687712

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RCBXXX10.1177/0034355216687712Rehabilitation Counseling BulletinAshley and Graf

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Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin

The Process and Experiences of

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© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2017
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DOI: 10.1177/0034355216687712
https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355216687712

Disabilities: A Qualitative Study rcb.sagepub.com

Deborah Ashley, MS1 and Noreen M. Graf, RhD1

Abstract
Self-employment and business ownership may provide viable options toward overcoming employment disparities for
people with disabilities. This qualitative study explored the process and experience of self-employment among people
with disabilities. An online survey yielded responses from 18 individuals who were engaged in various self-employment
endeavors. The researchers identified three main categories: reasons for self-employment, the process of becoming self-
employed, and the challenges encountered. The majority of participants revealed negative and/or unhelpful interactions with
vocational rehabilitation counselors. In addition, this study solicited advice from participants for vocational rehabilitation
counselors and other persons with disabilities contemplating self-employment. Finally, recommendations for vocational
rehabilitation practice, business development training, and education are provided.

Keywords
self-employment, people with disabilities, vocational rehabilitation

Self-employment and business ownership may provide via-
ble options toward overcoming employment disparities for
people with disabilities (PWD) by reducing employment
barriers and decreasing the number of PWD who are unem-
ployed (Griffin, 2013; Yamamoto & Alverson, 2013).
Recognized in the 1990s as a part of the customized employ-
ment definition by the Office of Disability Employment
Policy, self-employment and entrepreneurial initiatives are
included in employment options that allow for reasonable
accommodations and necessary supports for PWD to per-
form their job functions (Callahan, Griffin, & Hammis,
2011). However, a number of internal and external factors
appear to deter both the exploration and implementation of
this option for PWD.
Since the introduction of the Americans With Disabilities
Act (ADA; 1990), employment for PWD has only slightly
improved; moving from 30% at that time to only 33.5% cur-
rently. The employment rate for individuals with disabilities
in the United States is less than half the 76% employment
rate of individuals without disabilities (Erickson, Lee, &
von Schrader, 2014).
Interestingly, for the past 20 years, PWD have had a self-
employment rate that is considerably higher than persons
without disabilities (Galle & Lacho, 2009). In 2014, the
self-employment rate among PWD was 11% versus 6% for
people without disabilities (Bureau of the Labor Statistics,
2015). Although the rate of self-employment among PWD
is twice that of the general population, indicating their
interest and ability to succeed, little of their success is
attributable to vocational rehabilitation (VR) assistance. In
1996, Ravesloot and Seekins (1996) admonished VR
because the national self-employment trend among PWD
was “not reflected in vocational rehabilitation practice”
(p. 189). As stated by Yamamoto and Alverson (2013), little
change has occurred over the past two decades in VR prac-
tice: “Case closure in self-employment continues to be
extremely rare within VR, between two and three percent
annually in the U.S. since the late 1980s” (p. 24).
In a national study to examine the extent of self-employ-
ment as an employment outcome within the VR system,
Revell, Smith, and Inge (2009) examined closure informa-
tion from 2003, 2005, and 2007. The authors found that the
percentage closed in self-employment were 2.0%, 1.7%,
and 1.7%, respectively. However, the average weekly earn-
ings were consistently higher for those closed in
self-employment.
In 2007, persons with visual disabilities had the highest
self-employment closures (4.9%), and persons with intel-
lectual and developmental disabilities had the lowest
1
The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, USA
Corresponding Author:
Deborah Ashley, School of Rehabilitation Services and Counseling,
College of Health Affairs, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley,
1201 W. University Dr., Edinburg, TX 78539, USA.
Email: deborah.ashley01@utrgv.edu
2 Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 
(0.3%). However, recent increases in attention to self-
employment appear to have occurred largely among per-
sons with developmental disabilities (Dotson, Richman,
Abby, Thompson, & Plotner, 2013). Among this popula-
tion, self-employment goals are intended to increase finan-
cial gain, self-sufficiency, and meaningful work in the form
of microenterprising (Walls, Dowler, Cordingly, Orslene, &
Greer, 2001), supported self-employment (Rizzo, 2002),
and social entrepreneurship (Davie, 2011; Parker Harris,
Renko, & Caldwell, 2014).
Predictors of Self-Employment
A national examination of employment desires among
PWD conducted by Ali, Schur, and Blanck (2011) found
PWD were less likely to actively seek employment, but
equally likely to desire jobs as people without disabilities.
In addition, the two groups had similar work values, and
were equally likely to have previous work experience.
Likewise, 39.2% of PWD and 39.3% of people without dis-
abilities indicated a preference to work as an employee,
rather than be self-employed, suggesting both populations
consider self-employment favorable to being an employee.
