Graphical method – preliminaries

• Assume:
– Two-dimensional flow
– Homogeneous and isotropic soil
– K constant

1. Equipotential lines:
! ∂
! !!!
" # qx = −
# ∂x
( )
Kϕ
q = −K ∇ϕ ⇒ " define Φ = Kϕ → velocity potential
# q = − ∂ Kϕ
# y ∂y
( )
$
!
( )
q is perpendicular to the lines Φ x, y = constant (equipotentials)

Graphical method – preliminaries

2. Flow lines
! ! ! !
∇ ⋅ q = 0 ⇒ ∃w q = ∇ × w
! ! !
q ⊥ w ∀(x, y) ⇒ w = (0,0,w3 )
! ! !
i j k
! ! ∂w ∂w $
∇×w = ∂ ∂ ∂ = # 3 ,− 3 ,0 &
∂x ∂y ∂z " ∂y ∂x %
0 0 w3

( )
define Ψ x, y = −w3

( )
Ψ x, y = constant → flow lines

! ! ∂Ψ ∂Ψ $
q = #− , ,0 &
" ∂y ∂x %

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Graphical method – preliminaries
3. The flow vector is tangent to the flow lines
! ∂Ψ ! ∂Ψ !
q=− i+ j
∂y ∂x
!"
! ! ! !
ds = dx i + dy j on a flow line q
Y = constant
!"
!
Compute the cross product : ds
! ! !
i j k
!"
! ! # ∂Ψ ∂Ψ & ! !
ds × q = dx dy 0 =% dx + dy ( k = dΨk
$ ∂x ∂y '
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
− 0
∂y ∂x
!"
! "
On a flow line Ψ = constant ⇒ dΨ = 0 ⇒ ds # q ∴

Graphical method – preliminaries

4. Flow lines (Ψ=ct.) are perpendicular to
the equipotential lines (Φ=ct.)
If they are, so will be thegradients of Φ and Ψ :

!!!" !!!" & ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ) & ∂Φ ∂Φ ) ∂Ψ ∂Φ ∂Ψ ∂Φ

∇Ψ ⋅ ∇Φ = ( , +⋅( , += +
' ∂x ∂y * ' ∂x ∂y * !
∂x !
∂x !∂y !
∂y
qy −qx −qx −q y

= −qx q y + qx q y = 0

!!!" !!!"
⇒ ∇Ψ ⊥ ∇Φ ∴

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 Graphical method – preliminaries
5. Given two flow lines, the discharge
between them is constant

QCB Within triangle ABC : Q = QAC + QCB

C B Ψ=Ψ
B
QAC C C¶Y C
y Q QAC = ò qx dy = ò - dy = - ò d Y = Y A - Y C
x
A A ¶y A
A Ψ=ΨA
B B ¶Y B
QCB = ò -q y dx = ò - dx = - ò d Y = Y C - Y B
C C ¶x C

ΨA and ΨB are constants

Þ Q = ( Y A - YC ) + ( YC - Y B ) = Y A - Y B \

Graphical method
Φ=φ1
• Consider a flow channel such Q
Φ=φ2
the one in the figure, plane state
(2D) a Ψ=ΨB
• The discharge within the flow
channel, per unit of length channel
perpendicular to the drawing is: b
Ψ=ΨA
Δϕ
Qch = !
A⋅ ! K ⋅ !I = a ⋅1⋅ K ⋅
area permeability gradient b
Djtotal = total potential drop between
a Δϕ a
= K ⋅ Δϕ ⋅ = K ⋅ total ⋅ the channel exit and entry points
b ns b
nt a
Qtotal = nt ⋅ Qch = K ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Δϕ total a j0 - j ns
ns b If » 1 Þ Qtotal = nt × K ×
b ns
ns = number of jumps (equipotentials)
nt = number of flow channels

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 Graphical method
• The previous formula is valid only when all
channels are limited by the same equipotential
line both at the entry and exit points
• Otherwise it is necessary to compute separately
the discharge at each channel, and add them to
obtain the total discharge of the flow net:
nt
æ j0 - jns ö
Qtotal = å K ×ç ÷
i =1 è ns øi

Graphical method – example

h1
h2

H Objective:
– Calculate the total discharge
z through the flow net
– Calculate the pore water pressure
at each point within the domain

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 Graphical method – example

h1
h2

H Procedure:
– Draw an orthogonal flow net: flow lines
z are perpendicular to equipotential lines,
with cells as much “square” as possible

Graphical method – example

1: Flow lines
2: Equipotential lines
h1
h2
φ0 φ8
K

φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 φ5 φ6 φ7

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 Graphical method – example
• Orthogonal flow net
– draw flow lines (only a few!) first
– Then draw the equipotential lines perpendicular
to the already drawn flow lines, such that the
curved cells are as much “square” as possible
– adjust the flow net as necessary
• The flow net is the same independently of
the headwater (h1) and tailwater (h2)
elevations.

Graphical method – example

1. Seepage
2. Porewater pressure
h1
h2
φ0 φ8
K

H
A
z
zA

φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 φ5 φ6 φ7

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 Graphical method – example
h1 SEEPAGE
h2
φ0 φ8
K Within the flow channel:
j0 = H + h1 j8 = H + h2
H Djtotal = j0 - j8 = h1 - h2
z ns = 8
nt = 5
φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 φ5 φ6 φ7

Djtotal 5
Q = nt × K × = × K × ( h1 - h2 )
ns 8

Graphical method – example

h1 POREWATER
h2
φ0 φ8 PRESSURE
K
At point A:
pwA = g w × (j A - z A )
H
A j A = j 0 - n A Dj
z
zA 11
j0 = H + h1 nA =
2
φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 φ5 φ6 φ7
j - j8 h1 - h2
11 h1 - h2 Dj = 0 =
j A = H + h1 - 8 8
2 8
æ 11 h1 - h2 ö é 5h + 11h2 ù
pwA = g w × ç H + h1 - - z A ÷ = g w × ê( H - z A ) + 1 úû
è 2 8 ø ë 16

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 Graphical method – example
• Exercise: find the condition between h1 and h2
that prevent quicksand conditions
The zones where
quicksand conditions
h1 due to critical hydraulic
h2
φ0 φ8 gradient may appear
A
K are the ones close to
the sheet piles wall and
to the ground surface,
at the exit of the flow
H
net.
z zA Choose a point in that
zone were there are
data, e.g. point A in the
φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 φ5 φ6 φ7 figure.

