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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION 1

Design Requirements of Generators Applied

to Low-Head Hydro Power Plants
Fábio José Garcia, Mauro K. I. Uemori, Jorge Johny Rocha Echeverria, Member, IEEE,
and Edson da Costa Bortoni, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—Hydropower has long been recognized as a renewable P Active power (MW).

power source. Due to economic reasons, high and medium head po- PCu Copper loss (W).
tentials have been primarily developed. Later, low-head potentials PF Power factor.
became a feasible solution with the application of modern Bulb
generators. Although Bulb generators have been developed and Q Reactive power (var).
applied since the 1930s, new techniques and materials have been S Rated apparent power (MV·A)
used to overcome technical and design challenges, which are de- SCR Short-circuit ratio (p.u.).
scribed herein. Sb Stator bar cross-section (m2 ).
Index Terms—Bulb machines, hydropower, renewable genera- Sd Heat dissipation surface (m2 ).
tion, synchronous machine design. U Terminal rated voltage (V).
xad D-axis mutual reactance (p.u.).
xf Field winding leakage reactance (p.u.).
NOMENCLATURE
xd D-axis synchronous reactance (p.u.).
a Number of parallel circuits per phase. xd D-axis transient reactance (p.u.).
Ai Linear current intensity (kA/m). xl Stator leakage reactance (p.u.).
c Utilization factor (kVA/RPM m3 ). zb Base impedance (Ω).
d Rotor average density (kg/m3 ). αi Pole enclosure factor.
D Rotor and stator bore diameter (m). βm ax Peak value of magnetic field (A/m).
Dr Turbine runner diameter (m). δ Minimum airgap at pole center (m).
fc CARTER’S factor. Δθ Stator temperature rise (K).
fS Saturation factor. μ0 Magnetic permeability of the vacuum (H/m).
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K). ρb Stator bar resistivity (Ω·m).
I Stator current (A).
Ib Stator bar current (A). I. INTRODUCTION
kd MMF form factor due to d-axis armature reaction.
YDROPOWER has been recognized as a renewable
kf f
kw
GD2
Magnetic induction wave shape form factor.
Winding factor.
Flywheel effect (t·m2 ).
H source of electricity for over 100 years. Following the
use of thermal machines in the industrial revolution of the 18th
H Constant of inertia (MW·s/MV·A). century, hydro sources started to be employed for electricity
J Inertia moment–GD2 /4 (t·m2 ). generation. The first task was the establishment of an inventory
L Rotor and stator bore length (m). of potential hydro sites, which is the hydrographic surveying.
m Number of stator phases. Initially, sites offering high-head potential were exploited. The
n Unit angular speed (RPM). explanation of this phenomenon is quite simple: For the same
Ns Number of stator slots. power output, the civil works, mechanical structures, and elec-
Nph Number of stator winding turns per phase. trical machines are less expensive for the higher head systems
Nt Number of turns per coil. than for those with lower heads.
p Number of pole pairs. In order to achieve higher power outputs, low-head power
plants must utilize high flow rates, with low-speed runners,
Manuscript received January 13, 2015; revised March 30, 2015; accepted
which require a large construction site and enough material for
May 9, 2015. This work was supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa de the turbine mechanical construction, and the generator must be
Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento designed with a large number of pole pairs, resulting in a lower
Cientı́fico e Tecnológico, Brazil; and Instituto Nacional de Energia Elétrica,
Brazil. Paper no. TEC-00042-2015.R1.
energy density and higher costs [1]–[3].
F. J. Garcia, M. K. I. Uemori, and J. J. Rocha Echeverria are with In modern practice, the medium- and high-head potential
Alstom Brazil, Taubaté SP 12040–001, Brazil (e-mail: fabio-jose.garcia@ sites have been largely developed, the price of electricity has
power.alstom.com; mauro.uemori@power.alstom.com; johnny.rocha@power.
alstom.com).
increased, and now it is cost-effective to develop sites with lower
E. C. Bortoni is with the Electric and Energy Systems Institute, Itajubá Federal heads. Technically, for low-head systems, it is appropriate to use
University, Itajubá MG 37500–903, Brazil (e-mail: bortoni@unifei.edu.br). low-speed Kaplan runners in Bulb turbines. A Bulb turbine with
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
a Kaplan hydro runner and electrical generator rotor are depicted
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2015.2434617 in Fig. 1.
0885-8969 © 2015 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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2 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION

Fig. 1. Three-dimensional view of a Bulb unit.