In a qualitative study, which examined the personality
characteristics of self-employment among persons with dis-
abilities, Palmer, Schriner, Getch, and Main (2000) found
well-timed chance events and resource availability were the
“causal conditions that led these individuals to make this
particular vocational choice” (p. 31) rather than the neces-
sity of an entrepreneurial personality. However, a synthesis
of empirical literature by Yamamoto, Unruh, and Bullis
(2012) concluded that successful self-employment among
PWD has been determined by both nonfinancial and finan-
cial considerations which are influenced by levels of sup-
port, system accountability, and individual characteristics.
In reviewing VR data from 2003 to 2007, including more
than a million cases, Yamamoto and Alverson (2013) deter-
mined significant predictors of self-employment case clo-
sures included ethnicity, education, and gender. White
clients had a 91% increase in likelihood of attaining self-
employment. Clients who had attained a post–high school
education were 37% more likely to become self-employed,
and males had a 23% increased likelihood of gaining
self-employment.
Advantages of Self-Employment
For decades, studies have suggested advantages of self-
employment for PWD that include better management of
health because commitments and schedules can be self-
determined. In addition, accommodation needs are better
met in terms of transportation, communication, and acces-
sibility (Ali et al., 2011; Burkhalter & Curtis, 1990; Clark &
Kays, 1995; Palmer et al., 2000).
Griffin, Hammis, Keeton, and Sullivan (2014) noted
benefits of self-employment that included (a) minimal risk
with financial supports during start-up; (b) an avenue to
acquire personal wealth through one’s business; (c) access
to unconventional sources of capital to build one’s business;
(d) the ability to customize one’s vocational situation to
include work contexts and supports to match one’s personal
needs, attributes, talents, and marketplace; (e) the possibil-
ity for career advancement and wage increase; and (f) the
opportunity to schedule one’s workday to accommodate
unique scheduling, symptom cycles, and goals.
In a qualitative study of seven persons with cerebral
palsy who were self-employed (at least 10 hr per week),
McNaughton, Symons, Light, and Parsons (2006) noted
that self-employment financial benefits positively impacted
the ability to provide for one’s self and dependents. Other
benefits included (a) dignity and decision making, (b)
enjoyment of work activities permitting freedom to struc-
ture one’s own time, (c) identification of personal expecta-
tions including being a contributing member of society
along with choosing a satisfactory career, and (d) the oppor-
tunity to affect social change by reducing misconceptions
related to the capabilities of PWD.
Barriers to Self-Employment for PWD
In terms of intrinsic barriers to employment in general,
PWD may have a number of inhibiting health issues, lower
levels of training and education, transportation difficulties,
and disability income earning limitations. Externally,
employers may be unaware of challenges associated with
disability, may lack information related to work capacities
and accommodation of PWD, may adhere to prejudicial
practices which result in discrimination, and may function
in a disability adverse corporate environment (Ali et al.,
2011; Vick & Lightman, 2010).
Although self-employment is a viable alternative to
more traditional employment options, a number of VR sys-
tem deficiencies have been related to failures to assist PWD
in their pursuit of self-employment, including a lack of self-
employment business development training for vocational
rehabilitation counselors (VRCs), additional agency fol-
low-up and implementation of monitoring policies, and
clarification on limits to state investments and funding lev-
els. Moreover, service providers may not be prepared to
assist consumers in making informed choices about the sup-
ports available to facilitate success and navigate available
services and resources (Arnold & Ipsen, 2005; Hein, Lustig,
& Uruk, 2005; Palmer et al., 2000). Although numerous
government and state resources are available, state VR vary
greatly in their policies, practices, and encouragement of
self-employment (U.S. Department of Labor, 2016).
The lack of use of available VR resources also seems prob-
lematic. Hagner and Davies (2002) interviewed eight business
Ashley and Graf 3
owners with cognitive disabilities to examine self-employ-
ment. Participants were “not economically viable” and their
self-employment did not provide adequate income. Only one
participant received support from VR and the remainder
“pieced together supports from a variety of sources, including
family and friends, disability organizations, and business
assistance groups” (p. 73). These findings clearly point to a
need for VRCs with self-employment expertise.
Aside from a lack of financial independence, unemployed
or underemployed individuals with disabilities frequently
lack the social interaction that working provides and the
opportunity to realize self-efficacy through work-related
success and achievement (Kulkarni & Gopakumar, 2014).
Research suggests unemployed individuals with disabilities
may remain subject to social stigma, low self-esteem, dimin-
ished self-determination, and long-term government assis-
tance (Yamamoto et al., 2012). Further consideration is
needed regarding the benefits that self-employment provides
for PWD (Palmer et al., 2000; Yamamoto et al., 2012).
The purpose of this study is to understand the process
and experiences (Creswell, 2013) of self-employment
among PWD. By developing a theoretical framework, we
hope to assist rehabilitation professionals in their under-
standing and consideration of self-employment as a viable
option for PWD toward the goal of independent living and
well-being. Second, because our participants have achieved
self-employment, we consider them as possessing expertise
and, as such, solicit their suggestions and advice for both
VRC and other PWD who desire self-employment.
