RCC

1. Material
a) Strength of concrete
• Strength of concrete depends upon proportions of material used, water cement ratio and proper
curing.
• Tensile strength
𝑓"# = 0.7(𝑓")
• Elastic modulus (short term)
𝐸 = 5000(𝑓")
• Creep coefficient is ultimate creep strain divided by
Age of loading Creep coefficient
elastic strain at the age of the loading.
7 days 2.2
𝐸
𝐸" = 28 days 1.6
1+𝜃
b) Grade of concrete 1 year 1.1
Concrete Grade Used for
Lean concrete
Ordinary concrete M10 – M20
Minimum grade for RCC is M20
RCC
Standard concrete M25 – M60
Prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete
High strength concrete M65 – M100
Very high strength concrete
c) Compressive strength test
• In India compressive strength is obtained by testing 150mm concrete cubes in compressive testing
machine. Compressive strength of cubes on 28th day after casting is considered as Characteristic
strength of concrete (𝑓") ).
• For day to day testing of concrete at site about 6 to 8 cubes are casted in one sample
¨ 3 or 4 cubes are tested at 7th day after casting
¨ 3 or 4 cubes are tested at 28th day after casting
• When testing is done using cylinders
¨ 150mm dia and 300 mm long concrete cylindrical specimen may also be used for
calculating compressive strength of concrete.
¨ Cylindrical compressive strength is found to be about 80% of cube strength.
¨ This is due to slenderness effect of cylinder and due to end friction. Failure pattern get
changed in cylinder.
Grade of Minimum compressive Specified characteristic compressive
concrete strength N/mm2 at 7 days strength N/mm2 at 28 days
M15 10 15
M20 13.5 20
M25 17 25
M30 20 30
M35 23.5 35
M40 27 40
M45 30 45
• Characteristic strength: it is based on 28 day strength of cube, It is the value of strength below
th

which not more than 5% of cube test results are expected to fall.
• Mean strength
𝑓1 = 𝑓") + 1.65𝜎
¨ 𝜎 is standard deviation (calculated from 30 sample §cl.9.2.4.1, IS 456)
¨ Higher value of standard deviation shows poor quality control at site due to which
strength of concrete is not found uniform.
1
 ¨ §cl 9.2.4.2 where sufficient results for a particular grade of concrete are not available,
value in the table below can be used for design mix for first instance.
Grade of concrete Standard deviation
M10 – M15 3.5 N/mm2
M20 – M25 4.0 N/mm2
M30 and higher 5.0 N/mm2
d) Acceptance Criteria for concrete (§cl 16.1)
• Compressive strength
¨ For all concrete M15 and above the mean strength determined from any group of four
consecutive test results should comply with
𝑓 + 0.825𝜎 Individual test result
𝑓1 ≥ 5 ")
𝑓") + 3 ≥ 𝑓") − 3
¨ The test results of the sample shall be the average of the strength of three specimens. The
individual variation should not be more than ±𝟏𝟓% of the average. If more, the test
results of the sample are invalid. §cl.15.4
• Flexural strength
¨ Mean strength of any group of consecutive test results
𝑓1 ≥ 𝑓") + 0.3 Individual test result ≥ 𝑓") − 0.3
e) Frequency of sampling (§cl.15.2.2)
• 1 sample has 8 cubes
• The minimum frequency of sampling of concrete of each grade shall be in accordance with the
following.
Quantity of concrete in Number of samples
the work, m3
1-5 1
6-15 2
16-30 3
31-50 4
51 and above 4+1
Additional sample for
each additional 50m3
or thereafter
f) Concrete mixes
Nominal mix Design mix
Ø A fixed portion like 1:2:4 or 1:1.5:3 Ø Design of proportion of different materials
of concrete is used in the mix for concrete to get desired strength of
Ø Show volumetric ratios of materials concrete at site.
Ø Quality of material used is not Ø Before start of work at site, mix of concrete
considered need to be designed by a reputed institution
Ø Used for rough concrete work in or laboratories to confirm the quality.
small quantity Ø Design mix is done before start of work or
Ø Generally used for concrete less than whenever required, by using actual sample
M20 grade of materials brought from site and by using
Ø It is assumed that the desired strength proportion of material by weight.
will be obtained. Ø 𝑓") + 1.65𝜎 is the target mean strength
g) Modulus of elasticity
• Slope of stress strain curve is called Young’s modulus of elasticity. It is measured as
¨ Tangent modulus
o Slope of tangent at any point of stress strain curve is called tangent modulus of
elasticity. This is instantaneous value of modulus of elasticity.
2
 BC
o 𝐸=>?@A?= =
BD
¨ Secant modulus
o Slope of line joining any point of stress strain curve to origin is called secant
modulus of elasticity, also called static modulus of elasticity.
=F=>G I?"#A>EA I? E=#AEE
o 𝐸EA">?= =
=F=>G I?"#A>EA I? E=#>I?
o𝐸" = 5000(𝑓") is the recommended value in IS456 is the secant modulus of
elasticity at 1/3 fck stress value.
¨ Modulus of elasticity of concrete at origin is also called dynamic modulus of elasticity. It
is measured by resonant frequency test and ultrasonic pulse velocity test method.
o 𝐸JK = 5000(𝑓")
o Within the elastic limit at every point all three values of modulus of elasticity
are same
o 𝐸=>?@A?= = 𝐸EA">?= = 5000(𝑓")
• Creep
¨ It is time dependent deformation due to a continuous static loading (stress) acting on an
elastic material for a long period of time. In addition to other factors which cause
shrinkage, creep depends on age of loading, duration of loading and stress in concrete.
LG=I1>=A "#AAM E=#>I?
¨ Creep coefficient 𝜃 = AG>E=I" E=#>I? >= =NA >@A FO GF>BI?@
PQQQ(ORS
¨ Long term or effective modulus of elasticity 𝐸"G = TUV
• Poison’s ratio
¨ Value = 0.1 to 0.3
¨ 𝜇 = 0.2 is used in design
G>=A#>G E=#>I?
¨ 𝜇 = GF?@I=XBI?>G E=#>I?
¨ Initial poison’s ratio is less but beyond elastic limit poison’s ratio increases sharply.
h) Steel
• Requirements of a good steel for RCC
¨ It should have high tensile strength
¨ Should develop perfect bond to transfer stress
¨ It should be cheap, easily available and durable.
¨ The coefficient of thermal expansion should be nearly same as that of concrete, for
obtaining a good composite action.
¨ It should not react with other ingredients of RCC
• Strength of different types of bars
Type Characteristic yield Permissible stress Properties
strength 𝑓C in WSM 𝜎E=
Mild steel bars 250 140 High ductility, low strength, most
suitable for earthquake point of view
Medium tensile steel 350 190 Medium ductility, medium strength,
not used widely
HYSD bars or CTD 415 230 Low ductility, high strength, mostly
(cold twisted) used but not for earthquake

500 275 Steel more than Fe500 are not

recommended for earthquake
resistant structure

3
 TMT bars (thermo 415 230 High ductility, high strength, mostly
mechanically treated) used for earthquake resistant
structure, have softer inner core with
500 275 very hard and tough outer rim in this
steel, it is prepared with special heat
treatment.
i) Tensile strength of concrete
• Two-point load method
¨ Two point load is applied at the middle third points on a concrete beam, these are applied
to keep a constant BM in central one third portion of beam.
¨ Load is increased till failure of section, and flexural tensile strength is calculated by
Z
¨ 𝜎Y = J
𝑦
• Split tensile strength test
¨ It is performed on cylindrical concrete test specimen of dia 150mm and height 300mm.
¨ Line load is applied along length of member
\]
¨ Split tensile strength =
^_`
¨ Bending tensile strength (modulus of rapture) is derived from this value
j) Permissible stresses in WSM
• MAINS
k) Exposure conditions
Mild Moderate Severe Very severe Extreme
Rain water Not Exposed to rain Exposed to severe
exposed but not severe rain rain
to rain
Normal water Immersed in Alternate wetting
water and drying
Sea coast area Not exposed to Inside sea water, Exposed to sea Member in
sea cost Exposed to sea water spray tidal zone
environment in coast area
coastal area
Other condition In contact with In contact
underground with harmful
aggressive sub soil chemicals
Exposure to severe
freezing
Minimum grade M20 M25 M30 M35 M40
Minimum cover
20 30 45 50 75
(mm)
Minimum cement
300 300 320 340 360
content Kg/m3
Maximum water
0.55 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.40
cement ratio
l) Nominal cover
• It is the clear cover, from outer face of concrete to outer face of outer most steel (main or stirrups).
• Minimum cover of different members for Mild exposure condition
Slab 20 mm
Beam 25 mm
Column 40 mm
Water tank 45 mm
Foundation 50 mm

4
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2. WSM
a) Introduction
• Working stress method is based on actual stresses developed in concrete and steel due to actual
loads applied over the structure. The stresses developed due to actual loads at any point of time
shall not exceed its permissible values
𝑓") 𝑜𝑟 𝑓C
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑂𝑆
• Total FOS is applied to stress values only.
• For concrete total FOS is nearly 3 for 𝜎"Y"
• For steel total FOS is 1.8 𝜎E= = 0.55𝑓C
b) Assumptions (§B-1.3)
• Plane section remains plane
• Tensile strength of concrete is neglected
• Stress strain relation is straight line
• Modular ratio
280
𝑚=
3𝜎"Y"
¨ Where 𝜎"Y" is permissible compressive stress due to bending in concrete in N/mm2
¨ The expression for m partially takes into account long-term effects such as creep.
Therefore, this m is not the same as the modular ratio derived based on the value of E.
c) Analysis
• For uncracked section
o
¨ Steel is converted to equivalent concrete area using modular ratio (𝑚) = op
R

¨ Equivalent area 𝐴Ar = 𝑏𝐷 + (𝑚 − 1)𝐴E=

¨ Depth of neutral axis
𝐷
𝑏𝐷 ∙ 2 + (𝑚 − 1)𝐴E= ∙ 𝑑
𝑦t =
𝐴Ar
o Find 𝐼Ar
o Find stresses and check if cracked or not.
• For cracked section
¨ Actual value of Neutral axis is determined by equating moment of area on both side of
NA
𝑥
(𝐵𝑥> ) > = 𝑚𝐴E= (𝑑 − 𝑥> )
2
¨ Find 𝐶 & 𝑇
D
¨ Lever arm 𝑑 − ~}
d) Types of section
• Moment of resistance: it is maximum value of BM due to which either steel or concrete or both
get their maximum permissible value.
• Under reinforced section: these are always preferred due to ductile failure as stress in steel have
reached to its maximum permissible value.
• Over reinforced section: these are not preferred as concrete reaches its maximum permissible
value. And brittle failure can occur.
• Balanced section: if the area of steel provided is such that stress reach in concrete and steel
simultaneously to maximum value, it is called balanced section, generally when size of beam is
not fixed, the section is designed as balanced section.
e) Analysis of balanced section
5
 𝜎E=
𝜎"Y" 𝑚 Steel k
=
𝑥X (𝑑 − 𝑥X ) Fe250 0.4
𝑚𝜎"Y" 𝑥X
= Fe415 0.289
𝜎E= 𝑑 − 𝑥X
𝑥X 𝑚𝜎"Y" Fe500 0.253
=
𝑑 𝜎E= + 𝑚𝜎"Y"
𝑥X 93.33
= =𝑘
𝑑 𝜎E= + 93.33
• 𝑘 it is called critical neutral axis depth factor, which only depends on the type of steel.
\•Q
• 𝑚𝜎"Y" = ~
= 93.33
f) DESIGN
• When size of beam is not known, in this case we design a balanced section.
• Moment of resistance
1 𝑥X
𝑀𝑂𝑅 = 𝐵𝑥X 𝜎"Y" „𝑑 − …
2 3
1 𝑘
= 𝐵(𝑘𝑑)𝜎"Y" 𝑑 †1 − ‡
2 3
1
= † 𝜎"Y" 𝑗𝑘‡ 𝐵𝑑\
2
= 𝑄𝐵𝑑\
𝑀
𝑑=Š
𝑄𝐵
• Design coefficients
Fe250 Fe415 Fe500
𝑚𝜎"Y"
𝑘= 0.4 0.289 0.253
𝜎E= + 𝑚𝜎"Y"
𝑘
𝑗 =1− 0.867 0.904 0.916
3
1
𝑄 = † 𝜎"Y" 𝑗𝑘‡ 0.1734𝜎"Y" 0.1306𝜎"Y" 0.1158𝜎"Y"
2
• In case of fixed size of beam
¨ Check the balanced BM, if the applied BM is less, then design as under reinforced
¨ In under reinforced design actual neutral axis is found by solving quadratic equation and
then area of steel can be found.
¨ If the applied bending moment is more than the balanced bending moment then doubly
reinforced beam need to be designed.
o The value of modular ratio in compression reinforcement = 1.5𝑚
o This higher value of 1.5m for 𝐴E" is taken due to higher creep effect observed in
compression steel as compared to tension steel.
g) Doubly reinforced section
• When the size of beam is restricted and moment applied is more than the MOR of a balanced
section. Doubly reinforced beam is required.
• Owing to continued compressive stress, the concrete undergoes creep strains, which leads to
increase in the strain in concrete with time. The steel reinforcement in the compression zone is
already under compressive stress and above-mentioned creep strain along with creep strain in
compressive steel increases the compressive strain in steel many folds.
¨ Hence, as compared to surrounding concrete, the total compressive strain in compressive
steel is much greater as a result of the flexure.
• Area of steel is calculated in two parts