Since the bulb case is designed to meet hydraulic flow require-

ments, the generator rotor must fit the case size, bringing many Fig. 2. Power evolution in Bulb units.
design challenges. Rotor speed is determined by the runner, no
speed multiplier transmission is installed; bearings are placed
in such a way that the generator’s rotor works as a cantilever;
the rotor mass should be as light as possible, affecting its struc-
tural design and inertia. The flywheel effect of the generator
rotor is quite limited leading to very low constant of inertia and
reducing dynamic stability issues when connected to the grid.
Heat exchange is also determined by the stator bore diameter
and, due to the low-rotor speed, the cooling of the generator is
invariably done by external driven fans.
Therefore, under the typical Bulb units’ power and speed
conditions, many design challenges arise from the electrical
generator perspective, making it quite difficult to reach an op-
timal solution for the generator, as the rotor assumes a critical
dimension. The purpose of this paper is to briefly introduce
low-head hydropower plant utilization, and to present the prob- Fig. 3. Bulb turbine main dimensions.
lems, solutions, definition of metrics, tradeoffs, electromagnetic
characteristics, feedbacks, and special generator design criteria
that must be considered for this renewable energy application diameter as a function of the rated flow and speed, as shown in
[4]–[7]. Fig. 3
 0.2878
Q
II. TURBINE DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS Dr = 4.459 · . (1)
n
Technical and economic issues have guided the use of Bulb
turbines. The increasing power output of these units is clear as The survey covered Bulb runners with rated values of power
shown in Fig. 2. The power of a unit has jumped from about ranging from 3.9 to 74.7 MW, head from 5 to 19.8 m, flow
1 to 75 MW in less than a hundred year. For example, Jirau from 64.1 to 562 m3 /s, speed from 45 to 141 RPM, and rotor
hydropower plant, in the Madeira River, Amazon Region, Brazil, diameters from 1.2 to 8.4 m. This equation allows the estimation
was developed with 50 Bulb units of 75-MW rated power each, of the runner diameter with null average error and a standard
totalizing 3750 MW. In the same river, Santo Antonio hydro deviation of 0.27 m, i.e., an error lower than 0.4 m in more than
power plant has the same arrangement and installed power. 90% of the cases.
This power escalation was a consequence of increasing the Due to hydraulic optimization requirements, there is a direct
turbine runner diameter, as showed in Fig. 2. This fact is of relationship between the bulb diameter and the runner diameter.
utmost importance because due to hydraulic profile restrictions, Therefore, knowledge of this relationship is very important,
the bulb case diameter, and eventually the generator diameter, as the electrical machine must fit the bulb diameter. Rated speed
has a direct relation with the runner diameter. and, for a given frequency, the number of generator pole pairs
A survey of more than a 100 successful runners design en- are also defined by the runner, which considers the rated head,
abled discovery of an empiric relation to calculate the runner flow, and cavitation issues.
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GARCIA et al.: DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF GENERATORS APPLIED TO LOW-HEAD HYDRO POWER PLANTS
Fig. 4. Electromagnetic Bulb generator design flowchart.
III. ELECTROMAGNETIC DESIGN CHALLENGES
The analysis of a universe of 14 Bulb generators designed
during the last ten years, with rated power varying from 28.1 to
83.3 MV·A, 22 to 46 poles pairs, showed a core length to the
pole pitch ratio varying from 4 to 6.
This ratio shows that there is not enough room to accom-
modate the poles over the rotor surface, and the pole enclosure
factor (pole-shoe-breadth to pole-pitch) shall be kept strictly
under 0.75, such that the stator winding leakage reactance will
be higher than 0.21 p.u.
Hence, our attention will focus the consequences of restrain-
ing the stator bore diameter and its impact upon the generator’s
electrical parameters [8].
A. Utilization Factor
A very popular approach to achieve the machine electromag-
netic design is to follow the procedure depicted in the flowchart
shown in Fig. 4, which is based on the definition of the machine
utilization factor [9], given by
2 higher induction, while a low-rated voltage would require a
S π
c= = √ · kw · Ai · βm ax .
D2 ·L·n 60 · 2
This equation means that the rated torque imposed by the
turbine defines the machine design and the need of a certain
volume to hold all the expected energy.
The utilization factor takes into account the linear current in-
tensity in the machine wires and the maximum value of the mag-
netic flux density wave shape over the air-gap line. This value
has historically improved with materials development, namely
the allowable temperature rise and magnetic characteristics.
Due to Bulb generator design constraints, its utilization factor
is quite different from those obtained for regular, vertical shaft,
and hydro generators. Based on the aforementioned collection
of successful designs, the utilization factor for Bulb generators
considering the upper limit of the best engineering practice
depicted in Fig. 5, is
 0.2
S in Table I.
c = 7.0 . (3)
2p
Therefore, the rotor length can be readily determined. In gen-
eral, Bulb generators show a greater L/D relation when com-
3
Fig. 5. Utilization factor of recent Bulb generators.
pared to typical designs. As long as the rotor diameter is limited
to the bulb and stator diameter, the machine volume needs to be
compensated with an increase in length.
B. Rated Voltage
The definition of the rated voltage represents the optimal
technical compromise between the rated power and the number
of parallel circuits, limiting the maximum current per slot to
5000 A for Bulb generators.
In addition, the flexibility of selecting the number of parallel
circuits will be associated with the rated speed since the number
of stator winding parallel circuits depends on the number of
rotor poles, as described in
 