Method
Participants
Participants for the survey (n = 18) consisted of 10 males
and eight females, of which 10 were White, two were African
American, two were Hispanic, one was Native American,
one was Asian, and two identified as Other. One participant
was in the age category of 25 to 39 years. More than half of
participants (n = 9) were between the age range of 40 and 55
years. The remaining participants (n = 7) were 56 years or
above. In terms of relationship/living status, the majority
was in a partnered relationship (n = 14). Participants
responded from states across the nation including Alabama,
California, Oregon, New Jersey, Tennessee, Texas, Nebraska,
and California. Disability diagnoses of participants included
physical (n = 7), sensory (n = 4), psychiatric (n = 3), cogni-
tive (n = 1), health (n = 1), and multiple impairments (n = 2).
Research Approach
The researchers chose a conventional content analysis
approach for this study to gain an understanding of the pro-
cess and experiences associated with self-employment
among PWD. Conventional content analysis allows coding
categories to be directly derived from data. (Hsieh &
Shannon, 2005). We sought to create a framework explain-
ing the process of choosing, initiating, and maintaining self-
employment, to be validated by themes that would emerge
from the participant language (Creswell, 2013). Unlike a
quantitative method, where the research begins with a the-
ory tested by a hypothesis, qualitative methodology initi-
ates a systematic analysis of the collected data to discover
the emerging themes depicting the elements and intricacies
related to a phenomenon. Although previous studies have
provided insights into aspects of predictors, benefits, and
barriers, we sought to understand the process and experi-
ences of self-employment from the perspective of PWD.
Instrument. The researchers developed an online survey
consisting of both demographic and open-ended questions
to attain information related to the self-employment experi-
ences of PWD. The demographic questions including par-
ticipants’ gender, state of residence, age and ethnicity,
primary and secondary disability diagnoses, time of disabil-
ity acquisition as related to self-employment status, level of
education, relationship status, type of work or business,
length of self-employment, yearly self-employment income,
weekly hours spent working, self-employment status (part-
or full-time), and self-employment satisfaction.
Following a review of literature, researchers developed 14
open-ended questions addressing the experiences of self-
employed PWD. The 14 questions centered around the rea-
sons for seeking self-employment (Ali et al., 2011; Hagner &
Davies, 2002; McNaughton et al., 2006; Palmer et al., 2000;
Rizzo, 2002), the process of self-employment (Callahan
et al., 2011; Griffin et al., 2014; Kulkarni & Gopakumar,
2014), and the role of VRCs (Arnold & Ipsen, 2005;
Burkhalter & Curtis, 1990; Froehlich & Linkowski, 2002;
Ipsen, Arnold, & Colling, 2005; Ravesloot & Seekins, 1996;
Yamamoto & Alverson, 2013). Once developed, the survey
questions were then sent to eight experts in the field for
review to assure comprehensiveness and address survey
credibility. Experts included one self-employed professional
with a disability, one VRC; one VRC supervisor, a consul-
tant/author working with self-employed PWD, an author/
advocate and parent of an employed person with disabilities,
and three university professors of rehabilitation, two of
whom have disabilities. Suggestions from experts included
deleting the term entrepreneur from the questionnaire (due to
language issues and because it excluded many self-employed
persons), combining questions to decrease the length of the
questionnaire, broadening questions to encompass an array
of self-employment experiences, and increasing the overall
ease of survey readability by using simplified terminology.
Following the revisions based on the expert reviews, one
of the researchers conducted an interview with a self-
employed business owner with a disability to further address
4 Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 
credibility and comprehensiveness of the instrument. All
questions were confirmed as appropriate and retained. Each
phase of the research was conducted following the approval
of procedures by the university Internal Review Board (IRB).
Procedures
A survey link to the questionnaire was posted on disability
websites and social media outlets of a national disability
organization with approximately 120 subscribers who were
self-employed or business owners with disabilities.
Individuals were not offered compensation for participation
outside of the possible satisfaction of recounting their self-
employment narratives and contributing to the research.
After reading and agreeing to the online informed con-
sent, participants completed demographic questions and
proceeded to answer open-ended questions related to their
experiences of becoming self-employed and sustaining self-
employment. The survey link remained open for 10 months.
Thirty-one participants initiated the survey link. Twelve
responses were eliminated because participants answered
only the demographic questions. One response was deleted
because the answers provided by the participant did not
address the questions posed.
Coding and data analysis.  Demographics were calculated using
frequencies and descriptive statistics to examine the demo-
graphic variables in relation to gender, age, race, education,
length of time self-employed, and disability acquisition.
For the qualitative questions, we used constant compara-
tive methods (Strauss & Corbin, 2008) that began with open
coding. The two researchers, both having experience work-
ing with PWD (one a seasoned counselor educator, the
other a novice having provided career counseling to PWD
and interested in increasing self-employment for clients),
individually read and reread the responses to each of the
questions and coded significant statements and phrases line
by line for emerging themes and subthemes. The research-
ers then compared and discussed themes resulting from
individual qualitative questions, negotiating coding differ-
ences until consensus was reached (Creswell, 2013). Due to
repetition of themes and subthemes under individual ques-
tions, the researchers met multiple times to re-examine and
reanalyze the data. This resulted in the combining of several
of the questions to create categories that were determined to
represent the essence of the phenomenon.