6
 𝐴E= = 𝐴E=Y>G + 𝐴E=\
𝑥
𝐴E=Y>G 𝜎E= „𝑑 − … = 𝑀Y>G
3
𝑀X − 𝑀Y>G
𝐴E=\ =
𝜎E= (𝑑 − 𝑑Œ )
• For finding Area of steel in compression zone
¨ Compressive force = tensile force
(1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴E" 𝜎 = 𝜎E= 𝐴E=\
• •R•R
¨ Where, DŽB• = D
• Moment of resistance
¨ First critical and actual depth of neutral axis is determined.
•R•R
¨ 𝑥" = ‘p’
•R•R U
“

¨ Equating moment of area on both side of NA

𝑥
𝐵𝑥 + (1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴E" (𝑥 − 𝑑Œ ) = 𝑚𝐴E= (𝑑 − 𝑥)
2
¨ After finding the actual neutral axis, compare it with the critical value of NA.
o For balanced section only the stress in concrete and steel reaches the permissible
value.
o For under-reinforced section, i.e. 𝑥> < 𝑥"
§ 𝜎E= will be reached, calculate corresponding stress in concrete using
linear stress relationship.
o For over-reinforced section, i.e. 𝑥> > 𝑥"
§ 𝜎"Y" will be reached, calculate corresponding stress in concrete and at
the level of compression reinforcement.
𝐵𝑥 𝑥 Œ (𝑑
𝑀𝑂𝑅 = 𝑓"Y" „𝑑 − … + (1.5𝑚 − 1)𝐴E" 𝑓"Y" − 𝑑Œ )
2 3
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3. Limit state design
a) Introduction
• In LSM FOS is applied partially to stress value and load values.
¨ 𝛾1" = 1.5
¨ 𝛾1E = 1.15
¨ Net factor of safety in concrete = 3.33
¨ Net factor of safety in steel = 1.725
• Load factor of safety
Load combination Limit state of collapse Limit state of serviceability
DL LL WL DL LL WL
DL + LL 1.5 1.5 — 1 1 —
DL + WL/EQ 1.5/0.9* — 1.5 1 — 1
DL + LL + WL/EQ 1.2 1.2 1.2 1 0.8 0.8
¨ Earth quake and wind load are not considered at the same time.
¨ 0.9 value of DL is to be considered when stability against overturning or sliding is critical.
b) Design stress
• In steel
𝑓C
𝑓BE =
= 0.87𝑓C
1.15
• For design purposes the compressive strength of concrete in rcc structure shall be assumed to be
0.67 times the characteristic strength
0.67𝑓")
𝑓B" = = 0.45𝑓")
1.5
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 4. Flexure singly reinforced
a) Assumptions: (§ 38.1)
• These assumptions are valid only for shallow beams where the span to depth ratio is greater than
2.5
• Plane section normal to the axis of bending remains plain after bending.
• Maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fiber is taken as 0.0035
• The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain in concrete
may be assumed to be rectangle, trapezoid, parabola or any other shape which results in the
prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of tests.
¨ An acceptable stress-strain curve is given in code.
¨ For design purposes, the compressive strength of concrete in structure shall be assumed
to be 0.67𝑓") . The partial safety factor 𝛾1" = 1.5 shall be applied in addition to this.
• Tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
• The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from representative stress-strain curve for the type of
steel used.
¨ For design purposes, the partial safety factor 𝛾1E = 1.15 shall be applied.
• Maximum strain in the tension reinforcement of the section at failure shall not be less than
𝑓C
𝜖E ≮ + 0.002
1.15𝐸E
b) Analysis
• Compressive force
𝐶X = 0.36𝑓") 𝑥X 𝑏
• Location of 𝐶X 0.42𝑥X from
top
• Tensile force
𝑇X = 0.87𝑓C 𝐴E=
c) Limiting value of moment

𝑀XGI1 𝑥X 𝑥X
= 0.36𝑓 ") „ … „1 − 0.42 …
𝑏𝑑\ 𝑑 𝑑
𝑀XGI1 = 𝑄𝑏𝑑\
𝒇𝒚 𝑥X1>D 𝑗 = 1 − 0.42𝑘 𝑄 = 0.36𝑘𝑗 ∙ 𝑓")
𝑘=
𝑑
250 0.53 0.78 0.148𝑓")
415 0.48 0.80 0.138𝑓")
500 0.46 0.807 0.134𝑓")
• The balanced design gives smallest concrete section and maximum area of
reinforcement. Since the cost of steel is quite high, an under-
reinforced section, which gives larger concrete area and smaller value
of 𝑝= , is always desirable in the limit state design.
d) Procedure for finding Moment of Resistance (MOR) of a given section
• Calculate 𝑥X 1>D
• Find actual depth of neutral axis (NA) by equation forces
𝑥X 0.87𝑓C 𝐴E=
=
𝑑 0.36𝑓") 𝑏𝑑
If 𝑥X >"=X>G < 𝑥X 1>D ,
𝑀𝑂𝑅 = 0.87𝑓C 𝐴E= (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥X )
section is Under reinforced
If 𝑥X >"=X>G > 𝑥X 1>D 𝑀𝑂𝑅 = 𝑀XGI1
8
 section is, Over Reinforced
e) Design of rectangular beam section for Unknown Dimension
• For unknown dimension, if self-weight is to be included in the load, then the dimension must be
G
known. So, assume a temporary dimension for load calculation, 𝑑~ TQ
• Calculate 𝑀X and compare it with 𝑀XGI1 value from the table. If 𝑀X < 𝑀XGI1 then such assumed
dimension is appropriate for single under-reinforced section.
• Proceed to calculation of area of steel 𝐴E=
f) If cross section dimension is given i.e. 𝑀X , 𝑏, 𝑑
• Determine 𝑀X GI1 if
𝑀X = 𝑀X GI1 Balanced section will be designed
𝑀X > 𝑀X GI1 Doubly reinforced section needs to be designed
𝑀X < 𝑀X GI1 Under-reinforced section will be designed
• 𝑀X < 𝑀X GI1 (under-reinforced)
¨ Determine actual 𝑥X (cannot be determined by force balance, as 𝐴E= is not known)
o 𝑀X = 0.36𝑓") 𝑏𝑥X (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥X )
o Forms a quadratic equation in 𝑥X
¨ Find 𝐴E= by using above found value of 𝑥X
o 𝑀X = 0.87𝑓C 𝐴E= (𝑑 − 0.416𝑥X )
• Alternatively, above steps can be skipped by remembering this formula
𝐴E= 1 𝑓") 4.6 𝑀X
𝑝= = = •1 − Š1 − ž
𝑏𝑑 = 2 𝑓C 𝑓") 𝑏𝑑\
5. Flexure Doubly Reinforced
a) Strain relationship
𝜖E" 𝜖E= 0.0035
= =
𝑥X − 𝑑" 𝑑 − 𝑥X 𝑥X
0.0035
𝜖E" = (𝑥X − 𝑑" )
𝑥X
0.0035
𝜖E= = (𝑑 − 𝑥X )
𝑥X
• 𝑓E" and 𝑓E= can be found using stress strain curve.
Fe 415 or Fe 500
Fe 250
In curved region
Ø Strain value where plastic deformation ¤ O
Ø If 𝜖E ≫ T.TPo + 0.002
starts p

0.87 × 250 𝑓E" = 0.87𝑓C

𝜖Ÿ =
2 × 10P
Ø If actual strain value calculated is greater Ø 𝜖E is in the table range find stress by
than 𝜖E" ,lies in plastic region interpolation
𝑓E" = 0.87𝑓C
Ø Else, 𝜖E"> ≤ 𝜖E" , linear portion Ø 𝜖E < lowest value in table
𝑓E" = 𝜖E"> × 𝐸E 𝑓E" = 𝜖E × 𝐸E

b) Stress block analysis

• Compressive force (concrete + steel)
𝐶X = 𝐶"X + 𝐶EX
= 0.36𝑓") 𝑥X 𝑏 − 0.45𝑓") 𝐴E" + 𝑓E" 𝐴E"
= 0.36𝑓") 𝑥X 𝑏 + 𝐴E" (𝑓E" − 0.45𝑓") )
≈ 0.36𝑓") 𝑥X 𝑏 + 𝑓E" 𝐴E"

9
 ¨ If concrete area replaced by steel is neglected
• Tensile force
𝑇X = 0.87𝑓C 𝐴E=
• For finding NA
¨ 𝐶X = 𝑇X
¨ Process is iterative
o Assume 𝑥X = 𝑥X 1>D for first iteration
o Compute value of 𝜀E"
o Find value of 𝑓E" using table for HYSD and for mild streel
𝑓E" = 𝜀E" 𝐸 ≤ 0.87𝑓C
• Moment of resistance
𝑀 = 𝐶T 𝐿𝐴T + 𝐶\ 𝐿𝐴\
= 𝐶T (𝑑 − 𝑥X ) + 𝐶\ (𝑑 − 𝑑" )
c) DESIGN of a Doubly reinforced section
• A doubly reinforced section is equivalent to a singly reinforced balanced section, with additional
tension and compression reinforcement.
𝐴E= T area of tension reinforcement for 𝑀X GI1 𝐴E= \ additional tension reinforcement
𝑓") 𝑥X 1>D 𝑀X> − 𝑀X GI1
𝑝= = 0.42 „ … 𝐴E= \ =
𝑓C 𝑑 0.87𝑓C (𝑑 − 𝑑Œ )
𝐴E" compression reinforcement
𝑀X> − 𝑀X GI1
𝐴E" =
(𝑓E" − 0.45𝑓") )(𝑑 − 𝑑Œ )
Q.QQ~P
Ø 𝑓E" – is calculated using strain relationship 𝜀E" = (𝑥X − 𝑑Œ )
D¨
6. Flexure in Flanged section
a) Effective width of flange in T section
Continuous Isolated
l¬ l¬
T beam bª = + 6Dª + b® bª = + b®
6 l¬ /b +4
l¬ 0.5 l¬
L beam bª = + 3Dª + b® bª = + b®
12 l¬ /b + 4
¨ 𝑙F – distance between point of zero moment, for continuous beam 0.7𝑙°ªª
¨ 𝑏 – width of isolated flange.
b) Analysis
• Case I
¨ 𝑥X ≤ 𝐷O NA lies inside flange.
¨ Use rectangular beam equations.
• 𝑥X > 𝐷O
¨ Total compressive force 𝐶X can be written as sum of contribution by web (𝐶X± ) and
remaining flange ²𝐶XO ³
𝐶X = 𝐶X± + 𝐶XO
= 0.36𝑓") 𝑏± 𝑥X + 0.45𝑓") ²𝑏O − 𝑏± ³𝒚𝒇
¨ The flange contribution 𝐶XO can be computed by approximating the actual stress block
(rectangular + parabolic) by a rectangular stress block of depth 𝒚𝒇 , having same peak
stress 0.45𝑓")
𝑦O = 0.15𝑥X + 0.65𝐷O ≤ 𝐷O
• Depth of NA
¨ 𝐶X± + 𝐶XO = 0.87𝑓C 𝐴E=

10
 o Find 𝑥X such that 𝑦O < 𝐷O
o Else recalculate 𝑥X taking 𝑦O = 𝐷O
• Case II
~D¨
¨ 𝐷O ≤
´
¨ Only rectangular portion lies in the flange area, no need to calculate 𝑦O
𝐶X± = 0.36𝑓") 𝑏± 𝑥X 𝐶XO = 0.45𝑓") ²𝑏O − 𝑏± ³𝐷O
𝑀X± = 𝐶X± (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥X ) 𝑀XO = 𝐶XO (𝑑 − 0.5𝐷O )
• Case III
~D¨
¨ 𝐷O >
´
¨ Both rectangular and parabolic portion lies in flange area. So 𝑦O needs to be calculated.
𝐶X± = 0.36𝑓") 𝑏± 𝑥X 𝐶XO = 0.45𝑓") ²𝑏O − 𝑏± ³𝒚𝒇
𝑀X± = 𝐶X± (𝑑 − 0.42𝑥X ) 𝑀XO = 𝐶XO (𝑑 − 0.5𝑦O )
c) DESIGN
• Assume 𝑥X = 𝐷O , compute 𝑀XT from rectangular beam formula.
¨ If 𝑀XT > 𝑀X_ , NA falls in flange find 𝐴E=
~
• If 𝑀XT < 𝑀X_ , NA falls outside the flange, assume ´ 𝑥X = 𝐷O compute 𝑀X\
¨ If 𝑀X\ > 𝑀X_
´
o 𝑥X < ~ 𝐷O and trial and error to find 𝑥X by equating it to 𝑀X_
• If 𝑀X\ < 𝑀X_
~
¨ 𝑥
´ X
> 𝐷O no need to find 𝑦O as flange will have rectangular portion, find 𝑥X and compute
area of steel.
7. Design for shear
a) Shear stress distribution in concrete cracked section

• Thus the shear stress distribution below the N.A. is rectangular. The shear stress distribution
above the N.A. is parabolic.
b) Critical section for shear
• Shear force at face of support is taken for design except as when,
• The support reaction is creating compression into the end region of member, then SF at a distance
𝒅 distance from face of support is taken as critical section.
c) Nominal shear stress
𝑉X
𝜏· =
𝑏𝑑
• In case of beam with varying depth
𝑀
𝑉X ± 𝑑X tan 𝛽
𝜏· =
𝑏𝑑
¨ 𝑀X – bending moment at the section

