especially
(method or construct) leads to the incremental at the organizational level). An excellent
validity obtained.Another example is research example is the recent study of Ployhart
on adverse impact. For example, Chan and et al. (2006). They showed that individual,
Schmitt (1997) showed that changing the job, and organizational level means person-
method of an SJT (video-based instead of ality were positively associated with job
paper-and-pencil) resulted in less adverse performance and job satisfaction, whereas
impact, even though the content of the test job and organizational level variances were
was not changed. Likewise, in applicant often negatively associated with performance
reactions research it is important to know and satisfaction. These results highlight the
whether applicants perceive a test favorably importance of personality homogeneity at dif-
or unfavorably because of the content of the ferent levels (cf. attraction-selection-attrition
test or because of the method of measuring the framework).
substantive content (Hausknecht et al., 2004).
‘Selling’ selection innovations
Going beyond validity
At the start, we mentioned that personnel
Prior selection research has usually taken selection is typically viewed as an ‘old’
a micro analytical perspective. That is, the and ‘narrow’ domain in HRM. In addition,
it is often viewed in rather simplistic selection interventions to practitioners might

dichotomous terms. One of the aims of our fail. Along these lines, Johns (1993) posits
review was to illustrate the various exciting that we have typically placed too much
developments that have taken place in this emphasis on selection practices as rational
field in recent years. As demonstrated, many technical interventions and therefore often
of these developments have substantial value fail to have an impact in organizations
for HR practitioners working in organizations. (e.g., attempts to ‘sell’ utility informa-
However, this is only side of the equation. tion or structured interviews). Conversely,
An equally vital issue is to implement practitioners in organizations perceive the
these developments in organizations. One introduction of new selection procedures as
stumbling block is the lack of awareness organizational interventions that are subject
of these new trends. For example, it was to the same pressures (power games, etc.)
telling that a recent survey revealed among as other organizational innovations. Although
HR professionals that two of the greatest Johns’ article dates from 1993, we still have
misconceptions among these professionals largely neglected to implement its underlying
dealt with personnel selection, namely the recommendations.
relative validity of general mental ability tests One possible approach to improving the
as compared to personality inventories (Rynes use of scientifically validated recruiting and
et al., 2002). selection procedures is through the increasing
Therefore, future research is needed to professionalization of the field of HR.As more
uncover factors that encourage/impede orga- organizations insist on hiring HR personnel
nizations’ use of selection procedures. For with professional training and credentials,
example, a recent study (Wilk and Cappelli, the greater the likelihood that research-based
2003) showed that (apart from broader practices will be valued and adopted in
legal, economic, and political factors) the organizations. For example, Chapman and AU: 2004 in
refs – which is
type of work practices of organizations Zweig (2005) and Lievens and De Paepe correct?
was one of the factors that might encour- (2003) found that trained interviewers were
age/impede organizations’ use of selection much more likely to practice structured
procedures. Specifically, organizations seem interviews than their untrained counterparts.
to use different types of selection methods We are also hopeful that ongoing learning
contingent upon the nature of the work being through professional development require-
done (skill requirements), training, and pay ments for maintaining professional creden-
level. tials will further infuse and update practice
In a similar vein, we need to find out in the field. Likewise, it is necessary for
ways to sell selection practices to practi- researchers and instructors to engage the
tioners and to overcome potential resistance professional community to ensure that the
(Muchinsky, 2004). Probably, the provision research we are conducting is both relevant
of information about the psychometric quality and timely.
and legal defensibility of selection proce-
dures to decision makers in organizations
is insufficient. An alternative might consist EPILOGUE
of linking the adoption of sound selection
practices not only to validity criteria but The central question of this chapter was:
also to organizational-level measures of ‘Which new research developments have
performance such as annual profits, sales, or occurred that advance recruitment and selec-
turnover (see the section ‘Going Beyond the tion practice?’ On the one hand our review
Validity of Selection Procedures’). Another exemplified many areas wherein both recruit-
way might be to use more vivid information ment and selection research might have
(case studies) to persuade decision makers. practical implications for organizations. A key
However, even this way of communicating example is the rapid increase of technology in
both recruitment and selection, as showcased performance and employer attractiveness’, Business
by the tailoring of media rich information in and Society, 41: 292–318.
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Organizational Perspectives. Thousands Oaks, CA:
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Recruitment and selection

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Filip Lievens Derek S. Chapman

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Quantification of human mimicry to improve understanding of applicant-interviewer dynamics. View project

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RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION into consideration. For example, creating an

information), appearance (e.g., use of colors

in team environments. Recruiting materials attitudinal outcomes such as attraction, job

Another development relates to the Finally, recent research is also informative

Content refers to the constructs and effectiveness of a selection procedure was

it is often viewed in rather simplistic selection interventions to practitioners might

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