Credibility of Findings
Credibility was obtained through (a) verification using an
initial literature review to establish validity, (b) verification
using multiple experts to assure representation of the phe-
nomenon, (c) analytic triangulation by comparisons across
multiple participants, and (d) triangulation by multiple
researchers. The two researchers independently analyzed
the data using open coding to identify statements and
phrases related to self-employment. According to Creswell
(2013), these procedures enhance the dependability and
transferability of the results.
Results
As detailed above, participants reported disability in all
five categories; specific disabilities were reported as dia-
betes; stroke; vision and hearing impairments; multiple
sclerosis; spina bifida; learning disabilities; chronic pain;
depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorders; posttraumatic
stress disorder; and limb amputations and mobility impair-
ments. The majority of participants acquired their disabil-
ity postvocationally (n = 12) and became self-employed
after acquiring their disability (n = 15). Most participants
possessed either some college (n = 5) or a master’s degree
(n = 5). A large majority worked in consumer goods and
services (n = 11), and most worked full-time, solely for
oneself. Specific jobs were listed as writers, consultants,
artists, technology specialists, gardeners, counselors, a
real estate developer, and a dog groomer. Half of the par-
ticipants earned less than US$9,000 per year, and the
length of time self-employed was most frequently reported
as between 1 and 5 years (n = 8). A Likert-type scale ques-
tion was included to assess satisfaction with self-employ-
ment (1 = dissatisfied, 2 = somewhat dissatisfied, 3 =
neutral, 4 = somewhat satisfied, 5 = satisfied). Results
indicated participants were overall somewhat satisfied
(M = 4.0, SD = 1.2). Table 1 lists the frequencies for the
demographic variables related to education, employment,
and disability.
Process and Experiences of Self-Employment
Among PWD
Our first research question sought to explain the process
and experiences of self-employment among PWD. The
analysis resulted in three main categories: reasons for self-
employment, the process of becoming self-employed, and
the challenges encountered (see Table 2).
Reasons for self-employment. Participants were asked two
questions about their reasons for choosing self-employment:
“What are the reasons you decided to become self-
employed?” and “How did your having a disability influ-
ence your decision to become self-employed?” Four
subcategories were identified as reasons for self-employ-
ment: negative past work experiences, health challenges,
last resort, and opportunity to thrive.
Negative past work experiences. Six participants dis-
cussed how previous negative work experiences as
Ashley and Graf 5

Table 1.  Participant Education, Disability, and Employment. Health challenges. Six participants listed health chal-
lenges and a need for accommodations as reasons for self-
Variable n %
employment. In particular, participants noted their health
Highest educational degree challenges were easier to manage when self-employed, and
  High school/GED 2 11.1 they experience lower levels of stress and greater flexibility.
  Some college 5 27.8
  2-year college 1 5.6 Last resort.  Eight participants revealed that self-employ-
  4-year college 1 5.6 ment was seen as a last option. “I ran out of options, as far
 Master’s 5 27.8 as I could see. I don’t have the capacity for dealing with
 Doctoral 2 11.1 the high-pressure multitasking that seems to be required by
  Professional (JD, MD, etc.) 2 11.1 employers I’ve met” (Respondent 5 [R5]). Other partici-
Self-employment status
pants listed a lack of options due to unwillingness of VR to
  Full-time working solely for oneself 7 38.9
work with them, a lack of available jobs, and transportation
  Full-time with another job 1 5.6
difficulties: “My disability prevents me from driving, so I
  Part-time working solely for oneself 6 33.3
had no choice but to become self-employed if I was ever to
  Part-time with another job 3 16.7
Length of time self-employed
work at all” (R11). Poor wages was also noted, “The hours
  1–5 years 8 44.4 I’m away from home and the rate of pay at $20/hour . . .
  6–10 years 4 22.2 influenced me to switch careers” (R13).
  >11 years 6 33.4
Annual self-employment income Opportunity to thrive.  The greatest number of responses
  <US$9,000 yearly 9 50.0 was related to self-employment as an opportunity to thrive
 US$9,001–US$37,000 2 11.1 (n = 14). Participants discussed finding their niche and
 US$37,001–US$90,000 2 11.1 marketing their innovations: “I was regarded at day labor
 US$90,000–US$189,000 1 5.6 assignments, but I designed for myself a weeding tool pros-
 US$189,001–US$411,000 2 11.1 thetic device” (R16). In addition, they commented on hav-
Disability type ing control of their time, “With Bipolar Disorder and PTSD
 Physical 7 38.9 . . . I function better when I can control my own time . . .
 Sensory 4 22.2 and I can fly with great success accomplishing making new
 Psychiatric 3 16.7 materials” (R10).