11
 ¨ The negative sign in the formula applies when the bending moment 𝑀X increases
numerically in the same direction as the effective depth 𝑑 increases, and the positive sign
when the moment decreases numerically in opposite direction as d.
d) Need of shear reinforcement
• Concrete is quite strong in shear, but the diagonal tension, which is caused by the combined
action of longitudinal tension and the transverse shearing stresses is to be resisted by the provision
of shear reinforcement or diagonal (or inclined tension) reinforcement or web reinforcement.
e) Design shear strength of concrete
• Without shear reinforcements the magnitude of design shear strength 𝜏" depends upon, area of
tension steel and grade of concrete.
• For Slab 𝜏" is modified by 𝑘, (§cl 40.2.1.1)
Over all depth D 300 or more 150 < 𝐷 < 300 150 or less
k 1 1.6 − 0.002𝐷 1.3
• Under axial compression
¨ Design shear is multiplied by
3𝑃X"
𝛿 =1+ ≰ 1.5
𝐴@ 𝑓")
¨ Load in N and area in mm2
f) Maximum shear stress 𝜏" 1>D
• Under no circumstances, even with shear reinforcement, shall the nominal shear stress 𝜏· in
beams exceed 𝜏" 1>D (to avoid diagonal compression)
À
• For solid slab, the nominal shear stress shall not exceed half the appropriate values given R “}Á
\
g) DESIGN
• Form the load values calculate the shear force at the critical section.
Q.•´O¤ Âpà B
• 𝑉X = EÃ
(sin 𝛼 + cos 𝛼)
¨ 𝑠· – spacing of reinforcements
¨ 𝐴E· – area in shear = 𝐴É × number of legs (2)
¨ 𝛼 – inclination of reinforcement
• Vertical stirrups
0.87𝑓C 𝐴E· 𝑑
𝑉X =
𝑠·
• For a single bar, or single group of bars, all bent up at the same cross-section,
¨ 𝑉X = 0.87𝑓C 𝐴E· sin 𝛼
• Spacing for vertical
0.87𝑓C 𝐴E·
𝑠· =
(𝜏· − 𝜏" )𝑏
h) Minimum spacing
• Nominal shear reinforcement is provided when maximum shear stress calculated is more than half
the permissible value.
À
¨ 𝜏· > R
\
0.87𝑓C 𝐴E·
𝑠· 1I? ≯
0.4𝑏
i)Maximum spacing
• The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of the member shall not
exceed 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝐝 for vertical stirrups and 𝑑 for inclined stirrups at 45°.
• In no case shall the spacing exceed 300 mm.
8. Anchorage and Bond
a) Design bond stress
12
 • The design bond stress (𝜏YB ) in limit state method for plain bars in tension shall be as given in
Table 26.2.1.1
Grade M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 and above
Design bond stress 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
• For Deformed bars these values shall be increased by 60%.
• For bars in Compression values of bond stress for bars in tension is increased by 25%.
b) Development length
𝜙𝜎E
𝐿B =
4𝜏YB
c) Anchoring reinforcing bars
• In tension:
¨ Deformed bars may be used without end anchorages provided development length
requirement is satisfied.
¨ Hooks should be provided for plain bars in tension, the anchorage value of bend should be
taken as 4𝜙 of bar for each 45° bend subjected to a maximum of 16𝜙.
¨ The anchorage value of a standard U-type hook shall be equal 16𝜙
• In compression:
¨ The anchorage length required for straight bar is equal to the length calculated from
formula.
¨ Only projected length beyond the bend is considered in for development length. §26.2.2.2
• In shear: §cl 26.2.2.4
d) Curtailment of reinforcement §26.2.3
• All steel, whether in tension or in compression, should extend 𝒅 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟐𝝓 whichever is greater
beyond the theoretical point of cut off (TCP).
• Flexural reinforcement shall not be terminated in a tension zone unless any one of the conditions
is satisfied.
¨ The shear at the cut-off point does not exceed two thirds that permitted, including the
shear strength of web reinforcement provided.
¨ Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear and torsion is provided along each
~
terminated bar over a distance of Ù 𝑑 of the member.
¨ For 36mm and smaller bars, the continuing bars provide double the area required for
flexure at the cutoff point and shear does not exceed ¾th that permitted.
• Rule for Positive moment reinforcement +
T T
¨ At least ~ positive moment reinforcement in simple members and Ù the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the same face of the member
`Ú
into the support to a length equal to ~
.
¨ When a flexural member is part of primary load resisting system, positive reinforcement
required to be extended into support, shall be anchored to develop its design stress in
tension at the face of support.
¨ At simple support and at points of inflection, positive moment tension reinforcement shall
be limited to a diameter such that 𝐿B computed does not exceed
𝑀T
𝐿B ≯ + 𝐿F
𝑉
o 𝑀T – MOR of the section assuming all reinforcements at the section to be
stressed to 0.87𝑓C
o 𝑉 – Shear force at the section due to design loads

13
 o 𝐿F – sum of anchorage beyond the centre of support and the equivalent
anchorage value of any hook or mechanical anchorage at simply support; and at
point of inflection. 𝐿F ≯ max(𝑑, 12𝜙)
Z
¨ If the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction, the value of „ ÝÜ …
may be increased by 30%
𝑀T
𝐿B ≯ 1.3 + 𝐿F
𝑉
• Rule for negative moment reinforcement (hogging)
T
¨ At least ~ of the total reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall
extend beyond the point of inflection (P.I.) for a distance not less than
𝑑
12𝜙
max Þ
1
𝑙
16 "
§ Clear span 𝑙"
• Curtailment of bundled bars
¨ Bars in bundle shall terminate at different points spaced apart by not less than 40𝜙 except
at support.
e) Splicing (lap length) §cl. 26.2.5
• Splices should not be at section where bending moment is more than 50% of MOR.
• Not more than half the size of bars shall be spliced at a section. (if done special precautions should
be taken)
• Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 36 mm; for larger diameters bars may be welded.
• Lap splices shall be considered as staggered if the centre to centre distance of the splices is not
less than 1.3 times the lap length.
• When two different diameter bars are lapped the lap length shall be provided as per minimum
diameter bars. (IS 456)
• Lap length cannot be less than, in
Flexural tension ≮ (𝐿B , 30𝜙)
Direct tension ≮ (2𝐿B , 30𝜙)
Compression ≮ (𝐿B , 24𝜙)
Straight length of lap
≮ (15𝜙, 200 mm)
shall not be
9. Torsion
a) Torsional reinforcement is not calculated separately from that required for bending and shear. Instead.
the total longitudinal reinforcement is determined for a fictitious bending moment, which is a function of
actual bending moment and torsion.
• Similarly, shear reinforcement (web reinforcement) is determined for a fictitious shear which is a
function of actual shear and torsion.
b) Shear and torsion (§41.3)
• Equivalent shear
1.6𝑇X
𝑉A = 𝑉X +
𝑏
Ýß
¨ 𝜏·A = YB
• If the equivalent shear 𝜏·A does not exceed 𝜏" , minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided.
c) If 𝜏·A > 𝜏" (§41.4)
• Longitudinal reinforcement: shall be designed to resist equivalent bending moment.
𝑀AT = 𝑀X + 𝑀=

14
 𝑇X 𝐷
𝑀= = †1 + ‡
1.7 𝑏
o 𝐷 – over all depth, 𝑏 – width
¨ If 𝑀= > 𝑀X longitudinal reinforcement is provided on the flexural compression face, such
that the beam can withstand an equivalent 𝑀A\ , which is taken as acting opposite sense to
the moment 𝑀X .
𝑀A\ = 𝑀= − 𝑀X
• Transverse reinforcement:
¨ Two-legged closed hoops enclosing the corner longitudinal bars shall have an area of
cross-section 𝐴E· given by
𝑇X 𝑠· 𝑉X 𝑠·
𝐴E· ≥ +
𝑏T 𝑑T ²0.87𝑓C ³ 2.5𝑑T ²0.87𝑓C ³
(ÀÃß ŽÀR )YEÃ
¨ 𝐴E· ≮ minimum reinforcement criteria.
Q.•´O¤
𝑏T = c-c distance between corner bars in the direction of width.
𝑑T = c-c distance between corner bars in the direction of depth.
d) Distribution of torsional reinforcement (§26.5.1.7)
• The transverse reinforcement for torsion shall be rectangular closed stirrups placed perpendicular
to the axis of the member. The spacing of the stirrups shall not exceed
𝑥T
𝑥T + 𝑦T
𝑠· ≯ min à ,
4
300
¨ 𝑥T , and 𝑦T , are respectively the short and long dimension of the stirrup cc.
• Longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed as close as practicable to the corners of the cross-
section and in all cases, there shall be at least one longitudinal bar in each corner of the ties.
¨ When the depth of web of a beam exceeds 450 mm, the side-face reinforcement shall be
provided along the two faces. The total area of such reinforcement shall not be less than
0.1 percent of the web area and shall be distributed equally on two faces at a spacing not
exceeding 300 mm or web thickness whichever is less. (when there is no
torsion, side-face reinforcements are provided for depth
greater than 750mm)
10. Deflection and cracking
a) Deflection limits (§ 23.2)
• The final deflection due to all loads including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage, and
measured from the as-cast level of the supports of floors, roofs and all other horizontal members,
should not normally exceed
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
ΔOI?>G =
250
• After erection of partitions and application of finishes should not normally exceed span/350 or 20
mm, whichever is less. (before load)
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
ΔI?= = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ã 350
20𝑚𝑚
• In case of prestressed concrete or upward deflection
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
ΔO ≯
300
b) Span and depth ratio
• The vertical deflection limits may generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the span to
effective depth ratio are not greater than the following.
Cantilever 7
Simply support 20

15
 Continuous 26
¨ The above recommendations are valid only when the spans are up to 10 m. For spans
above 10 m, above values may be multiplied by 10/span in metres, except for cantilevers
in which case deflection calculations should be made.
• Modification factors
¨ Tension reinforcement factor: fig §4, IS456, depending on the area and the stress of steel
of tension reinforcement, the values given above is modified by multiplying with the
modification factor.
o This factor depends on type of steel used and the percentage of tension
reinforcement at the point of maximum deflection. The values in point above is
modified by above factor.
äå°ä ¬ª Ÿæ°°ç å°èéêå°ë
o 𝑓E = 0.58𝑓C × äå°ä ¬ª Ÿæ°°ç ìå¬íêë°ë
¨ Compression reinforcement factor: fig §5, depends on percentage of compression
reinforcement the value of span/depth can further be modified by multiplying with factor
obtained from fig §5 of IS 456
¨ For flanged beam the above modification factor along with a reduction factor as given in
fig §6 is used, the reinforcement percentage is calculated on area of section 𝑏O 𝑑.
c) For two way slabs of shorter spans
• For slab spanning in two directions, the shorter of the two spans should be used for calculating the
span to effective depth ratios.
• For two way slab of shorter span (up to 3.5 m) with mild steel reinforcement, the span to overall
depth ratios (𝑙/𝐷) given below may generally be assumed to satisfy vertical deflection limits for
loading class up to 3 kN/m2
𝑙/𝐷 Mild steel HYSD • For high strength deformed bars of grade Fe
Simply supported 35 28 415, the values given multiplied by 0.8
Continuous 40 32

11. Design of beam and slab

a) Effective span
Types of beam or
𝐿°ªª
slab
𝑑 = effective depth
𝑙" + 𝑑
Simply supported 𝑙A = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 5 𝑠 = width of support
𝑙" + 𝑠
𝑙" = clear span
GR
Ø 𝑠 < T\ i.e. support is thin, same as SS
𝑙 +𝑑
𝑙A = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 5 "
𝑙" + 𝑠
Continuous G
Ø 𝑠 > T\R or 600 mm

Intermediate span End span overhanging

𝑙 + 𝑑/2
𝑙A = 𝑙" 𝑙A = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 5 "
𝑙" + 𝑠/2
B
Fixed support 𝑙A = 𝑙" + \
Cantilever E
Continuous overhang 𝑙A = 𝑙" + \
Frame c/c distance
b) Slenderness limit for beam to ensure lateral stability
clear distance between lateral supports
Simply 250𝑏\
≯ 60𝑏 or
supported 𝑑
16
 Cantilever 100𝑏\
≯ 25𝑏 or
𝑑
c) Reinforcement in Beams
Minimum Fe 250 0.34 %
𝐴E= 0.85 Fe 415 0.20 %
Tension =
𝑏𝑑 𝑓C Fe 500 0.17 %
Maximum 4% of gross area
Minimum Zero
Compression
Maximum 4% of gross area
Where the depth of the web in a beam exceeds 750 mm. Side face
reinforcement shall be provided along the two faces. The total area of such
Side face reinforcement shall be not less than 0.1 percent of the web area and shall be
distributed equally on two faces at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web
thickness whichever is less.
0.87𝑓C 𝐴E·
Minimum spacing 𝑠· ≤
0.4𝑏
The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of
Shear
the member shall not exceed 0.75 𝑑 for vertical stirrups and 𝑑 for inclined
stirrups at 45°.
In no case shall the spacing exceed 300 mm.
• Minimum distance between individual bars (§ 26.3.2)
¨ The horizontal (clear) distance between two parallel main reinforcing bars shall usually be
not less than the greatest of the following
o The diameter of the bar if the diameters are equal
o The diameter of the larger bar if the diameters are unequal, and
o 5 mm more than the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate.
¨ Where there are two or more rows of bars , the bars shall be vertically in line and the
minimum vertical distance between the bars shall be 15 mm, two-thirds the nominal
maximum size of aggregate or the maximum size of bar whichever is the greatest.
• Maximum distance between bars in tension (§ 26.3.3)
¨ Unless calculations of crack widths show that a greater spacing is acceptable, the
following rules shall be applied to flexural members in normal internal or external
conditions of exposure.
¨ Beams: §Table 15
¨ Slabs
o The horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcement shall not be more
than three times the effective depth of solid slab or 300 mm whichever is
smaller.
3𝑑
min of ï
300 mm
o The horizontal distance between distribution reinforcement shall not be more
than 5 times the effective depth of a solid slab or 450mm whichever is smaller.
5𝑑
min of ï
450 mm

d) Nominal cover to reinforcement (§ 26.4)

• Nominal cover is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel reinforcements, including links. It
is the dimension used in design and indicated in the drawings. It shall not be less than the
diameter of the bar. (clear cover)
• For durability requirement (§ table 16)

17
 Exposure Nominal concrete Ø For longitudinal bars in a column clear
cover in mm cover in in any case shall not be less
Mild 20 than 40 mm or diameter of such bar.
Moderate 30 Ø For footing minimum cover should be
Severe 45 50 mm.
Very severe 50 Ø For fire resistance §Table 16A
Extreme 75
e) Moment and shear coefficients (§cl 22.5)
• § table 12 and § table 13
• Unless more exact estimates are made, for beams of uniform cross-section which support
substantially uniformly distributed loads over three or more spans which do not differ by more
than 15 percent of the longest, the bending and shear forces used in design may be obtained using
the coefficients. (redistribution is not permitted)

Bending Moment Fixed T T T T

+ T\ − TQ + Tð − T\
coefficients (l°ªª ) T T T T
Not fixed + TQ −ñ + T\ −ñ

Shear Fixed 0.4 0.6 0.55 0.5

coefficients (𝑙" ) Not fixed 0.45 0.6 0.6 0.6
f) One-way Slab Design
`
• When a slab is supported on all edges but span ratio „`¤ … > 2 the slab is designed as one way
Á
slab. Main span of the slab is shorter span. Therefore main reinforcement shall be provided for
shorter span moment 𝑀XD in shorter span direction.
• Minimum reinforcement: (§ 26.5.2.1)
¨ The mild steel reinforcement in either direction in slabs shall not be less than 0.15% of
the total cross-sectional area. However this value can be reduced to 0.12% when high
strength deformed bars or welded wire fabric are used.
• Maximum diameter (§ 26.5.2.2)
¨ The diameter of the reinforcing bars shall not exceed one eighth of the total thickness of
the slab.
• DESIGN
¨ If depth is not given use span/depth ratio to fix the depth, use smaller length as span.
¨ Calculate the loads and the ultimate moment.
¨ Using the ultimate moment as 𝑀XGI1 calculate 𝑑, modify d and loads.
¨ For the new calculated moment, find the area of reinforcement. (main)
¨ Check for minimum spacing and minimum percentage.
¨ Provide distribution reinforcement.
g) Design of lintels
• Lintels are provided above the door and window openings. They are designed for the brick work
supported over the lintel. Its width is equal to the wall thickness.

