The Science of Emotional Intelligence

Author(s): Peter Salovey and Daisy Grewal

Source: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 14, No. 6 (Dec., 2005), pp. 281-285
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of Association for Psychological Science
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 CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

The Science of Emotional

Intelligence
Peter Salovey and Daisy Grewal

Yale University

ABSTRACT?This article an overview current measure skills that are distinct from com
provides of reliably relatively
research on emotional
intelligence. Although it has been monly assessed aspects of personality.

defined in many ways, we focus on the four-branch model

by Mayer and Salovey (1997), which characterizes emo
tional intelligence as a set of four related abilities: per THE FOUR-BRANCHMODELOF EMOTIONAL
and emotions.
INTELLIGENCE
ceiving, using, understanding, managing
The theory provides a useful framework for studying in
Emotional intelligence brings together the fields of emotions and
dividual differences in abilities related to processing emo
emotions as useful sources of informa
tional measurement the intelligence by viewing
information. Despite obstacles,
tion that help one to make sense of and the social en
evidence infavor of emotional intelligence is accumulating. navigate

success
vironment. Salovey and Mayer (1990, p. 189) proposed a formal
Emotional intelligence predicts in do
important
definition of emotional intelligence as "The ability to monitor
mains, among them personal and work relationships.
one's own and others' to discriminate and
feelings, among them,
KEYWORDS?emotional intelligence; emotions; social inter to use this information to one's
guide thinking and action." Later
action this definition was refined and broken down into four proposed
abilites that are distinct related: under
yet perceiving, using,

In the past decade, emotional intelligence has generated an standing, and managing emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
The first branch of emotional intelligence, perceiving emo
enormous amount of interest both within and outside the field of
tions, is the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces,
psychology. The concept has received considerable media at
pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts. It also includes the
tention, and many readers of this article may have en
already
to one's own emotions. emotions
one or more ability identify Perceiving may
countered definitions of emotional The
intelligence.
represent the most basic aspect of emotional as it
focuses on the scientific of intelligence,
present discussion, however, study
makes all other processing of emotional information
emotional rather than on of the possible.
intelligence popularizations
The second branch of emotional emotions,
intelligence, using
concept.
is the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive
Mayer and Salovey (1997; see also Salovey & Mayer, 1990)
activities, such as and We can illus
a model of emotional to address a thinking problem solving.
proposed intelligence growing
trate the skills in this branch through a hypothetical scenario.
need in psychology for a framework to the of in
organize study
Imagine that you have to a difficult and tedious as
dividual differences in abilities related to emotion. This theo complete

signment requiring deductive reasoning and attention to detail

retical model motivated the creation of the first ability-based
in a short amount of time; would it be better, as far as
tests of emotional remain completing
intelligence. Although findings pre
the task goes, to be in a good mood or in a sad mood? Being in a
liminary, emotional intelligence has been shown to have an ef

fect on life outcomes such as slightly sad mood helps people conduct careful, methodical
important forming satisfying
work. a mood can stimulate creative and in
and success at work. Conversely, happy
personal relationships achieving Perhaps
novative Isen, Johnson, Mertz, & Robinson,
most tests of emotional thinking (e.g.,
importantly, ability-based intelligence
1985). The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully
upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at
hand.

to Peter
The third branch of emotional intelligence, understanding
Address correspondence Salovey, Department of Psychology,
Yale University, PO Box New Haven, CT 06520-8205; e-mail: emotions, is the to emotion and
208205, ability comprehend language
peter. salovey@y ale. edu. to appreciate emotions. For
complicated relationships among

Volume 14?Number 6 Copyright ? 2005 American Psychological Society 281

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 Emotional Intelligence

example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to their abilities to differentiate their emotions; that is, some people
be sensitive to variations between emotions, such as the can distinctions in what are
slight recognize fine-grained they feeling
difference between happy and ecstatic. Furthermore, it includes (e.g., "I feel angry and guilty, and a little bit sad too"), whereas
the ability to and describe how emotions evolve over other can
recognize their feelings in a vague way
recognize people only

time, such as how shock can turn into "I feel bad"; Barrett, Gross, Christensen, & Benvenuto,
grief. (e.g.,
The fourth branch of emotional intelligence, managing emo 2001). In addition, sharing traumatic personal experiences
can

tions, consists of the ability

to
regulate emotions in both our often help people achieve emotional closure, leading to better
selves and in others. Everyone is familiar with times in their lives long-term emotional and physical health (Pennebaker, 1997).
when they have temporarily, and sometimes embarrassingly, lost Based on the four-branch model of emotional intelligence, we
control of their emotions. The fourth branch also includes the can
interpret Frederickson's work as
important to branch two,
to manage the emotions of others. For an emo emotions. Barrett et al.'s research on
ability example, using Furthermore, (2001)

tionally intelligent politician might increase her own anger and emotional differentiation relates to the third branch of emotional
use it to deliver a
powerful speech in order to arouse righteous intelligence, understanding emotions. Pennebaker's (1997)
anger in others. Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person findings tie nicely with the fourth branch, managing emotions.
in
can harness emotions, even
negative ones, and manage them to Emotional intelligence provides an organizing heuristic that
achieve intended goals. helps us to understand the relationships among reported findings
and guides directions for future research.