 Multiple 2 11.1 Several participants discussed the social aspect of self-
 Cognitive 1 5.6
employment that allowed them to work across industries
 Health 1 5.6
and with others, and to make social connections and contri-
Acquired disability
butions, “It has been very gratifying. I feel like I contribute
  Before started working 6 33.3
to society not take from it. My self-image has been
  After started working 12 66.7
Self-employed before or after disability
enhanced. I see myself as a businessman, not a disabled
 After 15 83.3 man” (R17). Others focused on creativity, and financial
 Before 2 11.1 rewards. As one participant described, “The freedom, flex-
  No answer 1 5.6 ibility allowing me to take better care of myself, the finan-
Type of business cial and social rewards, and being able to plot my own
  Consumer goods and services 11 61.0 future” (R15). Another participant expressed her sense of
  Printing and publishing 3 16.7 internal satisfaction through self-employment:
 Agriculture 2 11.1
  Health care 1 5.6 Self-employment puts me in touch with reality that traditional
  Housing and real estate 1 5.6 work-for-someone-else could never do. Sometimes it hurts like
the blazes when things go off-kilter, but the joy that comes
Note. GED = General Educational Development; JD = doctor of from having done work that brings joy and satisfaction to me
jurisprudence; MD = doctor of medicine. and my client is richly fulfilling. It has helped me grow
upwards—more than I could have ever imagined. (R5)
employees had become a motivation for self-employment.
Comments included a lack of decent wages and promo- Process leading to self-employment.  Three questions queried
tion opportunities; intolerance of mental illness symptoms about the process of becoming self-employed: “Please
such as panic attacks, anxiety, and depression; difficulty in explain in detail the process leading to your self-employ-
obtaining work accommodations; long hours; and being let ment”, “Please describe fully the role, if any, that a VRC
go due to disability. played in your becoming self-employed?” and
6 Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 
Table 2.  Processes and Experiences of Self-Employment Among PWD.
Reasons for self-employment Process leading to self-employment
1. N
 egative past work 1. Business/educational training and
experiences assistance
2. Health challenges 2. Help from others
3. Last resort 3. Role of the VRC
4. Opportunity to thrive
Note. PWD = people with disabilities; VRC = vocational rehabilitation counselor.
If you did have access to a rehabilitation counselor, please
explain fully whether the rehabilitation counselor helped or
hurt the process as you became self-employed. Also, please
fully explain whether the rehabilitation counselor encouraged
or discouraged you to become self-employed.
Three subthemes emerged: business/educational training
and assistance, help from others, and role of the VRC.
Business/educational training and assistance.  Eight partici-
pants discussed training as a part of the process of self-employ-
ment. Several participants discussed their development of a
business plan: “Requested technical assistance from small
business administration in developing a business plan” (R1)
and “Regarding a business plan . . . I use a very basic one I
got from my small business teacher-Make something and sell
it” (R5). In addition, one participant consulted with a finan-
cial planner, and another “just got a business license and went
into business” (R14). Participants also revealed the role of
education as having taken courses given by local community
colleges, assistance from a small business development cen-
ter, getting a degree in business management, and working
with a disability network which provides business planning
and business life-coaching services:
The SEED institute which works with disabled people to help
them become self-sufficient and self-employed . . . gave me the
tools to start my own business. They explained about naming
the business correctly, creating a business plan, and marketing.
They also helped me get a grant to provide me the equipment I
needed to start my business. (R4)
Help from others.  Three participants discussed assistance
from others, including family and friends in the form of
encouragement from spouses and advice from friends and
others, “It took guts on my part and a LOT [sic] of help
from others. I learned to ask for help, which was foreign to
me” (R17).
Role of the VRC.  Participants were asked to describe the
role, if any, of the VRC in gaining self-employment. Three
themes emerged: no role, a negative/adversarial role, and a
positive/helpful role.
Challenges encountered
1. Interference
2. Time Management
3. Networking and communicating
4. Managing business and its growth
5. Funding and financing
6. People-related resources
No role.  Five participants stated that the VRC played no
role in the acquisition of self-employment. “I did not have a
rehab counselor; I went on unemployment for a year and then
started my own business out of my son’s home . . .” (R4).
A negative/adversarial role. Seven participants indi-
cated a primarily negative or adversarial role of the VRC.
Counselors were described as adversarial, ineffective, lack-
ing leadership and guidance skills, and most often, being
discouraging to the respondents: “I spent a year working
with a Vocational Counselor which proved to me I need to
rely on my own to know my true value since they sorely
undervalued me” (R10); “Unfortunately my experience
with my department of rehabilitation (DOR) was an adver-
sarial one that I had to change DOR offices. The next one
was professional and courteous and kind but nothing in a
leading or guiding sense” (R3); “Vocational rehabilitation
counselors discouraged self-employment. It’s (self-employ-
ment) offered me better health and a lifestyle than I would
not have achieved if I had listened to (so-called) VR spe-
cialists” (R14).