∼ π. D
U = 4.kf f . αi . L. f. kw . Nph . βm ax . (4)
2p
A high-rated voltage value will demand more insulation and
(2) greater number of parallel circuits. Therefore, rated voltages far
from the optimal value will imply nonideal electromagnetic de-
sign, increasing the machine cost. That is why the rated voltage
is a variable that should be defined by the manufacturer once the
transmission voltage level can be achieved using high-voltage
transformers.
C. Performance at V/f Different From the Rated
According to the IEC 60034–1–2010, generators connected
to the power grid shall be capable of operation in the window
defined by the voltage and frequency variations, classified as
zone A or B, as depicted in Fig. 6 [10].
The machine shall be capable to operate continuously in Zone
A, but does not need to comply with rated performance, i.e.,
rated power, power factor, voltage, frequency, and temperature
rise may be higher than that at rated voltage and frequency. The
operation within Zone A would result in the symptoms presented
The machine also shall be capable of performing its primary
function within Zone B but may exhibit greater deviations of its
performance at rated voltage and frequency. Extended operation
at the perimeter of Zone B is not recommended.
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4 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION

limitation, rated power factors lower than 0.90 should not be

expected for this type of machine.

E. Short-Circuit Ratio and Direct-Axis Reactance

The short-circuit ratio is a direct measure of the machine
weight and field current excursion. It can be shown that it is the
inverse of the per-unit saturated d-axis synchronous reactance.
Mathematically, the d-axis synchronous reactance is the summa-
tion of the constant stator leakage reactance with the stator–rotor
mutual reactance, variable with the machine saturation, which
can be estimated using
 2
1 μ0 · D · L kw · Ns · Ntc
xad ≈ · kd · m · f · · . (5)
Zb fc · fs · δ p·m·a
The dashed lines of Fig. 7 show how the increase of the d-axis
synchronous reactance, i.e., a reduction in the SCR, reduces
the static stability margin and the reactive power absorbing
Fig. 6. Voltage and frequency limits for generators. capability.
From (5), it can be seen that xad also depends on the machine
TABLE I diameter, but its value can be changed with a number of factors.
IMPACT OF OPERATIONAL POINTS OVER THE GENERATOR Saturation level, airgap length, and number of turns per phase
are the most effective variables, with respective consequences,
Point V/f Zone A mainly in magnetic induction. Therefore, in Bulb units, due to
1 1.05 Strong magnetic demand over the poles due to the high the physical constraints, it is usual practice to maintain the SCR
saturation level. The pole leakage flux assumes high levels due between 0.75 and 1.05, in order to obtain a copper oriented
to the exiguous pole pitch.
2 1.051 Same as above.
optimized design [12].
3 1.020 Critical demanding on the poles, leakage flux, and saturation.
4 0.969 Stator winding overheat due to the 5% armature current increase. F. Direct-Axis Transient Reactance
5 0.950 Same as above.
6 0.951 Less demanded than above. For the classical equivalent circuit of the direct axis of a
7 0.980 The generator has an easier operation than in the rated condition.
8 1.029 Less demanded than above.
synchronous machine, the d-axis transient reactance is
1
xd = xl +  . (6)
1 1
xa d + xf