18
 If the height (H) of brickwork above the lintel is such that
triangle at 60o angle is formed within brickwork of height (h),
then only the load from triangular portion will come on the
lintel, if H >1.25h.
Wall on both side should be greater than half effective span
of lintel.

If the H < 1.25 h then rectangular load will be transferred to

the lintel, as complete arch mechanism will not be able to
form.

If one side-wall is less than half effective size of lintel, then

rectangular load of height (h=L) is transferred to lintel.

If both the length of wall is less than half the effective span
of lintel the rectangular load of height (H) is transferred on
lintel.

In case of framed structure load is transferred to the column

and load from beam does not come on lintel, so only
rectangular load is transferred. (if triangle is not formed).

In case of load carrying slab. Load between lintel and slab,

load on slab and triangular load above slab is transferred to
lintel

12. Two-way slab

a) Introduction
• When the slab is supported on all the four edges, and when the ratio of long span to short span is
small (say less than 2) bending takes place along both the spans. Such a slab is known as a two-
way slab.
• The maximum bending moment and deflection for such a slab is much smaller than that of a one-
way slab and hence a thinner slab is required. However, reinforcement has to be provided in both
the directions.
• When such a slab is loaded, the corners get lifted up. If the corners are held down by fixity at the
wall support etc., the bending moment and deflection are further reduced, thus requiring still

19
 thinner slab. In that case, special torsional reinforcement at the corners has to be provided to
check the cracking of corners.
b) Analysis (MAINS)
• Rankine Grasshoff theory (corners/edges are free)
G¤
¨ Span ratio 𝑟 = „G …
Á

¨ From compatibility 𝑤XD = 𝑟 Ù 𝑤XC

T
¨ 𝑤C = TU# ó 𝑤X
#ó
¨ 𝑤D = TU# ó 𝑤X
• Marcus theory (corners/edges are prevented from lifting)
¨ This is a modified form of Rankine Grasshoff theory
¨ Marcus coefficient for positive moment
P #ô
o 𝐶 = „1 − ð TU# ó …
T
o 𝑤XD = 𝐶 „ 𝑤X …
TU# ó
T
o 𝑤XC = 𝐶 „TU# ó 𝑤X …
¨ Negative moment coeffect 1 − 𝐶
• IS code method (§ cl. Annx. D)
¨ IS code method is based on Yield line method.
¨ Design moments, bending moments per unit width
𝑀XD = 𝛼D 𝑤X 𝑙D\
𝑀XC = 𝛼C 𝑤X 𝑙D\
o 𝛼 values are read from §Table 27 for simply supported
o §Table 26 for restrained slab.
c) Specifications form slab and reinforcements
• Restrained slabs (§ D-1)
¨ When the corners of a slab are prevented from lifting they are called restrained slabs.
¨ Slabs are considered divided in each direction into middle strips and edge strips.
¨ The maximum moments calculated apply only to the middle strip.
• Simply supported slab
¨ When simply supported slabs do not have adequate provision to resist torsion at corners
and to prevent the corners from lifting, the maximum moments per unit width is
calculated from §Table 27.
Ø Restrained slab Corners held down
~
Middle strip Ù 𝑙 Design reinforcement
Length of according to load is provided
G Minimum reinforcement is
Edge strip •
provided 0.12 or 0.15%
Tension reinforcement provided at mid 100% → 0.25𝑙 of a continuous edge
span in middle strip shall extend in the
lower part of the slab to within _____ 100% → 0.15𝑙 of a discontinuous edge
Over continuous edge of middle strip, the 100% → 0.15𝑙
____tension reinforcement shall extend in
the upper part of the slab a distance of ___ 50% → 0.3𝑙
from the support.
At a Discontinuous edge, negative 50% of that provided at mid span extending
moments may arise. They depend on the 0.1𝑙 into span will be sufficient.

20
 fixity at the edge of the slab but, in general,
tension reinforcement equal to___
Torsion reinforcement, shall be provided at
any corner, where the slab is simply
supported on both edges meeting at the
corner.
It shall consist of top and bottom reinforcement,
each with layers of bars placed parallel to the
sides of the slab and extending from the edges a
T
minimum distance of P of shorter span.

~
of the area required for the maximum mid-span
The area of each of these four layers shall Ù
be moment in the slab.
Torsion reinforcement equal to ____ shall ~
Half off above value of reinforcement ie. • 𝐴E=
be provided at any corner where one edge is
Simply supported and other continuous.
For both continuous edges No need of torsional reinforcement
Ø Not restrained
At least ____ of tension reinforcement 50% to support
provided at mid span shall extend to the
supports.
The remaining 50% should extend within 100% → 0.1𝑙 of the support
• Shear force per unit length in two way slab
±¨ GÁ
¨ 𝑉ENF#=A# =
~
#
¨ 𝑉GF?@A# = 𝑤X 𝑙C „\U# … where 𝑟 = 𝑙C /𝑙D
d) Flat slab: A flat slab is a typical type of construction in which a reinforced slab is built monolithically
with the supporting columns and is reinforced in two or more directions, without any provision of
beams. The flat slab thus transfers the load directly to the supporting columns suitably spaced below the
slab. Because of exclusion of beam-system in this type of construction, a plain ceiling is obtained, thus
giving attractive appearance from architectural point of view. The plain ceiling diffuses the light better
and is considered less vulnerable in the case of fire than the usual beam slab construction.
• Drop: The slab in a flat slab construction may be either with drop or without drop. Drop is that
part of the slab around the column, which is of greater thickness than the rest of the slab.
• Capital or column head: Sometimes the diameter of a supporting column is increased below the
slab. This part of column with increased diameter is called column head. The column head
increases rigidity of the slab and column connection, increases resistance of the slab to shear and
decreases the effective span of the slab.
• For punching shear, the critical section is at 𝑑/2 from column/ capital/ drop panel
13. Stair case design
a) Introduction
• A flight is the length of the staircase situated between two
landings.
b) Effective span
• Stair slab may be divide into two categories, depending
upon the direction in which the stair slab spans:
• Stair slab spanning horizontally
¨ In this category, the slab is supported in each side
by side-wall or stringer beam.
¨ In such a case the effective span 𝐿 is the horizontal
distance between c-c of supports. Each step is

21
 ±G ô
designed as spanning horizontally with a bending moment equal to •
.
¨ Each step is considered equivalent to a rectangular beam of width 𝑏 (measured parallel to
_
the slope of the stair) and an effective depth equal to \ .
¨ The main reinforcement is provided in the direction of 𝐿, while distribution reinforcement
is provided parallel to the flight direction.
¨ Stair slab spanning longitudinally
• Stair slab spanning longitudinally
¨ In this category, the slab is supported at bottom and top of the flight and remain
unsupported on the sides. The effective span of such stairs, should be taken as the
following horizontal distances:
¨ When supported at top and bottom risers by beams parallel to the risers, the distance c-c
between beams.
¨ When spanning on to the edges of a landing slab (which spans parallel to the riser),
o A distance equal to the going of the stairs plus at each end either half the width
of the landing or one meter, which is smaller.
¨ where the landing slab spans in the same direction as the stairs, they should be considered
as acting together to form a single slab and the span determined at the distance cc of the
supporting beams or walls, the going being measured horizontally.
c) Live load on stairs. I.S. 875
• For stairs in residential buildings, office buildings. hospital wards, hostels, etc., where there is no
possibility of overcrowding, the live load may be taken as 3 kN/m2, subject to a minimum of 1300
N concentrated load at the unsupported end of each step for stairs constructed out of structurally
independent cantilever step.
• For other public buildings liable to be overcrowded, the live load may be taken to be 5 kN/m2.
d) Estimation of Dead weight
• The dead weight of stair consists of dead weight of waist slab and dead weight of steps.
• Waist slab
¨ Dead weight 𝑤′ is first calculated at right angles to the slope. The corresponding load per
√ù ô UK ô
unit horizontal area is then obtained by increasing 𝑤′ by the ratio K
√𝑅\
+ 𝑇\
𝑤T = 𝑡 ∙ 1 ∙ 1 ∙ 𝛾" × kN/m\
𝑇
¨ 𝑡 – thickness of waist slab
¨ 𝑅 – rise 𝑇 – tread
¨ This gives UDL which can be applied on the horizontal span
• Steps
¨ The dead weight of the steps is calculated by treating the
step to be equivalent horizontal slab of thickness equal to half the rise 𝑅/2
𝑅
𝑤\ = × 1 × 1 ∙ 𝛾" kN/m\
2
e) Distribution of loading on stairs
• In case of stairs with open wells, where spans partly crossing at right angles occur, the load on
areas common to any two such spans may be taken as one half in each direction
• Where flights or landings are built into walls at a distance
of not less than 110 mm and are designed to span in the
direction of the flight, a 150 mm strip may be deducted from
the loaded area and effective breadth of the section increased
by 75 mm for the purposes of design.
14. Column design

22
a) Assumptions (§ 39)
• In addition to assumptions given for flexure, following shall be assumed:
• Maximum compressive strain in axial compression 0.002
• Maximum compressive strain at highly compressed extreme fiber in member subjected to axial
compression and bending and when there is no tension in the section
𝜖1>D = 0.0035 − 0.75𝜖1I?
b) Types of column
𝑙AOO Short Column Long column Pedestal
𝜆=
𝐵
3 < 𝜆 < 12 12 < 𝜆 < 60 <3
B is least lateral dimension
Minimum percentage of steel 0.8% 0.8% 0.15%
• Column or strut is a compression member, the effective length of which exceeds three times the
least lateral dimension. §25.1
• A column member may be considered as short when both the slenderness ratios are less than 12.
§25.1.2
GßÁ Gߤ
¨ Both _
< 12, Y
< 12
• Unsupported length §25.1.3
¨ Unsupported length shall be taken as the clear distance between end restraints except that
o In flat slab it shall be clear distance between floor and the lower extremity of the
capital.
o In beam and slab construction, it shall be clear distance between the floor and
the underside of the shallower beam framing into the columns in each direction.
• Slenderness limits for columns (§ 25.3)
¨ The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60 times least lateral
dimension of the column.
𝑙F ≯ 60𝐵
• If, in any given plane, one end of a column is unrestrained, its unsupported length shall not exceed
100𝑏\
𝑙Q ≯
𝐷
c) Minimum eccentricity (§ 25.4)
• All columns shall be designed for minimum eccentricity, equal to
unsupported length of column lateral dimesnsion
𝑒1I? = +
500 30
= 20𝑚𝑚
• Where bi-axial bending is considered, it is sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the
minimum about one axis at a time.
d) Analysis of Short Column (Ultimate load capacity of column)
• Short Axially loaded column in axial compression
¨ Ultimate axial load capacity (when there is no eccentricity)
𝑃Xÿ = 0.45𝑓") 𝐴" + 0.75𝑓C 𝐴E
= 0.45𝑓") 𝐴@ + ²0.75𝑓C − 0.45𝑓") ³𝐴E
• Short Axially loaded column with minimum eccentricity (§ 39.3)
¨ If the minimum eccentricity is less than 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝑫 code permits design as axially loaded
column with equation
𝑃X = 0.4𝑓") 𝐴" + 0.67𝑓C 𝐴E
= 0.4𝑓") 𝐴@ + ²0.67𝑓C − 0.4𝑓") ³𝐴E
e) Helical reinforcement (§39.4)
• The strength of compression member with helical reinforcement satisfying the requirement shall
be taken as 1.05 times the strength of similar with lateral ties.
23
 • Load carrying capacity increases by 5%
𝑃X = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓"0.4𝑓") 𝐴@ + ²0.67𝑓C − 0.4𝑓") ³𝐴E #
• Amount of reinforcements
Volume of helical reinforcement 𝐴@ 𝑓")
≮ 0.36 † − 1‡
Volume of core 𝐴" 𝑓CN
1000 𝜋 ^
𝑉% = † ‡ (𝜋𝐷N 1 ) „ 𝜙N\ … Gross area of section 𝐴@ = Ù 𝐷\
Pitch 4
𝑉" = 𝐴" × 1000 𝑓CN ≯ 415
^
𝐴" = Ù 𝐷"\ area of core of the helical reinforcement measured to the outside diameter of helix
f) Design specifications
• Minimum eccentricity (§ cl 25.4)
𝑙F 𝐷
𝑒1I? = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (500 + 30
20mm
• Longitudinal reinforcement (§ cl 26.5.3)
¨ Minimum reinforcement 0.8% of gross area
¨ Maximum reinforcement 6% of gross area
¨ Minimum 4 bars for rectangular and 6 bars for circular section
¨ Minimum diameter of main bar 12 mm
¨ Spacing in longitudinal bars shall not exceed 300 mm
• Transverse reinforcement (§ cl 26.5.3.2)
¨ Internal angle cannot be greater than 135º
Normal Helical
𝐵 75𝑚𝑚
3𝜙
Pitch ≯ (16𝜙1I? ï NAGI">G < 𝑃 < (1
25𝑚𝑚 𝜙
300 6 "F#A
Diameter 1 1
𝑚𝑎𝑥 (4 𝜙1>D 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (4 𝜙1>D
of bars
6mm 6mm
g) Effective length

0.65 0.80 1 1.2 1.5 2 2

h) Member subjected to combined Axial load and Uniaxial Bending (§ cl 39.5)
• Design of members subjected to combined axial load and uniaxial bending will involve lengthy
calculation by trail and error. In order to overcome these difficulties interaction diagrams may be
used.
• These have been published in SP:16
• Intersection curve is a graph between
]¨
¨ =𝑦
ORS )_
Z¨
¨ =𝑥
ORS ) ô _
M%
¨ Using the coordinates read percentage of steel O = 𝑘T
RS
i) Combined Axial load and Biaxial bending
• Either they can be designed by satisfying the equilibrium load and moments about two axes.
Alternatively, such members may be designed by the following equations.