Six participants noted a positive role including providing
guidance, mentoring, and referral.
A vocational rehab advisor asked me three questions: (a) What
do you want to do? (b) What can you do, (c) What can’t you
do? These questions are integral tools . . . Truly a gift that keeps
on giving. (R5)
Another respondent described the VRC as “instrumental in
helping me lay the groundwork to becoming self-employed.
He provided the testing, got me into a community college
and a regional occupational program to learn about comput-
ers and software” (R17). Although acknowledging some
positive assistance academically and in training, three of the
respondents indicated that the assistance was insufficient.
Challenges encountered.  Participants were asked four ques-
tions about the challenges they encountered related to self-
employment: What were the greatest challenges in
becoming self-employed? How did you handle these chal-
lenges? What continues to be challenging in your self-
employment? How are you coping with these challenges?
Ashley and Graf 7
Six subthemes related to becoming self-employed and the
ongoing process of self-employment emerged: interference,
time management, networking and communicating, manag-
ing business and its growth, funding and financing, and
people-related resources.
Interference.  Nine participants commented on experienc-
ing various types of interference constituting this subtheme.
Responses were related to external, disability-oriented con-
ditions, and internal, psychological circumstances. One
participant commented experiencing poverty, bureaucratic
hindrances, lack of familial support, and health care needs.
Internal challenges included lack of motivation, depression,
“fear of failure” (R1), and self-doubt. For example, one par-
ticipant wrote, “The biggest challenge I face is my errone-
ous belief that I’m not good enough to do what I’m doing,
even though I’ve done it for years” (R5).
Time management. Another subtheme related to chal-
lenges was experiencing delays resulting from time and
energy management. Participants (n = 4) indicated expend-
ing high energy while working for extended periods requir-
ing subsequent periods of rest and resulting in down times
and delays. One participant noted, “On the days that I knock
out a lot of work, I’ve come to expect that the next day, or
maybe two, I may not accomplish anything at all and need
to rest deeply” (R5). Another participant mentioned, “trying
to do everything myself and getting overloaded” (R15), as
a challenge.
Networking and communicating.  A third challenge-related
subtheme expressed by participants (n = 4) was networking
and communicating. Participants mentioned their need to
better communicate with clients and “difficulty with net-
working” (R7). Another discussed the inability to drive,
making meeting with both clients and business partners
more encumbering.
Managing business and its growth. Responses creating
this subtheme indicated that participants were challenged
in resources to both start and grow their businesses (n =
4). One participant stated, “learning the business processes”
(R9) was challenging. A participant wrote, “The biggest
challenge is controlling business growth and expansion . .
.” (R14). Another indicated difficulty, “expanding business
operations and taking on more paid staff” (R15).
Funding and financing.  The challenge of financial support
included both funding to sustain basic living necessities and
to support business needs. Participants (n = 6) gave exam-
ples pointing to the importance of financial support while
starting and sustaining self-employment whether from pre-
vious savings (personal or 401k), VR-supported funding, or
fundraising. For example, one participant wrote,
I use a GoFundMe campaign that helped raise [funds], so that I
have money coming in, but, [it is] not as much as I really need
to survive. I need new sources of revenue . . . I need VR to
funnel monetary opportunities. (R10)
Another participant reported the need for “more specific
funding and resource information” (R3), whereas another
wrote, “there really needs to be ongoing financial support
until it is no longer needed . . . not all of us have family,
friends, or other sources of financial security while getting
off the ground” (R11). One participant stated that after incor-
rectly using their 401K, they “have to worked harder” (R4).
Others discussed a need for both capital and marketing.
People-related resources. Finally, participants (n = 6)
revealed their need for family, business partners, and mentors
during self-employment. One participant said the lack of fam-
ily support was challenging” (R11). Two participants stated
the need for others to work with them in business, whereas
another said they needed, “a working partner” (R15). Three
participants indicated they needed a mentor. One participant
explained, “I would like to have found someone . . . as a
resource, guide, coach, etc. . . .” (R3). Another participant
voiced, “. . . my depression comes and goes, especially when
I don’t take care of myself . . . I need a mentor” (R4).
Advice From Self-Employed PWD
Our second research question explored the advice that self-
employed PWD have for VRC and for other PWD seeking
to become self-employed. Two main themes emerged:
advice to VRC and advice to PWD.
Advice to VRC.  One question asked participants: What sug-
gestions would you give VRCs about how they can help
PWD who are thinking of becoming self-employed? Two
subthemes emerged from the responses to this item includ-
ing increasing business competence and increasing counsel-
ing competence.