Graphical method – example

Let z A = H - z A
h1
h2 s ¢A = s A - pwA
φ0 φ8
A
K s A = g nat × z A + g w × h2
pwA = g w × (j A - z A )
H j A = j 0 - 7 Dj
7
z zA ( h1 - h2 )
= H + h1 -
8
h + 7 h2
φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 φ5 φ6 φ7 =H+ 1
8

é h + 7h2 ù é h + 7h2 ù
pwA = g w × ê H + 1 - ( H - z A )ú = g w × ê 1 + zA ú
ë 8 û ë 8 û

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 Graphical method – example
σ !A = γ nat ⋅ z A + γ w ⋅ h2
h1 !##"## $
h2 σA
φ0 φ8
A ! h + 7h $
K −γ w ⋅ # 1 2
+ zA &
" 8 %
!## #"### $
pwA
H

z
h1 − h2
zA = γ ! ⋅ zA − γ w
8

φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4 φ5 φ6 φ7

g¢
s ¢A > 0 Þ h1 - h2 < 8 z A
gw

Graphical method
• The total discharge Q calculated with this
method is mostly independent on the
quality of the flow net, since errors tend to
compensate.
• However, porewater pressures, and
therefore the critical hydraulic gradient, are
more sensitive to the quality of the flow
net.

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Soils with transverse anisotropy
¶2h ¶2h
• The differential equation becomes: K x 2 + K y 2 = 0
¶x ¶y
• Therefore the graphical method cannot be applied
• However, with a change of variables:
Ky
xt = x ; yt = y
Kx

• one gets: ¶h ¶h ¶xt ¶h Ky

= =
¶x ¶xt ¶x ¶xt Kx
¶2h K y ¶2h
=
¶x 2 K x ¶xt2

Soils with transverse isotropy

• Substitution into the differential equation leads to:
é K y ¶2h ù ¶2h ¶2h ¶2h
Kx ê 2 ú
+ Ky 2 = 0 Þ 2 + 2 = 0
ë K x ¶xt û ¶yt ¶xt ¶yt

• which is the Laplace equation in the transformed

space (xt,yt)
• In this transformed space, the graphical method can
be used:
– draw the complete original geometry (domain, geologic
elements, discontinuities, etc.) in the transformed space
– apply the graphical method in this space
– undo the transformation

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Soils with transverse isotropy
y Assume K x = 9 K y yt

Ky x
xt = x=
9K y 3
yt = y

Ky
Kx
x xt

• Do the change of variables

• Draw the flow net with the transformed geometry
• Undo the transformation 4 orthogonality is lost

Equivalent permeability
• To use the previous formulas to evaluate
the total discharge Q, an equivalent
permeability Ke is needed
• Consider two cases:
– horizontal flow
– vertical flow

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 Equivalent permeability
y b yt bt

a Kx at Ke ?
Qx Qxt

h1 h2 h1 h2
x xt

h1 - h2 h1 - h2
Qx = K x × ×a Qxt = K e × × at
b bt

Ky
Qx = Qxt at = a bt = b
Kx
a a a
Þ Kx × = Ke × t = Ke × Þ Ke = K x × K y
b bt Ky
b
Kx

Equivalent permeability
y a yt at

h2 h2
Qy Qyt
b bt
h1 h1
Ky
x Ke ? xt

h1 - h2 h1 - h2
Qy = K y × ×a Qyt = K e × × at
b bt

Ky
Qy = Qyt at = a bt = b
Kx
Ky
a
a a Kx
Þ Ky × = Ke × t = Ke × Þ Ke = K x × K y
b bt b

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 Equivalent permeability
• Therefore, to calculate the total discharge
Q through a flow net in the transformed
space, one needs to use this equivalent
permeability:
Ke = K x × K y
at Djtotal
Qch = K e × ×
bt ns

Heterogeneous (stratified) soil

Continuity : Q1 = Q2
hB - hD
α1 Q1 = AB ×1× q1 = AB × K1 ×
BD
Q1
hA - hC
K1 B Q2 = CD ×1 × q2 = CD × K 2 ×
D
AC
A Also :
K2 α2
C
hA = hB ü
Q2 ý Þ hA - hC = hB - hD
hC = hD þ

AB CD AB 1 CD 1
Q1 = Q2 Þ K1 = K2 ; = ; =
BD AC BD tan a1 AC tan a 2
K2
tan a 2 = tan a1
K1

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Heterogeneous (stratified) soil

K1 sand K1 clay

K2 clay K2 sand

K1 << K 2
K1 >> K 2
p
a2 ® 0 a2 ®
2

Heterogeneous (stratified) soil

Dh ü
a1 Q = a1 × K1 ×
b1 ïï continuity
b1 ý within a
Q Dh
Q = a2 × K 2 × ï channel flow
K1 b2 ïþ

a2
Results in :
K2 a1 a
× K1 = 2 × K 2
b2
Q
b1 b2

a1 a2 K1
If »1 Þ =
b1 b2 K2

Therefore the size of the cells needs to be adjusted in order to use

the graphical method

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