EMOTIONALINTELLIGENCEINCONTEXT
MEASURINGEMOTIONALINTELLIGENCE
Intrinsic to the four-branch model of emotional intelligence is
the idea that these skills cannot exist outside of the social con The first tests of emotional intelligence consisted of self-report
text in which In order to use these skills, one must scales, which ask to rate themselves on a number of
they operate. people
be aware of what is considered appropriate behavior by the characteristics (e.g. displaying patience, having good relation

people with whom one interacts. This point is central to our

ships, tolerating stress well) that the authors of such tests believe
discussion of how to measure emotional emotional However, scores on
intelligence. represent intelligence. self-report
We consider the role of emotional intelligence in personality to tests of emotional intelligence such as these are
highly
corre

be similar to that played by traditional, analytic intelligence. lated with standard personality
constructs such as extroversion

Specifically, emotional intelligence is a set of interrelated skills and neuroticism (Brackett & Mayer, 2003). Such tests raise two
that allows people
to process emotionally relevant information difficult questions: whether people are sufficiently aware of their
efficiently and accurately (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). own emotional abilities to report upon them accurately, and

Although emotional intelligence correlates to some extent with whether people answer the questions truthfully instead of re
tests that measure verbal abilities, it overlaps with in a socially desirable manner. To address these
only modestly porting prob
standard measures of personality such as those organized the lems, tests such as the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso
by ability-based

Big Five personality traits: openess to experience, conscien Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) were constructed (Mayer,
tiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Our Salovey, & Caruso, 2002).
conceptualization therefore defines emotional intelligence
as a The MSCEIT is a 40-minute battery that may be completed
set of skills or rather than traits. either on paper or computer. a abilities on
competenencies personality By testing person's
Whether these skills as a whole in every social each of the four branches of emotional intelligence, it generates
operate similarly
context is a question further research. It is possible scores for each of the branches as well as a total score
requiring (see Figs.
that people may differ in emotional intelligence for different 1-4 for items similar to those on the MSCEIT for each of the four
kinds of emotions or that some individuals are better able to branches). Central to the four-branch model is the idea that
harness their emotional in social or other situations. emotional attunement to social norms.
intelligence intelligence requires
These sorts of contextual much more investi Therefore, the MSCEIT is scored in a consensus fashion, with
questions require

gation. higher scores indicating higher overlap between an individual's

As noted one of the primary in proposing a answers and those a worldwide of thousands
earlier, purposes provided by sample
model of emotional was to a framework for of respondents. In addition, the MSCEIT can be expert scored, so
intelligence provide

investigators exploring individual differences in the processing that the amount of overlap is calculated between an individual's

of emotion-relevant information. In recent a number of answers and those a of 21 emotion re

years, provided by group

researchers have made discoveries searchers. both methods are reliable and
important suggesting places Importantly, yield
to look for such differences. For emotions can similar scores, indicating that both laypeople and experts pos
example, positive
broaden a of thoughts, to sess shared social about emotions (Mayer, Salovey,
temporarily person's repertoire leading knowledge
creative problem solving (Frederickson, 1998). People vary in Caruso, & Sitaremos, 2003).

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 Peter Salovey and Daisy Grewal

1t*A
3 4

3 4

Fig. 1. Example item similar to those from the perceiving emotions branch of
the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

Creating
an assessment
battery that successfully tests a con 2004). College-aged students were asked to take the MSCEIT, a
struct as broad as emotionalintelligence is challenging, but it Big Five personality test, and an array of measures that assessed

appears that theMSCEIT is an appropriate starting point. Scores the frequency of engaging in various behaviors. Males who
on each of the four branches (perceiving, using, understanding, scored lower on the MSCEIT reported engaging in more recre
correlate with one another, and the branch ational use and more alcohol. In addition, these
managing) modestly drug consuming
and overall scores are reliable et al., more
(Mayer 2003). Lopes, participants reported having unsatisfying relationships

Salovey, and Straus (2003) found small positive correlations with their friends. Even when controlling for the effects of par
between scores on the MSCEIT and the Big Five traits of ticipants' personality and for analytic intelligence, the findings
agreeableness and conscientiousness. However, not
only does involving emotional intelligence remained significant (this is
the MSCEIT appear to test emotional abilities rather than per true also for the other MSCEIT studies discussed in this article).
sonality traits, it also does not correlate with scales that measure Lopes et al. (2003) administered the MSCEIT to a sample of
a person's likelihood to respond in socially desirable ways. college students, along with questionnaires that assessed self

reported satisfaction with social relationships. Participants who

scored higher on the MSCEIT were more likely to report having

FINDINGSUSINGTHE MSCEIT positive relationships with others, including greater perceived
support from their parents and fewer negative interactions with