Increase business competence. Six participants advised
VRCs to increase business competence. Participants
desired VRCs to be trained in business matters rather than
provide referrals to agencies that did not understand the
needs of persons with disabilities. Respondents called for
VRCs to become familiar with self-employment strategies,
learn about the self-employment process and health care
implications of self-employment, receive business educa-
tion, and “learn about business ownership from the perspec-
tive of someone with a disability” (R14). One participant
expressed frustration:
No one (VRCs) . . . had comparable education, which was
disheartening. They had no experience running business, no
8 Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 
experience making a business plan even no education in
business even. How can you evaluate me when one is this
inexperienced, lacking business education and work
experience? (R10)
Increase counseling competence. Ten participants also
advised that counseling competence should be improved
in terms of empathy and encouraging clients toward self-
employment, “If a person can do it, encourage them; self-
employment is extremely empowering for a person with a
disability” (R16). Participants also emphasized listening
and allowing clients to take the lead, networking clients,
and helping clients explore options. One participant stated,
Offer people the assistance they ask for without interjecting their
own beliefs or preconceived notions. I was offered job training
for office skills only and told there was no funding for new skills/
trades and starting a business was out of the question. (R13)
Advice to PWD. A second question asked participants,
“What advice would you give a person with a disability
who is thinking of becoming self-employed?” This question
elicited recommendations creating three subthemes: (a)
exploring and planning, (b) using outside support, and (c)
persevering.
Exploring and planning.  Among the 15 responses in this
subtheme, participants shared advice encouraging PWD
who would like to become self-employed to begin by explor-
ing their options, proceeding by assessing their assets, and
then planning for success. One participant wrote, “Explore
every option and work toward achieving (your) goal. Antic-
ipate possible setbacks” (R1). Another participant wrote,
Look into it! You’re guaranteed to win! If, after investigating it
with others, you find you want to go in a direction other than
self-employment, the process of looking at it will change you
for the better. You’ll have a clearer picture of what a business
owner is dealing with, so, as that person’s employee, you’ll
have empathy towards, and therefore value, that employer,
even if it’s the director of an organization for which you’re
volunteering. (R5)
Another participant wrote, “Be honest with yourself
about whether you have the necessary skills, tenacity, net-
work and something differentiated to offer in the market-
place . . . also if you can afford startup costs and lower
income initially” (R6). Related to planning, another partici-
pant advised, “Always start with a business plan and do not
be afraid to update your plan as you go along. You have a
map that can help you avoid the pitfalls of business and help
you draw closer to treasure” (R10).
Using outside support.  In this subtheme, participants
(n = 6) encouraged prospective self-employed PWD to seek
guidance and make connections by using outside support.
One participant advised to use social services, even though
doing so may be challenging,
It is challenging to master business plus coordinate to the
demands of social services that most business people without
disabilities never even have to deal with, but do not let that stop
you. Reach out to the social services as best as you can and let
them help empower you to be the best business people. (R10)
Another participant wrote, “Use some sort of coach or ser-
vice that can help you take all the necessary steps to assure
success with your new business” (R17).
Persevering. Responses (n = 5) emerging in this sub-
theme spoke to perseverance. One participant wrote, “work
until [your] dream is realized” (R1). Another participant
provided a reason to persevere, “Do it . . . no one gets rich
working for other people” (R13). Finally, a participant
encouraged, “. . . use smart guidelines and don’t let anyone
intimidate you” (R4).
Discussion
This research study explored the process and experiences of
self-employment among PWD using a qualitative approach.
Second, this study sought the expertise of participants to
offer direction to other PWD who might seek self-employ-
ment, as well as to VRCs. Regarding the initiation of self-
employment among PWD, three main themes emerged: (a)
the reasons for choosing self-employment, (b) the process
of obtaining self-employment, and (c) the challenges
encountered throughout the process of self-employment.
In terms of the reasons for choosing self-employment,
we did not find support for the findings of Palmer et al.
(2000) who attributed self-employment to well-timed
chance events. Rather, our participants most often indicated
they desired an opportunity to thrive in areas of interest and
passion. We did find similar results to Griffin et al. (2014)
in that our participants were interested in controlling their
own destinies, creativity, and financial gain. In addition, our
participants were motivated by previous negative work
experiences, and many saw self-employment as a last resort
with few other viable options. Similar to the literature (Ali
et al., 2011; Palmer et al., 2000), the need to accommodate
health-related issues was also reflected in our findings.
As expected, the path toward self-employment included
business training and education. Our participants discussed
their process as including the development of a business
plan, the use of both disability and business resources, and
the role of education. In addition, several participants noted
assistance from others including family and friends.
Considering the goal of the VRC is job placement for per-
sons with disabilities, we specifically asked participants
Ashley and Graf 9
about the role VRC played in their self-employment. The
greatest number of participants indicated either a negative
or adversarial role. They were discouraged and felt “sorely
undervalued” by their VRC. They found that their VRCs
lacked expertise, leadership and guidance skills, and they
were left feeling unsupported. Although a similar number of
participants noted a positive VRC role, half of these were
not satisfied with the assistance provided. It is possible that
VRC’s lack of knowledge regarding options, business train-
ing, and available services and resources has contributed to
the negative experiences of our participants.
