Guide For Planning and Instruction (Primary) 2020

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2020
A Guide for Planning Instruction
for Teachers at the Primary Level
ERDISTON TEACHERS’ TRAINING COLLEGE

T. Best, M. Moore & D. Browne
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Education Department
Erdiston Teachers’ Training College
Timothy Best, Maxine Moore and Desiré Browne
Revised Version
2020
Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

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CONTENTS
Introduction 4
Curriculum and Thematic Webs 5
Objectives 6
Writing General Objectives 8
Writing Specific/Instructional Objectives 9
Learning Outcomes Versus Learning Activities 15
Teaching Strategies/Methods 19
Cooperative Learning Methods 26
Discussion 29
Guided Discovery 31
Instructional Planning 33
Lesson Planning 38
Facts, Concepts and Generalisations 46
Reflective Practice 49
References 50
Appendices 52

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Introduction
This booklet contains guidelines for teachers in training at Erdiston Teachers’ Training College
and is intended to provide information on planning for instruction. Specifically, it is meant to
provide direction on how to formulate curriculum webs, thematic webs, instructional plans and
lessons plans that cater to the diverse needs of students in the classroom. Learning is an active
process in which students seek out information to solve problems and reorganize what they
already know to achieve new insights. Moreover, children learn through interaction with each
other (Slavin, 2014). Hence, contemporary practitioners in education acknowledge the
importance of student-centered approaches to teaching and learning. In this regard, this booklet
is designed to provide teachers with requisite knowledge and skills to plan and implement
lessons that provide opportunities for students to construct their own knowledge in a
collaborative learning environment.
Planning for instruction at the primary level should be congruent with the national curriculum
and should reflect an integrated approach. Therefore, these guidelines should assist teachers in
determining what to teach and how to teach. Since Barbados has placed emphasis on the
integration of technology across the curriculum, it is critical that teachers use technology
effectively in the planning and implementation of lessons. Given that reflective practice is a
critical component of professional growth and development, this booklet underscores the
importance of evaluating lessons and reflecting on practice on a daily and weekly basis. Finally,
student-teachers should find this booklet helpful, not only as they hone their skills during the
teaching practice exercise, but as they continue to enhance their professional practice after
training.

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Curriculum and Thematic Webs
Curriculum Webs
Content for the Curriculum web should be taken from the various syllabi. The curriculum web
should have a central theme which connects the content from the selected subject areas. The
content for each discipline should be placed in individual boxes and labelled appropriately. This
content should comprise clearly identified topics to be taught in each subject area over a
specified duration without being too detailed. E.g. Class 3 in the subject area of Mathematics, a
main topic would be Fractions and Decimals.
Thematic Webs
The central theme should be placed in the middle of the thematic web with lines drawn to
surrounding sub-themes. Within each box representing a sub-theme, there should be relevant
content from the selected subject areas. The content drawn from the curriculum web should be
broken down to clearly illustrate the effect of integration. The names of the subject areas should
NOT be mentioned in the thematic web.

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Objectives
What is an Objective?
“An objective is not a statement of what you (teachers) plan to put into the lesson (content) but
instead it is a statement of what your students get out of the lesson” (Moore, 2001, p. 79).
The Importance of Objectives
Effective instruction occurs only when student behaviour is changed in desired ways. Instructional
objectives are tools for describing student outcomes and provide a means to making instruction
effective. In addition, there are three reasons that instructional objectives are so important. These
are:
 Objectives tell students what is expected of them. This can be done either verbally or in
writing
 Objectives allow the teacher to determine resources and materials necessary to facilitate
learning. Additionally, the objective helps to clarify the procedures to be used to teach
content.
 Objectives assist in determining appropriate methods for assessment, to evaluate learning.
Establish Teach Evaluate

toward
objectives objectives
objectives
objectives
Figure 1 – Moore’s Teaching Model (2001)
Objectives – providing direction for the Instructional Process
Objectives can be categorised as general or specific. A general objective states a broad, long-term
learning outcome, which is suitable for the instructional plan or unit plan. Lesson plans should
contain specific objectives.