24
 *
𝑀XD *+ 𝑀XC +
† ‡ +, - ≤1
𝑀XDT 𝑀XCT
¨ 𝑀XD , 𝑀XC Moments about x and y axes due to design load
¨ 𝑀XDT , 𝑀XCT Maximum uniaxial moment capacity for an axial load of 𝑃X
]
¨ 𝛼? = 𝑓 „] ¨ … 𝑃X /𝑃Xÿ 𝛼
¨.
o 𝑃Xÿ = 0.45𝐴" 𝑓") + 0.75𝑓C 𝐴E ≤ 0.2 1
j) Slender column (Long column)
≥ 0.8 2
• A compression member may be considered as slender or
GßÁ Gߤ
long when the slenderness ratios or, and are more than 12.
_ Y
GßÁ Gߤ
• Thus, if > 12, the column is considered to be slender for bending about x-x axis, while if >
_ Y
12, the column is considered to be slender for bending about y-y axis.
• When a short column is loaded even with an axial load, the lateral deflection is either zero or very
small. In contrast to this, when a slender column is loaded even with an axial load. the lateral
deflection measured from the original centre line along its length becomes appreciable. This
makes the axial load eccentric at the central section of the column by a value subjecting the
section to a B.M. equal to𝑃∆ in addition to an axial load. Hence separate consideration of this
additional B.M. has to be made.
• The axial compression due to axial load is called primary effect while the bending caused due to
lateral deflection of slender column is called secondary effect.
• Additional moment (§ 39.7.1)
𝑃X 𝐷 𝑙AD \
𝑀>D = † ‡
2000 𝐷
\
𝑃X 𝑏 𝑙AC
𝑀>C = , -
2000 𝑏
*+
Z¨Á UZ}Á *+ Z¨¤ UZ}¤
• „ Z¨ÁÜ
… +† Z¨¤Ü
‡ ≤ 1
• Reduction factor (§ 39.7.1.1)
𝑃Xÿ − 𝑃X
𝑘= ≤ 1
𝑃Xÿ − 𝑃Y
𝑃X = Axial load on compression member 𝑃Xÿ = 0.45𝐴" 𝑓") + 0.75𝑓C 𝐴E
𝑃Y = axial load corresponding to the condition of maximum compressive strain of 0.0035 in
concrete and tensile strain of 0.002 in outer most layer in tension.
15. Design of footing
a) Code (§ 34.1)
• Footings shall be designed to sustain the applied loads, moments and forces and the individual
reactions and to ensure that any settlement which may occur shall be as nearly uniform as
possible, and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded.
• In reinforced and plain concrete footings, the thickness at the edge shall be not less than 150mm
for footings on soils.
¨ (and to 300 mm in the case of pile caps). This is done to ensure that the footing has
sufficient rigidity to provide the calculated bearing pressures. A ‘levelling course’ of lean
concrete (about 100 mm thick) is usually provided below the footing base.
• In the case of plain concrete pedestals, the angle between the plane passing through the bottom
edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction edge of the column with pedestal and the
horizontal plane shall be governed by the expression. (§ 34.1.3)
100𝑞F
tan 𝛼 > 0.9Š +1
𝑓")
25
 ¨ 𝑞F is the calculated maximum bearing pressure at the base of the pedestal.
• Critical section for bending moment (§ 34.2.3.2)
¨ At the face of the column, for footing supporting a concrete column.
¨ Halfway between the centre-line and the edge of the wall, for footing under masonry
walls.
¨ Halfway between the face of the column or pedestal and the edge of the gusseted base for
footing under gusseted bases.
• Critical section in shear
¨ For one-way shear, the critical section is assumed as a vertical section located from the
face of the column at a distance equal to the effective depth of footing.
B
¨ For two-way shear, punching shear, critical section is at \ from face all around. (§ 31.6)
• Critical section for checking development length in a footing shall be assumed at the same planes
as described for bending. (§ 34.2.4.3)
b) Tensile reinforcement (§ 34.3)
• One-way reinforced footings (such as wall footings), the flexural reinforcement (calculated for the
moment at the critical section) is placed perpendicular to the wall at a uniform spacing.
¨ In the perpendicular direction (along the length of the wall), nominal distributor
reinforcement should be provided (0.12 or 0.15%).
• In two-way reinforced square footings also, flexural reinforcement may be placed at a uniform
spacing in both directions.
• In two-way reinforced rectangular footings, the reinforcement in the long direction is uniformly
spaced across the full width of the footing, but in the short direction, the Code requires a larger
concentration of reinforcement to be provided within a central band width, equal to the width B
of the footing.
reinforcement in central band 2
=
Total reinforcement in short direction 𝛽 + 1
`F?@ EIBA
• Where 𝛽 = ENF#= EIBA
c) Analysis
• Size of footing
Load from column = 𝑃 Weight of footing = 0.1𝑃
Total load = 1.1𝑃
1.1𝑃
Area of footing required 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
𝑞F
o 𝑞F is Safe bearing capacity of soil
• Soil pressure (for design)
¨ Factored design soil pressure
1.5𝑃
𝑤F =
𝐴ìå¬íêë°ë
d) Design of Isolated footing
• Design for shear
¨ The thickness (depth) of the footing base slab is most often dictated by the need to check
shear stress, and for this reason, the design for shear usually precedes the design for
flexure.
¨ For one-way shear critical section at d from face of column
𝐿 = length of footing 𝑎 = dimension of column 𝑑 = depth of footing
𝐿−𝑎
𝑉X = 𝑤F × 1 × 2 − 𝑑3 × 𝐵
2
𝐿−𝑎
𝑘𝜏" 𝑑 × 𝐵 = 𝑤F × 1 × 2 − 𝑑3 × 𝐵
2
26
 o 𝑘 varies from 1 to 1.3 for 300mm to 150mm slab.
o Solve for 𝑑 = ?
B
¨ For punching shear critical section at \ from face of column
Punching shear stress developed
o
Net punching force
𝜏·M =
Perimeter × depth
𝜏·M × 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑤F [𝐿𝐵 − (𝑎 + 𝑑)(𝑏 + 𝑑)]
𝜏·M 2(𝑎 + 𝑑)(𝑏 + 𝑑)𝑑 = 𝑤F [𝐿𝐵 − (𝑎 + 𝑑)(𝑏 + 𝑑)]
𝜏·M = 𝑘E 𝜏"
Where, 𝑏
𝑘E = †0.5 + ‡ ≯ 1 𝜏" = 0.25(𝑓")
𝑎
o Solve for 𝑑 =?
• Design for flexure
¨ Analysis
()ŽY)ô
o 𝑀XD = 𝑤F × 1 × •
(`Ž>)ô
o 𝑀XC = 𝑤F × 1 ×
•
o Depth of footing
Z¨“}Á
§ 𝑑=7
8)

• Bearing resistance (§ 34.4)

¨ The compressive stress in concrete at the base of a column shall be considered as being
transferred by bearing to the top of the supporting footing. The bearing pressure on the
loaded area shall not exceed the permissible bearing stress in direct compression
ÂÜ
(0.45𝑓") ) multiplied by a value 7 ≯ 2, where 𝐴T and 𝐴\ as shown in figure.
Âô

𝑓Y ≯ 𝑓Y#
𝑃X 𝐴T
≤ 0.45𝑓") Š
𝑎𝑏 𝐴\
Â
¨ 7ÂÜ calculated at effective depth.
ô

e) Combined footing
• Rectangular
For unequal load we first find CG of the load, 𝑃\ (𝑆)
𝑥̅ =
𝑃T + 𝑃\
Where, 𝑦 = 𝑆 − 𝑥̅
𝑆 = c-c space between column 𝐿
𝑥T + 𝑥 =
𝑥T , 𝑦T are projections (overhangs) from center 2
of column 𝐿
𝑦T + 𝑦 =
2
• Trapezoidal
¨ This type of footing is provided when limited area is available due to length restriction.
¨ Size of footings and position of columns are matched such that CG of footing is at same
location of CG of load. This is done to avoid external moment and to keep soil pressure
uniform.
f) Minimum depth of foundation
• Below ground level (IS 1080)
𝑞 1 − sin 𝜙 \
ℎ1I? = † ‡
𝛾 1 + sin 𝜙
27
 𝑞 \
= 𝐾
𝛾 >
𝑞F is safe bearing capacity of soil
16. Design of Retaining wall
a) Introduction
• Retaining walls are designed to retain earth on one side at a higher elevation than other side. They
can be classified as
¨ Gravity wall
¨ RCC cantilever type
o They are used for height greater than 3 to 4m but less than 6 to 8m.
o Steel reinforcements are used in the tension side.
¨ Counter fort type
o These are provided when height of earth retained more than 6 to 8 m.
o Counterforts are in the back of wall, inside the fill, so more space are left for
use.
% %
o Spacing of counterforts are 𝑡𝑜
\ ~
o They are in tension, so reinforcements are provided inclined.
o Stem and heel are designed as three side supported slab.
¨ Buttress type
o They are in front of wall and are compression type.
o Reinforcements are required in toe portion (base slab).
b) Analysis
• Earth pressure (calculated with soil concepts)
¨ …
• Stability requirement
¨ Check against overturning
Ÿæä<çêŸê=> ª¬å ° ¬å ?¬?°=æ
o = FOS ≥ 2
ë°Ÿæä<çêŸê=> ª¬å ° ¬å ?¬?°=æ
¨ Check against sliding
å°ŸêŸæê=> ª¬å °
o = 𝐹𝑂𝑆 ≥ 1.5
Ÿçêëê=> ª¬å °
• Bearing pressure
∑𝑀
𝑥̅ =
∑𝑉
𝐵
𝑒 = − 𝑥̅
2
)
¨ If 𝑒 < ð
∑𝑉 6𝑒 ∑𝑉 6𝑒
𝜎1>D = †1 + ‡ 𝜎1I? = †1 − ‡
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
c) Design principles of cantilever retaining wall
• The design of a cantilever retaining wall consists of
• Fixation of the base width b
¨ The base width 𝑏 of the retaining wall should be so chosen that the resultant of the forces
remains within the middle third, and the ratio of length of the toe slab to the base width
should be such that the stress 𝑝T at toe does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of soil.
• Design of stem
¨ The vertical stem is designed as cantilever, for triangular loading.
DN ô
¨ Force = 𝐾> \
DN E
¨ Bending moment = 𝐾> ð

28
 ¨ The reinforcements are provided towards the inner face of stem. The distribution
reinforcements (HYSD) is provided @ 0.12% of the area if cross-section along the length
of retaining wall at inner face.
¨ Similarly, at the outer face of the stem, temperature reinforcement (HYSD bars) is
provided both in horizontal as well as in vertical direction at 0.12% of the area of cross-
section.
• Design of heel slab
¨ The heel is also to be designed as a cantilever. It has both downward pressure (due to
weight of soil and self-weight) as well as upward pressure due to soil reaction.
¨ However, the net pressure is found to act downward and hence reinforcement is provided
at the upper face BC
• Design of toe slab
¨ Neglecting the weight of the soil above it, the toe slab will bend upwards as a cantilever
due to upward soil reaction. Hence reinforcement is placed at the bottom face.
¨ Normally, the thickness of both toe slab and heel slab is kept the same, determined on the
basis of greater of the cantilever bending moments.
d) Design of Counterfort Retaining Wall
• In case of cantilever retaining wall, the bending moment in the vertical stem varies as ℎ~ . When
this height exceeds 6m, a thick section is required for the stem, and the design becomes
uneconomical. In that case, counterfort retaining walls are used.
• Design of stem:
¨ Unlike the stem of cantilever retaining wall, the stem of a counterfort retaining wall acts
as continuous slab supported on counterforts.
¨ The stem slab deflects outwards, and hence main reinforcement is provided along the
length of the retaining wall, at the outer face of the stem between the counterforts, and at
the inner face near the counterforts.
¨ If 𝑙 is the clear distance between the counterforts, the negative bending moment in the
±G ô
stem at the counterforts may be taken as T\
and
±G ô
o The positive bending moment in between the counterforts may be taken as Tð
for the intermediate panels.
o The reinforcements may be varied along the height of the stem.
• Design of heel slab
¨ The action of heel slab is similar to that of stem. The heel slab is subjected to the
downward load due to weight of soil and self-weight, and upward load due to soil
reaction.
¨ The net load is found to act downwards.
• Design of toe slab
¨ The toe slab bends as a cantilever due to upward soil reaction. The design is done
empirically, because of uncertain bending behaviour.
• Design of counterforts
¨ The counterforts take reactions both from the stem as well as the heel slab. Since the
active pressure on stem acts outwards and net pressure on heel slab acts downwards, the
counterforts are subjected to tensile stresses along the outer face AC of the counterforts.
¨ The angle ABC between stem and heel slab has a tendency to increase from 90˚, and this
tendency is resisted by counterforts.

