Doctor of Diet and Nutrition Sciences ME-823 Semester - 3

Week # 4: Lecture # 1 & 2

Hypothalamus Hormones

Antidiuretic hormone
Antidiuretic hormone is a polypeptide hormone. It is synthesized by hypothalamic neuroendocrine
cells that project into the posterior pituitary gland, from which the hormone is secreted.
Actions
The overall action of antidiuretic hormone is to increase the water content of the body. This is
primarily achieved through its effect on the collecting ducts of the kidney, where antidiuretic
hormone causes changes in the conformation of aquaporin 1 & 2 channel proteins. Aquaporin
channels permit water absorption from the urine into the kidney. Thus water transport across the
impermeable membrane is increased, and more water is reabsorbed from the collecting duct.
Antidiuretic hormone also binds to receptors on the vascular smooth muscle in blood vessel walls;
it causes vasoconstriction and thus increases blood pressure.
Secretion
Antidiuretic hormone secretion is stimulated by increased serum osmolarity (the concentration of
solute in the blood), which reflects water deficiency. Changes in osmolarity are sensed by
specialist cells called osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus and other areas of the brain. The release
of antidiuretic hormone is also stimulated by low blood pressure, which is sensed by baroreceptors
(blood pressure detectors) in the large blood vessels and heart. This mechanism is supported by
the autonomic nervous system being up-regulated by sympathetic drive (which is synergistic in in-
creasing blood pressure). Antidiuretic hormone is transported un-bound in the plasma.

Oxytocin
This peptide hormone is synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted from their terminal ends in
the posterior pituitary.
Actions
The main roles of oxytocin are to stimulate:
uterine contraction during labour
milk let-down to facilitate lactation
Oxytocin also has roles in the reproductive organs but these are poorly understood.
Doctor of Diet and Nutrition Sciences ME-823 Semester - 3

Secretion
Oxytocin is released from the hypothalamus into the posterior pituitary gland. Like most peptide
hormones, oxytocin is transported unbound in the serum. The oxytocin receptor is a G-
protein−coupled receptor present in the uterus and breasts. It is also in the central nervous system,
which suggests that oxytocin also has roles outside childbirth, such as the establishment of
affection behaviours between baby and mother.

Growth hormone− releasing hormone and somatostatin

Growth hormone−releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin are peptide hormones produced
in the hypothalamus that bind to G-protein−coupled receptors in cells in the anterior pituitary gland
that produce growth hormone (GH).
Actions
Growth hormone−releasing hormone and somatostatin have antagonistic actions:
• GHRH stimulates the production and release of growth hormone
• Somatostatin inhibits growth hormone production
As well as reducing the production of growth hormone in the pituitary, somatostatin inhibits the
production of GHRH in the hypothalamus.
Secretion
The control of GHRH and somatostatin release is
shown in Figure. The release of GHRH is inhibited
by negative feedback from circulating growth
hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1. GHRH
release is also inhibited by somatostatin in the
hypothalamus. Both GHRH and somatostatin are
released into the blood of anterior pituitary gland.
These hormones are transported unbound in the
blood.

Corticotrophin-releasing hormone
Corticotrophin-releasing hormone is a peptide hormone produced in the hypothalamus. It binds to
a G-protein−coupled receptor on ACTH-producing cells in the anterior pituitary gland.
Doctor of Diet and Nutrition Sciences ME-823 Semester - 3

Actions
CRH stimulates ACTH. ACTH, in turn, increases the production of cortisol in the adrenal glands.
Secretion
Corticotrophin-releasing hormone is released from hypothalamic neurons into the blood of anterior
pituitary gland where it is transported in an unbound state.

Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone
Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone is a peptide hormone
produced in the paraventricular of the hypothalamus. It
binds to G-protein−coupled receptors on cells in the
anterior pituitary gland that produce TSH to stimulate
the production and release of TSH.
Secretion
The release of TSH is controlled by negative feedback
from the thyroid hormones, T3 and T4. Thyrotrophin-
releasing hormone is transported unbound in the blood.

Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone
Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone is a peptide
hormone produced by cells widely distributed
throughout the medial hypothalamus. GnRH binds to a
G-protein−coupled receptor on cells of the anterior
pituitary gland.
This hormone promotes sexual development, sex
hormone production and reproduction by stimulating
production of luteinizing hormone and FSH. GnRH
activity is low in childhood but is activated around
puberty activated by hypothalamic hormones
Doctor of Diet and Nutrition Sciences ME-823 Semester - 3

Temperature regulation
Hypothalamus is also responsible for regulation of body temperature (thermoregulation). The
temperature is maintained at 36−37.5°C to maximize metabolic efficiency; enzymes function
optimally in this range.

The pituitary gland

The pituitary gland lies in the pituitary fossa at the base of the skull. Although small (about 0.5
cm in diameter and weighs about 0.5 g), the gland controls many of the body’s endocrine systems.
The gland is functionally separated into two parts:
• the anterior pituitary gland
• the posterior pituitary gland
Hormones (antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin) are released in the posterior pituitary having been
synthesized in the hypothalamus.
Doctor of Diet and Nutrition Sciences ME-823 Semester - 3

Embryology
The anterior and posterior pituitary glands have different embryological origins. The anterior
pituitary is an up growth from the oral ectoderm (primitive oral cavity). The posterior pituitary
derives from brain nervous tissue ectoderm (the diencephalon). Development of the pituitary gland
starts at 4 weeks’ gestation. By 6 weeks of gestation, the pituitary gland has been formed
• Development starts at 4 weeks of gestation by up-growth from the oral ectoderm and down
growth of the diencephalon to form the posterior pituitary
• the two structures meet;
• the anterior pituitary gland has been formed by cleavage to the posterior pituitary gland.
The border between the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary remains.

Anatomy
The pituitary gland is in the pituitary fossa and weighs about 0.5 g. The posterior pituitary is
connected to the median eminence of the hypothalamus through the pituitary stalk, The anterior
pituitary makes up 2/3 of the pituitary gland and lies in contact with the posterior pituitary. The
pituitary gland lies in the pituitary fossa, in the sella turcica.