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“The terms “performance objectives, informational objectives, behavioural objectives, and

instructional objectives are often used to denote the more specific instructional intent” (Moore,
2001, p. 80).
“(O)bjectives drive the entire instructional process. Therefore, it is essential that objectives be
clear and measurable, because the evaluation will ... measure the outcome that is specified in the
objective” (Moore 2001, p. 80).
TenBrink (Cooper, 2011) advises that the instructional objectives must be:
 student oriented, i.e. suitable for the age and ability level of the learner.
 descriptive of a leaning outcome.
 clear and understandable.
 observable (and measurable).
 attainable by students within a reasonable time limit.
 in proper sequence with other objectives.
 in harmony with the overall goals of the curriculum.
 in harmony with the goals and values of the institution.
However, care must be taken not to make objectives so specific that they become ridiculous,
limiting the observable behaviour to a very narrow range of actions.
TenBrink suggests that when instructional objectives are clearly stated and have been shared with
students, the result is that:
1. Better instruction occurs
2. More efficient learning results
3. Better evaluation occurs
4. The students become better self-evaluators (Cooper, 2011, p. 22).
Since the objective is to denote observable and measurable behaviour, it must include an action
verb that stipulates what the student will do. Some verbs are suitable for general objectives but
are too vague to be used in specific learning objectives (Moore, 2001).

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Writing General Objectives
• General Objectives are used to denote broad general purposes. They are broad statements of
intent (Moore, 2001).
• They provide general direction regarding what knowledge students should acquire over the
span of a course or unit (Jacobsen, Eggen & Kauchak, 2002).
• They indicate what the teacher wants students to know, understand, or be able to do after
completing a unit (Jacobsen, Eggen & Kauchak, 2002).
• They provide a sense of where to go, but they do not provide clear, precise statements of the
destination (Gilbert & Sawyer, 2000).
Verbs Used When Writing General Objectives
-know -understand -apply
-appreciate -demonstrate -cope
-conceptualise -enjoy -grasp
-realise -think -develop
-comprehend -familarise -value
-believe -imagine -recognise
Examples of General Objectives
1. Familiarise themselves with the importance of the tourist industry to Barbados.

2. Think of different ways to protect the environment.
3. Apply mathematical principles to solve word problems.
4. Value the importance of reading to effective communication.
5. Realise the effect of changing values on the family.
6. Imagine the effects of natural disasters on a country.
7. Cope with different personalities within the classroom environment.
8. Grasp the principle of syllabication.
9. Enjoy the rhyme and rhythm of poetry.
10. Conceptualise solutions to social problems.
11. Believe that national heroes contribute to the development of a country.
12. Comprehend the importance of a balanced diet.

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Writing Specific/ Instructional Objectives
Classifying Objectives
The teacher should be concerned with the total development of students. Therefore, the lesson
should include specific behavioural objectives from the three domains: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor (See Appendix A). According to Moore (2009), these domains do not occur in
isolation, they may overlap (See Figure 1).
Psychomotor
Affective
Cognitive
Figure 1: The Three Domains
Cognitive Objectives
Cognitive objectives are concerned with imparting knowledge and understanding. The
revised Bloom’s Taxonomy classifies cognitive ability into six categories. These objectives
range from simple to complex levels: Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analysing,
Creating and Evaluating. Thus the objective must state the action students will display to
indicate the level of understanding acquired.
Examples:
1. List at least three uses of water.

2. Propose two solutions to the problem of illegal drugs.
3. Spell accurately ten words with the consonant blend ‘th’.
4. Solve at least six two-digit subtraction problems with regrouping.
5. Prepare a graph showing tourist arrivals to Barbados for a given period.
6. Recall the main characters of a story by drawing a picture of each.
7. Justify the importance of trees along the coastline of Barbados.
8. Explain what is meant by the term “germination”.