Fig. 7. Power factor and xd influence on the machine reactive flexibility.
D. Rated Power Factor
The reactive flexibility for different rated power factors can
be observed in the capability curve shown in Fig. 7, where the
dot lines are the rotor heating limits. Notice that the higher is
the rated power factor, the lower is the reactive power supply
capability.
On the other hand, the lower the rated power factor; the higher
the generator cost will be, due to the increase on the machine
magnetic core and to rotor winding conductors oversizing to
afford a greater excitation. Considering the rotor dimension
For Bulb generators, in which the pole pitch is very narrow, the
field reactance becomes very sensitive. Any percentage variation
in the stator bore diameter results in an inverse variation of the
d-axis transient reactance.
The classical pole shoe width is 75% of the pole pitch; how-
ever, due to the lack of space that is not what happens in the
rotor of Bulb generators. It was empirically observed that an in-
crease of the pole shoe width results in a quasi-square increase
of the field winding leakage reactance value. This behavior can
be partially explained by the fact that the increase of the pole
shoe width reduces the reluctance between neighbor poles, al-
lowing for a magnetic flux leak, instead of crossing the air-gap.
Therefore, an increase of 5% of the pole shoe width would result
in an increase of about 10% (1.052 ) in the field winding leakage
reactance.
IV. MECHANIC DESIGN CHALLENGES
A. Temperature Elevation
The heat of the machine is considered as that obtained with
the current flowing through the copper wires. The temperature
elevation is related to the dissipation area, the heat transfer
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GARCIA et al.: DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF GENERATORS APPLIED TO LOW-HEAD HYDRO POWER PLANTS
Fig. 8. Stator design characteristics. (a) Core cooling ducts. (b) Core pressing
system.
coefficient, and the copper losses [11]
PCu = h · Ad Δθ.
The copper loss is
lw
PCu = ρb · · I2.
Ab b
The wire length and the heat-releasing surface, considered as
the internal armature area, are
l w = 2 · lb · Ns · Nt
Ad = π · D · lb .
Substituting the variables results
 