Participants in the study faced numerous challenges con-
sistent with self-employment such as networking, obtaining
financing, and using available resources. However, they also
faced barriers that PWD traditionally face in the market-
place. Similar to Hagner and Davies (2002), we found that
most participants in this present study experienced low
wages. They were not earning enough income from their
self-employment endeavors, despite being dedicated to their
businesses, largely working full-time, and using personal
and familial supports. Self-employment, with an overlay of
disability, brought a struggle to balance the accommodation
of disability with time management and businesses growth.
Participants in this study also expressed difficulties with
motivation, depression, and self-doubt, reflecting Yamamoto
et al.’s (2012) findings related to the negative internal and
external predicaments encountered by PWD.
Our second research question sought the advice of our
participants. According to Creswell (2013), qualitative
researchers take on the role of learners, rather than experts.
With this in mind, we sought our participants’ advice both
for other persons with disabilities and for VRCs.
Participants’ advice to others who seek to follow in their
footsteps reflects their process and experiences. They
needed to learn about business, seek and use help, and per-
severe. Unfortunately, many of them did so feeling they
were on their own, without the guidance and support of VR.
Advice to VRC included improved business and counseling
competence. Clearly, many of our participants believe the
VR system is lacking in its ability and desire to function in
a competent and consumer-driven manner. According to
Kendall, Buys, Charker, and MacMillian (2006) “. . . VR
service providers continue to hold negative views about
self-employment as a service delivery option for their cli-
ents” (p. 197).
Limitations
This study has several limitations that are typical of qualita-
tive research. First, the survey was administered online,
limiting participation among those without computers and
Internet access. Offering the survey in alternate formats,
such as paper surveys or face-to-face interviews, would
increase participant reach, possibly increase the small
sample size and length of responses, and also provide
opportunity for follow-up questioning or member checking
(Creswell, 2013). Second, the number of participants was
limited. Responses from more participants may have con-
tributed to the emergence of additional themes. In addition,
depending upon the nature of participants’ disability, the
breadth and depth of responses via computer may have been
inhibited by physical or cognitive impairment.
Transferability of these findings is also limited by the nature
of the disabilities represented and the individual character-
istics of our participants.
Implications for Rehabilitation Counselors
Despite the numerous challenges and obstacles identified
by our participants, according to our Likert-type scale ques-
tion, they remained somewhat satisfied with their choices to
become self-employed. It seems imperative that VRCs now
provide both the attention and resources needed for moti-
vated persons to become self-employed.
These results have a number of implications for VRCs
and other practitioners. First, as recommended by Arnold
and Seekins (2002), self-employment should be consis-
tently supported by VR agencies as a possible closure for
PWD and routinely offered to consumers during the VR
process. Providing PWD the opportunity to explore self-
employment offers a means to realize meaningful and gain-
ful employment, thrive personally and economically;
increase independence, well-being and quality of life; and
close the existing gaps in employment and average earnings
among VR consumers. Arnold and Seekins (2002) provided
an extensive process whereby VRC may assist PWD in
becoming self-employed.
Second, VRCs and rehabilitation practitioners must
increase their awareness and learning related to self-
employment and business management to enhance efficacy
working with clients who desire self-employment.
Increasing self-employment prowess will also provide
VRCs and professionals with greater confidence in offering
self-employment options to consumers, potentially increas-
ing consumer satisfaction and self-employment closures.
As stated by Ipsen, Arnold, and Colling (2005),
Historically, VRCs have not been trained in small business
development (Froehlich & Linkowski, 2002). VRCs may have
expertise in issues related to competitive employment and
disability, but intricate business development knowledge
(including licensing regulations, permits, business insurance,
corporate status, capital equipment, safety regulations, or
production methods) fall outside the scope of their career
development competencies. (p. 232)
Finally, VRC educational programs need to incorporate
business-related topics into their existing course offerings,
such as career development and job placement, to familiarize
10 Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 
students with knowledge related to obtaining and maintain-
ing self-employment, and resources available to assist future
consumers who desire self-employment. The addition of
business-related and entrepreneurial classes to rehabilitation
curricula would give rehabilitationalists the initial tools to
guide and help PWD who choose self-employment.
Conclusion
This study examined the experiences of self-employment
for PWD. The themes that emerged from their correspon-
dence describe the essence of their process beginning with
the reasons for their choice of self-employment, the paths
they traveled to make it happen, and the challenges they
faced, and continue to encounter. As such, these results can
be used to prepare VRCs for their clients’ journeys to greater
self-sufficiency, independence, and satisfaction through
self-employment. Furthermore, results suggest that self-
employment outcomes for PWD may be enhanced by
greater involvement from VRCs vested in supporting
PWD’s desires. In terms of future research, this study pro-
vides preliminary data related to consumer impressions of
VRC competence to assist with the self-employment
endeavors of consumers. Additional inquiry including qual-
itative and quantitative studies to examine VRC readiness
and resistance to support consumers desiring self-employ-
ment is also warranted.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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