29
 ¨ Thus, the counterfort may be considered to bend as a
cantilever, fixed at BC. The counterfort acts as an
inverted T-beam of varying rib depth. The maximum
depth of this T-beam is at the junction B. The depth is
measured perpendicular to the sloping face AB. i.e.
depth 𝑑T = 𝐵𝐵T at 𝐵.
¨ This depth thus goes on decreasing towards 𝐴 where
the bending moment also decreases. The width 𝑏 of the
counterfort is kept constant throughout its height.
¨ Main reinforcement is provided parallel to AC. The
reinforcement may be varied along AC, maximum being at 𝐵T .
¨ Design steps
Assume a thickness of counterfort
Earth pressure acting on each counterfort 𝑝 = 𝐾> 𝛾Y ℎ × spacing
The critical section for the counterfort is at a depth, where the ground level in front of
wall. As below this, enormous depth is available to resist bending.
1
Shear force 𝐹 = 𝑝ℎ
2
ℎ
Ultimate Bending moment 𝑀X = 1.5𝐹 ×
3
Counter forts acts as T-beams. However, 𝑀X
𝑑=Š
even as rectangular beam, depth required 0.138𝑓") 𝑏
Check whether the actual depth provided
𝐷>"= = ℎ sin 𝜃 + slab width
is more than this value, or not.
𝜙
Calculate effective depth by 𝑑°ªª = 𝐷>"= − 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 − 𝜙E −
2
1𝑓") 4.6𝑀X
Find area of steel required 𝐴E= = •1 − Š1 − ž 𝑏𝑑
2𝑓C 𝑓") 𝑏𝑑\
𝑀
𝑆𝐹 = 𝑄 − tan 𝜃
Check for shear (for varying depth) 𝑑Œ
𝑑Œ = 𝑑/ cos 𝜃
• Design of horizontal ties
¨ The vertical stem slab has a tendency to separate out from the counterfort, and hence
should be tied to it by horizontal ties.
Force causing
𝐹E = 𝐾> 𝛾Y ℎ × (spacing − 𝑏)
separation
𝐹X 1.5𝐹E
Area of steel required 𝐴E= = =
0.87𝑓C 0.87𝑓C
¨ Assuming a 𝜙 we can find the spacing, which will be minimum at the base and gradually
increase to 300mm maximum at the top.
• Design of vertical ties
¨ Similar to the stem slab, heel slab has also a tendency to separate out from the counterfort,
due to net downward force, unless tied properly by vertical ties. The downward force at 𝐶,
near the end, the heel slab is tied to the counterforts with the help of main reinforcement
of counterforts.
1.5 Net downward force at C
Steel area required =
0.87fJ

30
 ¨ Assuming a 𝜙 we can find the spacing, which will be minimum at C and gradually
increase to 300mm at B.
17. Water tank (WSM)
a) Introduction
• IS 3370 Part I
• IS 3370 Part II: This code lays down requirements applicable specifically to reinforced concrete
structures for storage of liquids, mainly water. This code is not applicable for storage of hot
liquids and liquids of low viscosity and high penetrating power like petrol, diesel oil etc.
b) Assumptions (§ 4.5.1)
• At any cross-section plane section remains plane after bending.
• Both steel and concrete are perfectly elastic and the modular ratio has the value given in IS 456
\•Q
¨ The modular ratio 𝑚 = ~• where 𝜎"Y" is compressive stress due to bending in concrete
R•R
in N/mm2
M25 M30 M35 M40 M45 M50
𝜎"Y" 8.5 10 11.5 13 14.5 16
m 10.98 9.33 8.12 7.18 6.42 5.83
• In calculation of stresses, for both flexural and direct tension (or combination of both) relating to
resistance to cracking, whole section of concrete including the cover together with reinforcement
can be taken into account provided the tensile stress in concrete is limited to §Table 1.
¨ Permissible concrete stresses (N/mm2) in calculations relating to resistance to cracking
Grade of concrete Direct tension Tension due to bending
M25 1.3 1.8
M30 1.5 2.0
M35 1.6 2.2
M40 1.8 2.4
M45 2.0 2.6
M50 2.1 2.8
¨ i.e. for calculation of stresses in concrete consider the section as uncracked section.
𝑇N
𝜎"= = < 𝜎MA#1IEEIYGA
1000𝑡 + (𝑚 − 1)𝐴E=
o 𝑇N is hoop tension, 𝑡 is thickness of member
• In strength calculation the concrete has no tensile strength.
¨ i.e. for calculating area of steel, neglect concrete completely, and total tension force is
taken by steel only.
𝑇N
𝐴E= =
𝜎E=
¨ 𝜎E= N/mm is permissible stresses in steel reinforcement for strength (§Table 04)
2

Plain round mild steel High strength deformed

bars bars
Tensile stress in members
under direct tension 115 130
bending and shear
Compressive stress in
columns subjected to direct 125 140
load
c) Walls
• Sliding joints at the base of the wall

31
 ¨ Where it is desired to allow the walls to expand or contract separately from the floor, or to
prevent moments at the base of the wall owning to fixity to the floor, sliding joints may be
employed.
• Pressure on wall
¨ Gas pressure developed above liquid surface is added to the liquid pressure
¨ When built in ground or has earth embanked against it, the effect of earth pressure shall be
taken into account.
• Walls of cylindrical tanks
¨ Walls of cylindrical tanks are either cast monolithically with the base or are set in grooves
and keyways (movement joints). In either case deformation of wall under the influence of
liquid pressure is restricted at the base.
¨ Unless the extent of fixity at the base is established by analysis with due consideration to
the dimensions of base slab, the type of joint between the wall and the slab and the type of
soil supporting the base, it is advisable to assume wall to be fully fixed at the base.
d) Detailing
• Minimum reinforcement
¨ The minimum reinforcement in wall, floors and roofs in each of two directions at right
angles, within each surface zone shall not be less than 0.35% of the surface zone. For
HYSD bars and not less than 0.64 % for mild steel reinforced bars.
¨ Minimum reinforcement can be further reduced to 0.24% for deformed bars and 0.40%
for plain bars for tanks having any dimension not more than 15m.
¨ In wall slab less than 200mm in thickness, the calculated amount of reinforcement should
be placed in one face as near as possible to upper surface consistent with nominal cover.
Minimum area of steel Mild steel Fe 250 HYSD Bars
based on surface zone of
RCC wall or slab
In case of any size of tank 0.64% 0.35%
If size is not more than 15m 0.40% 0.24%
𝐷/2
¨ Surface zone 𝑡E = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ï
250𝑚𝑚
• Minimum reinforcement to minimize cracking due to shrinkage and temperature
¨ For thickness 𝑡 ≤ 100𝑚𝑚 = 0.3%
¨ For thickness 𝑡 ≥ 450𝑚𝑚 = 0.2%
¨ For thickness between 100mm to 450mm, linearly interpolate.
¨ For concrete thickness ≥ 225𝑚𝑚 two layers of reinforcement be placed, one near water
face and other away from water face.
e) Other guidelines
• Minimum grade of concrete is M30 (as exposure condition severe is considered)
¨ However, M25 can also be allowed for less capacity tanks of 𝑉 < 50 𝑚~ if M30 is not
available.
• Minimum nominal cover of 45mm (for severe exposure condition)
• Maximum calculated surface width of cracks for direct and bending tension or due to the effect of
temperature and moisture is 0.2mm.
• Minimum period of curing is 14 days
• Cracking of concrete can be controlled by slow filling of water on the first filing of tank, the rate
of filling of tank shall not be more than 1m in 24hrs (8.2.9 IS3370 I)
• Correct placing of reinforcement, use of deformed bars closely spaced and use of small size bars
lead to diffused distribution of cracks and hence are preferred practice (8.2.10 IS3370 I)
• Shrinkage strain = 3 × 10ŽÙ
f) Circular tank with flexible joint between floor and wall
32
 𝜋 \
First Dimension of tank is found for a given volume 𝑉= 𝐷 ×ℎ
4
requirement; diameter of height need to be fixed. ℎ – doesn’t includes free board
For flexible base only hoop tension is developed, 𝑝𝐷
𝑇N =
which value is 2
As maximum water pressure is at bottom
𝛾± 𝐻𝐷
𝑝 = 𝛾± ℎ 𝑇N =
2
Maximum hoop tension
Area of steel can be now calculated as all the hoop 𝐴E= 𝜎E= = 𝑇N
tension is taken by steel only 𝜎E= taken from above table
This area of steel is provided at the centre of the wall ≤ 225𝑚𝑚 and on both faces for
thickness above it.
Spacing may be increased towards the top. However, the spacing ≯ 3 times the thickness of the
wall.
𝐴E= is further checked for minimum steel requirement after finding the thickness and surface
zone steel requirement.
𝑇N
Thickness of section is calculated according to 𝜎"= =
1000𝑡 + (𝑚 − 1)𝐴E
Thickness is also determined using empirical
𝑡 = (30ℎ(𝑚) + 50)𝑚𝑚
formula
In Vertical direction as there is no movement
provide minimum reinforcement 0.3% for 100mm thickness
For thickness 225 mm and above, two layers of 0.2% for 450 mm thickness
reinforcement bars shall be placed one near each Interpolate in between
face.
For liquid faces max(25mm, Diameter
Minimum cover to reinforcements
of main bar)
g) Circular tank with Rigid joint between floor and wall (approximate method)
• When the joint between the wall and floor is rigid, no horizontal displacement of the wall and
joint is possible. The upper part of the wall will have hoop tension, while the lower part will bend
like cantilever fixed at the joint. The exact analysis of the tank to determine the portion in which
cantilever action will be predominant, is difficult and an approximate method has been discussed
below.
• In approximate method, it is assumed that cantilever action will take place for a height ℎ, and
above this height (𝐻 − ℎ) hoop action will predominate.
• Cantilever reinforcement is provided upto height ℎ at the inner face. Above this height, the
spacing of the cantilever reinforcement can
be increased.
• In this case tank wall is designed for, hoop
tension up to a depth of (𝐻 − ℎ)
𝐻\
h
𝐷𝑡
𝐻
6 to 12 ℎ = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 † 𝑜𝑟 1𝑚‡
3
𝐻
12 to 30 ℎ = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 † 𝑜𝑟 1𝑚‡
4
• DESIGN
Design of Hoop reinforcements
Calculate approximate thickness 𝑡 = 30ℎ + 50

33
 𝐻\
Calculate to find ℎ
𝐷𝑡
Water pressure 𝑝 = 𝛾± (𝐻 − ℎ)
𝛾± (𝐻 − ℎ)𝐷
Maximum hoop tension /m 𝑇N =
2
𝑇N
Area of steel required 𝐴E= =
𝜎E=
𝑇N
Thickness < 𝜎>
1000𝑡 + (𝑚 − 1)𝐴E=
Design for vertical cantilever moment
Water pressure at bottom 𝑝 = 𝛾± 𝐻
1 ℎ\
Maximum cantilever BM 𝑀O = 𝛾± 𝐻 ×
2 3
𝑀
Depth of wall required 𝑑=Š
𝑄𝐵
Thickness = 𝑑 + effective cover
𝑀
Area of steel vertical 𝐴E= =
𝜎E= 𝑗𝑑
Distribution reinforcements
Calculate percentage According to the thickness (0.3–0.2)%
h) IS code method
• Calculate 𝐻\ /𝐷𝑡
• Find coefficients for moment, shear and tension.
±%_
• Tension = 𝑘 × \
• Moment = 𝑘 × 𝑤𝐻~
• Shear = 𝑘 × 𝑤𝐻\
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
18. Prestressed concrete
a) Introduction
• Pre-stress concrete is the one in which there have been introduced internal stresses of such
magnitude and distribution that the stresses resulting from given external loading are counteracted
to a desired degree.
• Minimum grade of concrete
¨ Pre-tension 𝑀40
¨ Post tension 𝑀30
b) Basic concepts
• Stress concept
𝑃 𝑃𝑒𝑦 𝑀𝑦
𝜎= ∓ ±
𝐴 𝐼 𝐼
• Strength concept
𝐶=𝑇
¨ Couple formed by compressive and tensile forces resist the external moment.
• 𝑀D = 𝐶 × 𝑒
𝐶 𝐶𝑒
𝜎= ±
𝐴 𝑍
• Load balancing concept
¨ In this concept the effect of prestressing is essentially viewed as the balancing of gravity
loads, both self-weight as well as external loads.