ρb Ib 2 · Ns · N t I
Δθ = · · · .
h Sb π·D a classical design, the machine torque stresses the arms only in
Therefore, the natural capacity of heat dissipation of the stator
winding is determined by the stator bore diameter, which is
critical for the type of machine under analysis.
It is worthwhile to observe that the term in parenthesis of (8)
is the linear current intensity used in (2). The value of 75 kA/m
is a reference to balance the relative proportions of copper and
iron employed in a machine [12].
In consequence, the temperature elevation of the machine
is also limited to its design assumptions, with great effect on
machine cost as a linear current intensity greater than 75 kA/m
means a copper-oriented design, less magnetic flux, and stronger
armature reaction. The opposite is also true, a linear current
intensity lower than 75 kA/m means an iron-oriented design,
more magnetic flux, and moderate armature reaction.
B. Stator Design
New designs incorporate special V-shape elements with sig-
nificant operational advantages, as they guarantee the necessary
structural stiffness with less radial space required than tradi-
tional solutions. This special feature also ensures the necessary
space between stator core and casing in order to achieve efficient
air circulation through the core cooling ducts [see Fig. 8(a)]. The
stator key bar design, in combination with the V-element spring
effect and the stator core pressing system, provides vital protec-
tion against stator core buckling [see Fig. 8(b)].
5
Fig. 9. Rotor spider structure design alternatives. (a) Oblique element.
(b) I-beam.
C. Rotor Design
(7) The weight of the rotating mass is critical to the design of Bulb
generators. Currently, there are two consolidated alternatives for
the rotor. The first makes use of oblique elements, and the latter
is the so-called “I” beam rotor spider.
(8)
The use of oblique elements appears within new design cri-
teria, which offers outstanding mechanical performance. In this
case, oblique arms connect two concentric annular parts, the
rotor hub and the rotor rim, allowing tangential twist between
(9) each other. The application of oblique elements on the rotor
provides uniform air gap under all load conditions and optimum
(10)
resilience regarding thermal expansion, centrifugal force and
operational torques.
This alternative, shown in Fig. 9(a) offers many advantages
(11) when compared to classical designs with radial arms. In the
the tensile direction, while oblique arms absorb rim expansion
due to centrifugal force and thermal expansion by allowing
rotation of the rim in relation to the hub.
The second option is the “I” beam rotor spider, which is shown
in Fig. 9(b). This approach consists in a rolled iron cylinder (ro-
tor rim) with a disc (spider) welded in the cylinder center. Large
openings between hub and rim provide passage for cooling air
and the poles are bolted to the rotor rim.
This solution offers a lighter rotor, allowing lower loads on
the bearings. The option of bolting the poles is also very useful
to skew poles when there is the need to mitigate pole magnetic
field harmonics [12].
D. Inertia, Flywheel Effect, and Inertia Constant
Due to available dimensions and weight limitations, the in-
ertia of Bulb generators is lower than that observed for regular,
vertical shaft, and hydro generators. Therefore, the machine may
present dynamic stability issues that must be prevented with the
suitable adjustment of speed governor parameters, and advance
estimation of the inertia constant is of great interest to run power
system dynamic simulations.
Considering the rotor depicted in Fig. 10, the average mass
radius of the rotor is at R equidistant from both external and
internal radius. The higher the number of poles, the lower the
clearance between poles will be, and the rotor tends to a cylinder.
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6 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION

Fig. 11. Transient speed response in a single machine system.

Fig. 10. Typical sketch of a generator rotor.