Since the concept first became popular, eager advocates of their close friends.
emotional intelligence have claimed that emotional skills matter A limitation of the two studies described above is that they
in almost all areas of life?from career success to
being liked by
used the MSCEIT to predict the self-reported quality of social
others. of these claims await test, re et al. (2004), however, examined the rela
Although many empirical relationships. Lopes
search using theMSCEIT has corroborated a few of them and has tionship between individuals' emotional intelligence and reports
offered some new insights. We have explored the importance of of their attributes by their peers. American college students took
how these skills operate within interpersonal interaction, and the MSCEIT and were asked to have two of their close friends
clinical researchers have speculated about using theMSCEIT in rate their personal qualities. The students who scored higher
on

the assessment of psychopathology. We begin with a study the MSCEIT received more positive ratings from their friends.
looking at the relationship between emotional intelligence and The friends also reported that students high in emotional intel
antisocial behavior. ligence were more likely to provide them with emotional support
Emotional intelligence is negatively associated with deviant in times of need. Emotionally intelligent people may have the
behavior in male adolescents & Warner, to increase favorable within a
(Brackett, Mayer, capacity reciprocity relationship.

What mood(s) might be helpful to feel when meeting in-laws for the
very first time?
Not Useful Useful
a) Tension 12 3 4 5

b) Surprise 12 3 4 5

c)Joy 12 3 4 5

Fig. 2. Example item similar to those from the using emotions branch of the
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

Volume 14?Number 6 283

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 Emotional Intelligence

Tom felt anxious, and became a bit stressed when he thought

about all the work he needed to do. When his supervisor brought
him an additional project, he felt_.

a) Overwhelmed

b) Depressed

c) Ashamed

d) Self Conscious

e) Jittery

Fig. 3. Example item similar to those from the understanding emotions

branch of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
(MSCEIT).

In another study, German students were asked to

keep diaries MSCEIT. All employees were asked to rate each other on the
of their daily social interactions (Lopes et al., 2004). Those qualities they displayed at work, such as handling stress and
students who scored higher on the MSCEIT reported greater conflict well and displaying leadership potential. Supervisors
success in their social interactions with members of the opposite were also asked to rate their employees. Employees with higher
sex. For were more to report that had scores on the MSCEIT were rated their as easier to
example, they likely they by colleagues
come across in a competent or attractive manner and that their deal with and as more for creating a work
responsible positive
them as desirable environment. Their rated them as more
opposite-sex partner perceived having qual supervisors interper
ities, such as intelligence and friendliness. sonally sensitive, more tolerant of stress, more sociable, and

Emotional intelligence may also help people in relationships having greater potential for leadership. Moreover, higher scores
with their partners and spouses. One study examined the emo on the MSCEIT were related to higher salary and more promo
tional intelligence of 180 college-age couples (Brackett, Cox, tions. Despite its small sample, the study shows exciting
new

Gaines, & Salovey, 2005). They completed the MSCEIT and then evidence that emotional intelligence may in fact play
an im

answered questions about the quality of their relationships. The portant role in career success
(Lopes, Grewal, Kadis, Gall, &

couples were classified by how matched they were in emotional Salovey, in press).

intelligence. The couples in which both individuals scored low

on the MSCEIT reported the greatest unhappiness with their FUTUREDIRECTIONS
relationship, as compared to the happiness ratings of the other
two groups. The in which both were We have discussed the four-branch model of emotional intelli
couples partners emotionally

intelligent were very happy. Furthermore, couples inwhich only gence and its utility as a guiding framework for research on
one partner had high emotional intelligence tended to fall be emotions. In addition, we have described a
recently developed
tween the other groups in happiness.
ability-based test of emotional intelligence, the MSCEIT, and its
Emotional also may matter at work. A of value as a tool with which to assess a emotion-related
intelligence sample person's
employees of a Fortune 500 insurance company, who worked in abilities. We view the MSCEIT as an in the assessment
early step
small teams each headed a the of emotional New interactive should
by supervisor, completed intelligence. technologies

1. Debbie just came back from vacation. She was feeling peaceful
and content. How well would each action preserve her mood?

Action 1 :She started to make a list of things at home that she needed to
do.

Very Ineffective.. 1.2.3.4.5..Very Effective

Action 2: She began thinking about where and when she would go on her
next vacation.

Very Ineffective.. 1.2.3.4.5..Very Effective

Action 3: She decided itwas best to ignore the feeling since itwouldn't last
anyway.

Very Ineffective.. 1.2.3.4.5..Very Effective

Fig. 4. Example item similar to those from the managing emotions branch of
the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

284 Volume 14?Number 6

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 Peter Salovey and Daisy Grewal

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