34
 ±G ô
¨ •
= 𝑃𝑒 for parabolic wire
c) Classes of prestress members
• Stresses in PSC should be less than cracking moment
¨ Class I: Full prestressing. No tension allowed, only compressive stress, no cracking.
¨ Class II: Tension is allowed, no cracking is allowed, section is uncracked.
¨ Class III: Partially prestressed, tension allowed but not more than flexural tensile
strength, some cracking is also allowed, but section is still uncracked.
d) Losses of pre-stress
Pre- Post
Stages Losses
tension tension
At time of tensioning Loss due to friction X ✓
At time of anchoring Anchorage slip X ✓
Ø Loss due to elastic shortening ✓ ✓
Ø Loss due to creep of concrete ✓ ✓
Losses occurring subsequently Ø Loss due to creep of steel
✓ ✓
Ø Loss due to shrinkage in
✓ ✓
concrete

Loss is mainly due to friction between reinforcement and duct surface due
to two effects
Length effect (jacking from one end) Curvature effect
𝑝D = 𝑝F 𝑒 Ž)D 𝑝D = 𝑝F 𝑒 ŽO*

Loss due to friction When combined together it can be approximated as

𝑝` = 𝑝F (𝑘𝑥 + 𝜇𝛼)
𝛼 in radians, is total change in gradient between both ends
Here 𝑥 = 𝐿 for jacking from one end, 𝑥 = ` for jacking from both ends
•N \
𝛼 = ` parabolic cable ÙN
𝛼 = ` parabolic cable
Loss due to anchorage Δl
𝑝` = 𝐸
slip Δ𝑙 𝑙 E
Pre-tension Post-tension
𝑝` = 𝑚𝑓" Ø No loss if multiple wires are tensioned
simultaneously.
Loss due to elastic 𝑓" – stress in concrete at Ø If tensioned subsequently
shortening of concrete the point of tension No loss in last wire (4th)
cable. Loss in 3rd wire 𝑝` = 𝑚𝑓"Ù
Loss in 2nd wire 𝑝` = 𝑚(𝑓"~ + 𝑓"Ù )
Loss in 1st wire 𝑝` = 𝑚(𝑓"\ + 𝑓"~ + 𝑓"Ù )
Loss due to creep of 𝑝` = 𝜙𝑚𝑓"
concrete 𝜙 is creep coefficient
Loss due to Creep Generally, 1 to 5% loss is observed
(relaxation) of steel
For pre-tension Post tension
2 × 10ŽÙ
Loss due to shrinkage 𝑝` = × 𝐸E
𝑝` = 3 × 10ŽÙ × 𝐸E logTQ (𝑇 + 2)
of concrete
𝑇 is age of concrete at the age of
loading in days
e) Concordant cable profile
• To avoid any changes in support reactions

35
 • To avoid creation of any secondary moments and stresses
• It is not a unique profile, some minor changes to eccentricity can be made.
• Profile of cable is opposite to BMD.
f) Types of prestressing
• Pre-tensioning system (fully bounded construction)
¨ It is that method of prestressing in which the tendons are prestressed before the concrete is
placed. The tendons passing through the mould are temporarily anchored against
abutments.
¨ When the concrete is sufficiently hard, the ends of tendons are slowly released from
anchorages, thereby transferring the prestress from steel to concrete through bonds.
¨ Since tendon force is transferred from steel to concrete through bond, it is desirable to use
small diameter wires. The diameter of wires often used is 2 to 3 mm. They are sometimes
twisted or notched to improve bond.
• Post-tensioning system (end anchored construction)
¨ In the post-tensioning system, the member is cast and a duct is left either with a tube or
with a metal sheath. When the concrete is sufficiently hard, tendon consisting of a bar/
cable/strand is passed through the duct, tensioned and anchored to the concrete member at
its ends. Thus the tendon force is transferred to the member through necessary anchorage
at the end of the member.
g) Prestressing systems: End Anchorages
• A prestressing system comprises of a method of stressing the steel combined with a method of
anchoring it to the concrete.
Pre-tensioning Against buttress or stressing beds Hoyer
Post-tensioning Wires, by frictional grips Freyssinet
Magnel
Bars, by bearing and by grips Lee Mc Call
• Mechanical prestressing:
¨ This is the most common method, in which the stretching of wire is done by means of
hydraulic jacks. Before the pull in the jack is released, the wires are anchored in their
extended position against the end of concrete, by some wedging devices, or by method of
direct bearing from rivet or bolt heads.
• Freyssinet system: conical serrated wedge
¨ This system was the first method of post-tensioning to be developed. It uses high tensile
steel wires of 5mm in units of 8,10,12 and 18. The wire units, commonly known as cables
are encased in flexible tube, with helical springs, which keeps a proper spacing between
wires and form a channel for cement grout.
¨ The wires are anchored by being held between two reinforced concrete cones which fit
one inside the other.
¨ All the wires are stressed simultaneously by means of Freyssinet double acting jack,
which can pull upto 18 wires at a time.
• Magnel Blaton system: 8 wire flat steel wedge
¨ The unit of stretching two wires at a time. The cable consists of any even number of wires
upto 64.
¨ The anchorage device consists of steel sandwich plates having grooves to hold the wires
and wedges which also are grooved.
¨ Each layer holds four wires. Sixteen such layers can be used, making a total of 64 wires.
• Gifford Udall system: half split cone
¨ Gifford Udall system is one of the most widely used systems, using 7 mm wires. The
cable consists of parallel wires which are separated by means of circular spacers.

36
 ¨ It essentially consists of a bearing plate, a thrust ring anchor grips and a steel helix. The
wires are stressed and anchored individually by small wedge type Udall grips seating
against a bearing plate.
¨ The thrust ring is cast into the concrete, the bearing plate locates against the thrust ring.
¨ The anchor grip consists of an outer barrel and two semi-circular wedges which fit in the
tapered hole of the barrel.
• Lee McCall system: nuts
¨ Lee-McCall system uses high-tensile alloy steel bars as the prestressing tendons, in the
place of high-tensile steel wires.
¨ Macalloy steel used in the system is an open-hearth Silica-Manganese steel, hot rolled
into bars and subsequently processed to give the required physical properties.
¨ The diameter of the rods may vary from 12 to 28 mm. The rods are threaded at the ends.
After the desired stretching, a nut is tightened at its end to prevent its return to original
length
h) Forms of prestressing steel
Pêå° Ÿæåä=ëŸ æ°=ë¬=Ÿ ä<ç°Ÿ
• Ÿê=>ç° é=êæ
→ \\~\´ ®êå°Ÿ → >å¬éì ¬ª Ÿæåä=ëŸ → >å¬éì ¬ª æ°=ë¬=Ÿ
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19. Earth quake resistant RC structure
a) Terminology
• Focus: the point of origin of earth quake inside the earth crust
• Epicenter: it is geographical point vertically above the focus of earthquake on earth surface
b) Assumptions
• Earthquake causes impulsive ground motions which are complex and irregular in character,
changing in period and amplitude each lasting for a small duration.
• Earthquake is not likely to occur simultaneously with wind or maximum flood or maximum sea
waves.
• The value of elastic modulus of materials, where ever required, may be taken as for static analysis
unless a more definite value is available for use in such condition.
c) Seismic force evaluation
• A structure is subjected to acceleration due to vibrations created during earthquake.
• For design, we need maximum seismic force resulted from maximum acceleration of structure
during earthquake. This is different from maximum acceleration of ground called peak ground
acceleration (PGA)
• Maximum acceleration of rigid structure is same as peak ground acceleration.
• Seismic force acting on structure = 𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 coefficient
• As per IS 1893 𝑉Y = design seismic force, called design base shear
𝑉Y = 𝐴N × 𝑊
¨ 𝐴N horizontal seismic coefficient
¨ 𝑊 is seismic weight
o 𝑊 = DL + part of LL
o If live load < 3 kN/m2 = 25% of LL is taken
o IF live load > 3 kN/m2 = 50% of LL is taken
• Maximum acceleration of structure depends on severity of ground motion, which in-turn depends
upon
¨ Soil conditions-Soft/medium/hard soil
¨ Structural characteristics of structure
o Time period and damping
o Shape and size of building
• Distribution of base shear
37
 UÜ (NÜ )ô
¨ 𝑄T = 𝑉
∑UV (NV )ô Y
Uô (Nô )ô
¨ 𝑄\ = ∑UV NVô
𝑉Y
d) Horizontal seismic coefficient
𝑍 𝐼 𝑆>
𝐴N =
2𝑅 𝑔
• 𝑍 – Zone factor
• 𝐼 – Importance factor
• 𝑅 – response reduction factor
W}
• – spectral acceleration coefficient
@
e) Zone factor, Z
• Depends on severity of ground motion, India is divided into four seismic zones
• Zone I and II has been clubbed in Zone II, Zone V has most severe earthquake risk, Zone II has
least earthquake risk
Zone II III IV V
Z value 0.1 0.16 0.24 0.36
¨ Zone factor is based on maximum considered earthquake value called MCE values.
¨ MCE values are values representing maximum earthquake considered in different zones
as per past record of earthquake observed in the area.
X
¨ In design, value considered is only that is called design basic earthquake value.
\
o DBE – design basic earthquake values are based on the earthquake that can be
reasonably expected at least once during the design life of structure. This value
has been considered half of MCE value.
Y
o 𝐷𝐵𝐸 value = \
f) Importance factor, I
• This depends on functional use of buildings, number of persons using the building
1.5 For important buildings like school buildings, hospitals, offices, important service
stations, emergency services
1.2 For residential (having occupancy more than 200) and commercial buildings
1 For other buildings
g) Response reduction factor, R
• For earthquake resistant design a structure is allowed to be damaged in case of severe shaking.
Therefore, the structure should be designed for seismic forces much less than what is expected
under strong shaking, if the structure were to remain linearly elastic.
• Response reduction factor is the factor by which the actual base shear-force that would be
generated if the structure were to remain elastic during its response to the design earth quake
shaking, should be reduce to obtain design lateral force.
• R value depends on (i) over strength, (ii) redundancy and (iii) ductility
Type of building R value
Ø Ordinary RC moment resisting frame (OMRF) 3
Ø Special RC moment resisting frame (SMRF) 5
Ø Load bearing masonry wall building
o Un reinforced 1.5
o Un reinforced with horizontal RC band 2
o Un reinforced with horizontal RC bands and 2.5
vertical bars at corners and jambs of openings
o Reinforced masonry 3
Ø Buildings with dual system
o Ordinary shear wall with OMRF 3
38
 o Ordinary shear wall with SMRF 4
o Ductile shear wall with OMRF 4
o Ductile shear wall with SMRF 5
h) Spectral response acceleration coefficient
W}
• @ Types of soil 𝑆> /𝑔
• Depends on structural characteristics and soil 2.5 0 ≤ T ≤ 0.4
condition For rocky or hard 1
Þ 0.4 ≤ T ≤ 4
¨ Size and shape of building soil 𝑇
0.25 T > 4
¨ Time period and damping
• Time period 2.5 0 ≤ T ≤ 0.55
¨ For building without masonry infill 1.36
For medium soil Þ 0.55 ≤ T ≤ 4
o 𝑇> = 0.075ℎQ.´P 𝑇
0.34 T > 4
¨ For building with masonry infill
Q.QñN 2.5 0 ≤ T ≤ 0.67
o 𝑇> = 1.67
√B
For soft soil Þ 0.67 ≤ T ≤ 4
o 𝑑 is base dimension in 𝑇
meters along the considered 0.42 T > 4
direction of lateral force.
i) Building with soft story and extreme soft story
• An open ground storey building, having only columns in the ground storey and both partition
walls and columns in the upper storeys, have two distinct characteristics, namely:
¨ It is relatively flexible in the ground storey, i.e., the relative horizontal displacement it
undergoes in the ground storey is much larger than what each of the storeys above it does.
This flexible ground storey is also called soft storey.
¨ It is relatively weak in ground storey, i.e., the total horizontal earthquake force it can carry
in the ground storey is significantly smaller than what each of the storeys above it can
carry. Thus, the open ground storey may also be a weak storey.
• If the lateral stiffness of a story is less than
¨ Soft storey < 70% of story above or < 80% of three story above
¨ Extreme soft storey < 60% of story above or < 70% of three story above
• Shear wall
¨ When an RCC wall is provided from foundation level to top of the building to resist
lateral forces and other forces or moments, it is called shear wall.
¨ A brick wall may also act as shear wall if the forces and moment are acting in the
direction of plane of the brick wall called in plane forces.
j) Types of irregularities
• Mass irregularity: if seismic weight of any floor > 150% of floor below
• Vertical geometric irregularity: when horizontal dimension of lateral force resisting system is
>125% of story below.
• Torsional irregularity: if Δ max at one end > 1.5Δ min at other end
• Out of plane offset
• Re-entrant corners: if a building has projections > 15% of overall plan area.
k) Modulus of elasticity of brick masonry
• 𝐸1 = 550𝑓1
• 𝑓1 = 0.433𝑓YQ.ðÙ 𝑓1F Q.~ð

• 𝑓Y is compressive strength of brick

• 𝑓1F is compressive strength of mortar in N/mm2
20. Ductile design and detailing of RCC structures
a) Grade of concrete and steel

39
 • Grade of steel = Fe 415 or less
¨ Fe 500 or Fe 550 may also be used if % elongation > 14.5%
• Minimum grade of concrete = M25 or as per exposure condition
• For building more than 15m in height in zone III, IV & V ductile detailing is must to be provided
for all buildings, for zone II it is optional.
b) For beams
• §6.1.2 – the member shall preferably have width to depth ratio of more than 0.3
• §6.1.3 – The width of member shall not be less than 200mm
• §6.1.4 – the depth of the member shall preferably be not more than ¼ of the clear span
• Longitudinal reinforcement
¨ 6.2.1(a) – beam shall have at least two 12mm dia bars at top and bottom faces.
¨ (b) – minimum longitudinal steel ratio 𝜌1I? required on any face of any section shall be
not less than
(ORS
o 𝜌1I? = 0.24 O¤