Thus, a first approach is to consider the rotor as a rotating

cylinder, which is done by the use of the kj factor
π · D2 · L kj 3 + kj
J =ρ· · Di2 · (12)
4 (1 + kj)4
with
r
kj =
. (13)
R Fig. 12. Transient speed response in a multimachine system.
Otherwise, the natural flywheel effect can be empirically es-
timated from the universe of analyzed units, since that is a
fundamental function of the machine power and speed On the other hand, due to the double regulation, the Bulb unit
shows a shorter stabilization time when compared to the other
S 1.2
GD2 = 109 · . (14) units.
n2
In accordance to this approach, the constant of inertia is E. Cooling System Design
H = 0.1495 · S 0.2
. (15) Since the generator operates inside the bulb case, tempera-
ture rise is an unavoidable phenomenon that must be carefully
The constant of inertia of successfully constructed machines
considered in the design phase [4], [7]. As the rotating speed
varies from 1.0 to 1.4 MW·s/MV·A. This small constant of
of Bulb machines is very small to provide self-ventilation, the
inertia, when compared to typical machines, brings additional
ventilation system plays a crucial role to exhaust heat generated
stability issues. This inertia relates only to the electrical ma-
by the armature current and field excitation.
chine, therefore shaft and runner inertias should be added to
Considering Section V-A, the improvement of the cooling
calculate the unit inertia and constant of inertia.
system reflects directly in the increasing of the heat transfer
Notice that Bulb turbines are Kaplan runner driven, which
coefficient, which allows for a lower temperature elevation for
are double regulated, i.e., both gates and blades angles can be
a given dissipated power [10]–[11].
adjusted [13]. The gate aperture establishes the gross power gen-
To increase air pressure and cooling system overall perfor-
eration, while the blade angle fine-tunes the machine efficiency,
mance, forced ventilation with fans located inside the bulb is
ruled by the CAM correlation curve.
employed, suctioning air from a water–air heat exchanger. The
Simulations were conducted in order to better understand
cold water is collected from the bulb nose and cold air is pushed
Bulb unit behavior when compared to a conventional Francis
into the machine stator through the rotor apertures, as depicted
turbine and to a fossil turbine driven unit. The constant of inertia
in Fig. 13.
of these units are 1.4, 3.12, and 6.19, respectively.
In order to achieve a better thermal symmetry, the rotor struc-
Fig. 11 shows the per unit speed variation after the clear-
ture openings allow cooling air to be guided to the generator
ance of a three-phase short-circuit in one of the two parallel
active parts from both the coupled and noncoupled sides.
lines that connect the single machine to the infinite buss, while
Fig. 12 shows the behavior of the units in the “Brazilian birds”
multimachine test system [14]. F. Bearings Design
In both cases, the Bulb unit has the largest speed/frequency The shaft line arrangement for Bulb machines consists of
deviation, as expected due to its low inertia, without any harm two rotating masses in cantilever, with two radial bearings to
to system stability. ensure the dynamic stability during operation (see Fig. 14). The
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GARCIA et al.: DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF GENERATORS APPLIED TO LOW-HEAD HYDRO POWER PLANTS
Fig. 13. Typical Bulb generator cooling system.
Fig. 14. Bulb shaft line and bearings assembly.
combined axial-radial bearing is located as close as possible to
the center of gravity of the generator rotor. It carries the weight
of the rotor and the force of the unbalanced magnetic pull when
the machine is in normal operation (see Fig. 15).
In case of a double rotor earth fault, huge rotating forces act
not only on the bearing, but also on the bearing and bracket sup-
ports. The axial bearing is designed for steady-state conditions
of the turbine and for dynamic hydraulic transients. A semicir-
cular plate that allows it to follow the shaft movements supports
the turbine guide bearing. Generator and turbine bearings are
both shell type bearings.
Thrust and counter-thrust bearing pads are designed to handle
the axial hydraulic force. The counter-thrust bearing is stressed
for a few seconds in case of load rejection. The thrust bearing
pads ensure even load distribution, independent of the shaft
movements. Bearing and thrust-bearing lubrication is carried
out by gravity from an oil tank located above the unit. This very
simple process has proven to be extremely reliable.
7
Fig. 15. Calculated unbalanced magnetic force.
Nevertheless, with the increase of the relation L/D, the run-
way speed of Bulb units, and the air gap width, a third bearing in
the noncoupled side may be required. The shaft line arrangement
for Bulb machines consists of two rotating masses in cantilever,
with two radial bearings to ensure dynamic stability during oper-
ation (see Fig. 14). The combined axial-radial bearing is located
as close as possible to the center of gravity of the generator rotor.
This carries the weight of the rotor and the force of the unbal-
anced magnetic pull when the machine is in normal operation
(see Fig. 15).
In case of a double rotor earth fault, huge rotating forces act
not only on the bearing, but also on the bearing and bracket sup-
ports. The axial bearing is designed for steady-state conditions
of the turbine and for dynamic hydraulic transients. A semicir-
cular plate that allows it to follow the shaft movements supports
the turbine guide bearing. Generator and turbine bearings are
both shell type bearings.
Thrust and counter-thrust bearing pads are designed to handle
the axial hydraulic force. The counter-thrust bearing is stressed
for a few seconds in case of load rejection. The thrust bearing
pads ensure even load distribution, independent of shaft move-
ments. Bearing and thrust-bearing lubrication is carried out by
gravity from an oil tank located above the unit. This very sim-
ple process has proven to be extremely reliable. Nevertheless,
with the increase of the relation L/D, the runaway speed of Bulb
units, and the air gap width, a third bearing in the noncoupled
side may be required.
G. Bulb Design
During mechanical design, the complete bulb structure must
be analyzed including stresses, deflections, and resonant fre-
quencies to check the static and dynamic behavior of the entire
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8 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION
Fig. 16. Water stream immersed system dynamic analysis. (a) FEM Prismatic
elements. (b) Bending effort due to the turbine. (c) Torsional effort due to vortex.
(d) Balancing effort due to the Bulb.
unit, as shown in Fig. 16. The primary structural component is
the sole support structure of the unit, providing the main ad-
vantages: weights and vertical loads are distributed in the civil
structures, axial forces to the anchor are limited to hydraulic
loads, and civil works are simplified.
The vertical arms allow easy access to the generator, shaft
seal, and to the bulb nose. These also provide a path for cables,
piping, and the generator output. The whole system must be
designed to absorb thermal expansion and dimensional changes
due to the rotor centrifugal force.
V. CONCLUSION
Bulb units are an alternative to exploit renewable resources
available in low-head hydropower plants. Nevertheless, to im-
prove hydraulic performance, the generator should be confined
in the free space of a bulb, which brings a number of design chal-
lenges. Limited bulb dimensions and runner low speed result in
a series of consequences that distinguish the Bulb generator
design from the vertical shaft regular generators. This paper
classified such demanding issues as electromagnetics and me-
chanic challenges. The narrow stator bore diameter limits the
rated voltage, rated power factor, short-circuit ratio, machine
reactances, and stability. The small bulb case constrains the size
of the components, the unit inertia, heat exchange, and structure
support. Design difficulties were presented and solutions were
sought, definitions and tradeoffs were established, leading to
design criteria and limitations that must be considered during
the specification phase.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Dr. E. Jacobson for his im-
portant contributions to the paper.
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Fábio José Garcia was born in Guaratinguetá,
Brazil. He received the electrical engineering degree,
and the Postgraduate degree, Lato Sensu, in elec-
trical engineering from São Paulo State University,
Universidade Estadual Paulista, Guaratinguetá São
Paulo, Brazil, in 2002 and 2013, respectively. He
is currently working toward the Master’s degree in
power systems at Itajubá Federal University, Itajubá,
Brasil.
He has been with Alstom Brazil, Taubaté, SP,
Brazil, since 2003, in the Technical Marketing and
Tendering Department. His research interests include electrical machines de-
sign and power generation.
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
GARCIA et al.: DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF GENERATORS APPLIED TO LOW-HEAD HYDRO POWER PLANTS
Mauro K. I. Uemori graduated in electrical engi-
neering from the Polytechnic School, University of
São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil, in 1978.
In 1979, he joined the Hydro Power Division of
ABB Brazil, Osasco, SP, Brazil. During his career, he
was responsible for electrical and cost calculation of
Hydrogenerators. He is currently acting as an Expert
Engineer at Alstom, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Jorge Johnny Rocha Echeverria (M’87) was born
in Cochabamba, Bolivia. He received the Electrical
Engineering degree from PUC Rio Grande do Sul,
Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil, in 1982; the M.Sc. degree
in electrical engineering from Santa Catarina Federal
University, Florianópolis, Brazil, in 1985; and the
D.Sc. degree in power systems from the University
of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil, in 1996.
He was a Lecturer at PUC Rio Grande do Sul
(1983), and at the University of Brasilia, in 1985.
He joined ABB’s R&D, Osasco, SP, Brazil, in 1990;
was a Senior Engineer at Voith Siemens, São Paulo, in 1998; and was an
Engineering Consultant at GEVISA—GE Consumer and Industrial, Campinas,
SP, in 2003. Since 2008, he has been with Alstom Power, Taubaté, São Paulo,
as an Engineering Manager in the Technical Marketing and Tendering Division.
Since 2013, he has been with the Alstom Technology Center, Taubaté. His
research interests include electrical machines design and power generation.
9
Edson da Costa Bortoni (S’94–M’96–SM’05) was
born in Maringá, Brazil, on December 1, 1966.
He received the Electrical Engineering degree from
Universidade Federal de Itajubá (UNIFEI), Itajubá,
Brazil, in 1990; the M.Sc. degree in energy systems
planning from the University of Campinas, Camp-
inas, Brazil, in 1993; the D.Sc. degree in power sys-
tems from the Polytechnic School of the University of
São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil, in 1998; and the
Academia Scholar degree (Habilitation) from USP,
São Carlos, Brazil, in 2012.
He was a Visiting Professor with Amazon University, Manaus, Brazil, and
an Adjunct Professor at São Paulo State University, Guaratinguetá, Brazil. He
is currently a Professor at UNIFEI. His research interests include electrical ma-
chines, instrumentation, power generation, smart grids, and energy systems.
Dr. Bortoni was elected as a 2014 Star Reviewer of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON ENERGY CONVERSION. He is a Senior Member of the International Society
for Optical and Photonics, and a Fellow Member of the Instrument Society of
Automation.