¨ 6.2.2 – maximum longitudinal steel ratio 𝜌1>D = 0.025 which is 2.5%

¨ 6.2.3 – Longitudinal steel on bottom face of a beam framing into a column (at the face of
the column) shall be at least half the steel on its top face at the same section. At exterior
joints, the anchorage length calculation shall consider this bottom steel to be tension steel.
¨ 6.2.4 – Longitudinal steel in beams at any section on top or bottom face shall be at least
1/4th of longitudinal steel provided at the top face of the beam at the face of the column;
when the top longitudinal steel in the beam at the two supporting column faces is
different, the larger of the two shall be considered.
¨ 6.2.5 – At an exterior joint, top and bottom bars of beams shall be provided with
anchorage length beyond the inner face of the column, equal to development length of the
bar in tension plus 10 times bar diameter minus the allowance for 90° bends.
• Transverse reinforcement (6.3)
¨ Only vertical links shall be used in beams; inclined links shall not be used. And,
¨ In normal practice, a link is made of a single bent bar. But, it may be made of two bars
also, namely a U-link with a 135° hook with an extension of 6 times diameter (but not less
than 65 mm) at each end, embedded in the core concrete, and a cross-tie.
¨ The minimum diameter of a link shall be 8 mm.
¨ Spacing of links over a length of 2d at either end of a beam shall not exceed,
o d/4;
o 8 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar; and
o 100 mm
¨ 6.3.5.1 The first link shall be at a distance not exceeding 50 mm from the joint face.
¨ 6.3.5.2 Closely spaced links shall be provided over a length equal to 2d on either side of a
section where flexural yielding may occur under earthquake effects. Over the remaining
length of the beam, vertical links shall be provided at a spacing not exceeding d/2.
• Splicing of longitudinal bars (6.2.6)
¨ When adopted, closed links shall be provided over the entire length over which the
longitudinal bars are spliced. Further,
o the spacing of these links shall not exceed 150 mm.
¨ The lap length shall not be less than the development length of the largest longitudinal
reinforcement bar in tension.
¨ lap splices shall not be provided,
o within a joint ;
o within a distance of 2d from face of the column; and

40
 owithin a quarter length of the beam adjoining the location where flexural
yielding may occur under earthquake effects.
¨ Not more than 50 percent of area of steel bars on either top or bottom face shall be spliced
at any one section.
c) Column
• The minimum dimension of a column shall not be less than, (7.1.1)
¨ 20 𝑑Y , where 𝑑Y is diameter of the largest diameter longitudinal reinforcement bar in the
beam passing through or anchoring into the column at the joint, or
¨ 300 mm
• 7.1.2 The cross-section aspect ratio (that is, ratio of smaller dimension to larger dimension of the
cross- section of a column or inclined member) shall not be less than 0.45
• Transverse reinforcement
¨ Transverse reinforcement shall consist of closed loop,
o spiral or circular links in circular columns, and
o rectangular links in rectangular columns.
¨ In either case, the closed link shall have 135° hook ends with an extension of 6 times its
diameter (but not < 65 mm) at each end, which are embedded in the confined core of the
column.
¨ 7.4.2 When rectangular links are used,
o the minimum diameter permitted of transverse reinforcement bars is 8 mm,
when diameter of longitudinal bar is less than or equal to 32 mm, and 10 mm,
when diameter of longitudinal bar is more than 32 mm;
o the maximum spacing of parallel legs of links shall be 300 mm centre to centre;
o a cross-tie shall be provided, if the length of any side of the link exceeds 300
mm.
• Special confining reinforcements (8.1)
¨ Special confining reinforcements shall be provided over a length 𝑙F from the face of the
joint towards mid-span of beams and mid heights of columns, on either side of the joint;
where 𝑙F is not less than
o larger lateral dimension of the member at the section where yielding occurs,
o 1/6 of clear span of the member
o 450 mm
21. Design of Masonry structure
a) Introduction
• Masonry wall are made of stone or bricks. Its primary function is to divide spaces for various
functional use, bearing roof loads, to provide privacy and security.
• Two types
¨ Load bearing
¨ Non-load bearing
• Panel wall: it is external non-load bearing walls in a framed structure.
b) Different types of wall
• Partition wall: thin internal wall to divide space
• Internal wall: load bearing partition wall
• Panel wall: external non-load bearing wall of a framed structure
• Party wall: wall separating the adjoining buildings of two owners in two buildings
• Separating wall: wall separating different occupancies within the same building
• Curtain wall: self-supporting wall carrying no other vertical load but subjected to lateral loads.
c) Load bearing walls types
• Solid masonry wall

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 ¨ It is made of one material in full thickness one or more brick wide
¨ It is used for bearing vertical or lateral loads
• Cavity wall
¨ This wall has two separate walls separated by a cavity
¨ Each wall is built of masonry units, tied together with metal ties or bonding units to act as
a single wall.
• Faced walls
¨ A wall in which facing and backing of two different materials are bonded together to
ensure common action under load
¨ Total thickness is sum of two materials used.
• Veneered walls
¨ A wall in which the facing portion attached to backing, but is not so bonded to act as
common action under load.
¨ Vertical load is taken by masonry wall only.
¨ Stone veneering is provided for architectural look only.
d) Cement mortar used
Cement: sand Strength Strength
2
ratio (N/mm )
H1 1:3 10 High
H2 1:4 7.5 High
M1 1:5 5.0 Medium
M2 1:6 3.0 Medium
M3 1:7 1.5 Medium
L1 1:8 0.7 Low
e) Masonry unit strength
Unit strength of Masonry unit
mortar strength in MPa
H1 >25
H2 15 – 24.9
M1 5 – 14.9
M2 Below 5
f) Shear strength
• Shear strength of masonry built in mortar not leaner than M1 (1:5)
OÚ
¨ 𝑓E = 0.1 + ð
¨ Where 𝑓B is compressive strength of masonry due to dead load in N/mm2
• Tensile strength of masonry wall made with
Grade of mortar For bending in For bending in
vertical direction horizontal direction
M1 and above 0.07 N/mm2 0.14 N/mm2
M2 0.05 N/mm2 0.10 N/mm2
g) Effective height of wall
Support conditions Effective
Height
Adequate lateral support and partial rotational restraint at top and bottom 0.75H
Adequate lateral support and partial rotational restraint at one end and no 0.85H
rotational restraint at other end
Adequate lateral support at top and bottom where the floors have a direction of 1.0H
span parallel with the wall but no partial rotational restraint at either end

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 Adequate lateral support and partial rotational restraint at bottom and other end 1.5H
free
Free standing non-load bearing walls 2.0H
h) Effective length of wall
• Case I
¨ Continuous edges on both side
% %
¨ 𝑋≥ •
& 𝑌 ≥ ð
𝑙°ªªÂ) = 0.8𝐿
• Case II
¨ Continuous, discontinuous
% %
¨ 𝑋≥ & 𝑌 ≥ 𝑙°ªªÂ) = 0.9𝐿
• ð
• Case III
¨ Discontinuous edges both side
% %
¨ 𝑋≥ & 𝑌 ≥ 𝑙°ªªÂ) = 1.0𝐿
• ð
• Case IV
¨ Continuous, free
% %
¨ 𝑋≥ •
& 𝑌 ≥ ð
𝑙°ªªÂ) = 1.5𝐿
• Case V
¨ Continuous, free
% %
¨ 𝑋< •
& 𝑌 ≥ ð
𝑙°ªªÂ) = 2.0𝐿
• Case VI
¨ Continuous edges on both side
% %
¨ 𝑋< •
& 𝑌 ≥ ð
𝑙°ªªÂ) = 1.5𝐿
i) Slenderness ratio
• The ratio of effective height of effective length to the thickness of wall (whichever is less)
ℎAOO
⎧
𝐾? 𝑇
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿
⎨ AOO
⎩ 𝑇
¨ 𝐾? is used if the wall is stiffened by piers/buttresses
• Maximum slenderness ratio for load bearing wall
¨ Using cement mortar – 27
¨ Using lime mortar – 20 (< 2 storey); 13(>2 storey)
• Slenderness ratio of load bearing column shall be < 12
j) Value of stiffening coefficients
k) Resultant eccentricity
𝑊T 𝑒T + 𝑊\ 𝑒\
𝑒# =
𝑊T + 𝑊\
• Eccentricity ratio
𝑒#
ER =
𝑇
• 𝑇 thickness of wall
l) Chases, recesses and holes in walls
• For load bearing wall (IS 1905 6.5.3.2)
¨ Vertical chases < 1/3 of thickness of wall
¨ Vertical chases shall not be closer than 2m in any stretch
¨ Horizontal chases < 1/6 of thickness of wall
• No chases, recesses or holes shall be provided in

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 ¨ Half load bearing walls and hollow or perforated units
¨ In wall length < 4 times of thickness of wall.
m) Monograms
• Monograms are used for design of thickness of brick masonry by using
¨ Strength of brick work
¨ Number of storey and
¨ Percentage of opening
22. PYQ
a) LSM and WSM
• In case of composite construction, the effect of creep and shrinkage can be ignored at the ultimate
limit state due to large inelastic strains induced.
• In LSM spacing of main reinforcements controls cracking.
• In limit state design of RC deflection is computed using short and long-term values of young’s
modulus.
• Probability of failure implied in a LS design is 10Ž\
• Basic principle of structural design is based on strong column and weak beam.
• Five number of categories into which masonry buildings are divided on the basis of earthquake
features.
• For Fe415 steel ratio of NA depth in WSM and LSM for balanced section = 7/12
• RC beam M20 with Fe415 steel the ratio of working MOR of a beam with LSM/WSM = 2
b) Shear
• Shear span has shear strength constant
c) Bond and anchorage
• Development length of HYSD bar is more than mild steel even after high bond stress because it
takes more stress value.
•É •É •É
• 𝑙B = ÙÀp , 𝑙B = ð.ÙÀ
p
, 𝑙B = •Àp for normal bar, deformed bars, deformed in compression.
•Ú •Ú •Ú
d) Torsion
• Observations made for torsion of member with circular cross-section do not hold for those with
non-circular cross-section. As there is warping, stresses on corners are zero,
¨ Maximum stress and strain are not at the farthest distance from rotational axis but at the
center line of the long sides of the rectangular cross-section.
¨ Stress and strain variation are primarily non-linear.
K
¨ 𝜏1>D = *Yô B
e) Beam and slab
• Yield line theory results in upper bound solution.
• Pigeaud’s coefficient for T beam bridge, is restricted to the case when the wheel load is centrally
placed.
• Effective width method requires, wheel load to be dispersed through the wearing coat as well as
the deck slab in transverse direction.
• Elastomeric bearings do not require periodic maintenance.
• Notching in a ss timber beam should be restricted to l/6 or 3d from supports, whichever is less
• Sum of nodal forces at any yield line intersection in a slab is zero.
• Compared with WSM, LSM gives smaller depth and more reinforcement.
• A doubly reinforced beam is considered less economical as, for compressive reinforcement a
lower stress must be used as the desired strain in compressive steel cannot be attained to avoid
crushing of concrete.
• Negative moment in reinforced concrete beams at supports is generally higher than positive span
moment. This is primarily due to curvature at supports being very high.

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 • Courbon’s method is used for analyzing bridge girders.
• Bridges designed for class AA loading shall also be checked for class A loading because under
certain conditions, heavier stresses may be obtained for class A loading.
• Whitney’s theory replaces actual parabolic stress diagram by a rectangular stress diagram (0.53d).
This is adopted in British standard code.
T
• For IRC class A or B loading, impact factor 𝐼 ∝ `
• The disadvantage of a bridge deck or T beam bridge is the road level becomes very high.
• Detailing of bars as per the requirements of maximum spacing of reinforcement in beams and
slabs is sufficient to control flexural cracking.
• Temperature and shrinkage steel are provided in reinforced concrete slabs because it occupies
larger area. To distribute load and temperature stresses.
• Material efficiency of two-way slab is high and is low for T beams and rectangular in between.
• In doubly reinforced beam, if the compression steel is equal or more than tension side, then
approximate value of MOR can be found approximately by assuming same stress value on both
sides.
• Yield line theory is ultimate load theory for the design of RC slabs. In this theory the stresses in
steel exceeds the yield stress, rapid increase in strain occurs, these strains are in elastoplastic
region up to limit load. When load exceeds limit load the collapse occurs leaving definite set of
crack lines, these lines are known as yield lines. Characteristics of yield line are:
¨ They are straight lines acting as plastic hinges for collapse mechanism.
¨ They terminate at slab boundaries or at other yield line.
¨ Yield line may or may not represent axis of rotation.
• In reinforced concrete work dia of reinforcement should not exceed 12mm.
• Slabs are designed for bending and deflection and not designed for shear because they have small
depth and most slabs are subjected to udl.
f) Column and footing
• Hollow chimney made of plates fail by shell buckling
• Ratio of lateral pressure of the bulk storage material at time of emptying to that at the time of
filling is greater than one.
• Core of helical column undergo triaxial compression.
• Cross-section of metal core in composite column should not be more than 20%
• Generator frequency should not coincide with the natural frequency of the structure.
• Location of imposed load
Support +ve sag ging
-ve hog ging
Span +ve sagging
-ve hogging
g) Prestress
• A post-tension pre-stressed concrete beam, the end block zone is in between the end of the beam
and the section where only longitudinal stresses exist.
• The correct estimate of loss of prestress is required for assessing, the serviceability, ultimate shear
resistance and ultimate moment of resistance.
• Spalling stresses are produced in post-tensioned prestressed concrete members because of highly
concentrated tendon forces.
• A prestressed concrete section is said to have failed in strength at the moment when all the
material in the section has exhausted its stress as well as strain limitations.
• High strength steel used in prestressed concrete can take 4% maximum strain.
• Load balancing is not considered in indeterminate structures.

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 • The propagation of shear crack in a prestressed concrete member depends on shape of cross-
section of the beam
• The minimum clear spacing between cables or ducts shall be greater of 40mm, 5mm + maximum
size of aggregates.
• At the time of initial tensioning, the maximum tensile stress in tendon immediately behind the
anchorage shall not exceed 80% of the ultimate tensile strength of the wire or bar or strand.

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