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Illustrative Verbs to be Used in Writing Cognitive Objectives for Lesson Plans
Cognitive Domain Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) and Illustrative Verbs
Level Student Action

Remembering Identify, define, list, match, state, name, label, describe, select,
recall, recite, point, underline, tell, relate, locate, find, reproduce,
spell
Understanding
Translate, convert, paraphrase, rewrite, summarize, infer, alter,
explain, discriminate, distinguish, estimate, predict, classify, order,
interpret, outline, compare, describe, demonstrate
Applying
Use, operate, produce, change, solve, add, subtract, divide, multiply,
show, compute, calculate, prepare, determine, develop, modify,
organize, relate, transfer, measure, illustrate, construct, complete,
classify, apply, translate
Analysing
Discriminate, select, distinguish, separate, identify, break down,
analyze, contrast, compare, deduce, diagram, infer, outline, relate,
subdivide, sort, categorise, investigate, examine, explain,
Evaluating differentiate
Appraise, compare, justify, criticize, conclude, evaluate, contrast,

defend, judge, validate, support, select, choose, decide, debate,
verify, argue, recommend, assess, rate, prioritise, determine, critique,
Creating value, estimate
Design, plan, graph, compile , compose, organize, arrange, construct,

devise, categorise, create, formulate, predict, propose, invent,
imagine, hypothesise
Affective Objectives
Affective objectives are concerned with attitudes and dispositions. Care must be
exercised when formulating affective objectives to ensure that the desired attitude is displayed
through observable behaviour. Hence, a clear statement of the behaviour must be specified, the
observance of which will indicate that the desired attitude or disposition has been adopted. Some
verb phrases which may be used when writing affective objectives, include: freely select,
respond positively to, listen to, argue for/against, applaud, volunteer, support, initiate, help,
display, choose, assist, perform, defend, modify, propose, adhere to.

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The mere use of a given verb does not necessarily mean that the objective is an affective one.
Effort must be made to ensure that the objective specifies a particular attitude that should emerge
as a result of the lesson activities. Asking students to say how they feel about farmers is not an
affective objective. Rather, having students show appreciation for farmers by stating ways in
which they contribute to the food supply specifies a desirable learning outcome.
Examples:
1. Choose to work with a group when given the opportunity to work co-operatively or alone
to prepare a presentation on the family.
2. Volunteer to assist a classmate in solving a mathematical problem on quarter to the hour.
3. Demonstrate a belief in the democratic process by participating actively in class
elections.
4. Work co-operatively in a group to brainstorm a list of Caribbean countries that have a

volcanic formation.
5. Participate actively in a class discussion on the use of cell phones in schools.
6. Read a given dialogue using good diction and clear enunciation.
7. Listen attentively to a power point presentation to state at least two advantages of tourism
to Barbados’ economy.
8. Recite a poem using clear enunciation and adequate voice projection.
9. Select reading at least once a week when given the opportunity to choose a free activity.
10. Follow basic instructions for constructing a relief map of Barbados.
11. Defend the importance of at least one government institution that is designed to assist the
poor.

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Illustrative Verbs to be used in Writing Affective Objectives for Lesson Plans
Affective-Domain Taxonomy (Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia, 1973) and Illustrative Verbs
Receiving Follow, select, rely, choose, point to, ask, hold, give, locate, attend,
be aware, discern, listen, look, notice, share
Responding Read, pronounce, conform, help, answer, practice, present, report,

greet, tell, perform, assist, recite, applaud, comply, discuss, follow,
obey, participate, play, practise, volunteer, demonstrate
Valuing Initiate, ask, invite, share, join, follow, propose, read, study, work,
accept, do, argue, act, convince, debate, display, express, help,
organize, prefer, value
Organization Defend, alter, integrate, synthesize, listen, listen, influence, adhere,

modify, relate, combine, compare, decide, select, theorize,
Characterizing by Adhere, relate, act, serve, use, verify, question, confirm, propose,
Value or Value solve, influence, display, avoid, exhibit, internalize, manage, resist,
Complex resolve, revise
Psychomotor Objectives
Psychomotor objectives are concerned with the development of motor skills. Students
must be able to demonstrate that they have acquired the skill by performing some specific task.
Action verbs used when writing psychomotor objectives include: construct, make, sketch, play,
build, perform, compose, draw, run, walk, type, create, climb, jump, paint, crawl, measure, use.
Examples:
1. Paint a picture of a beach scene showing contrast of light and shadow.

2. Make a fruit basket using at least five different fruits.
3. Measure the length of the classroom accurately using a metre rod.
4. Dramatise a story read highlighting the role played by the main character.
5. Write legibly at least five sentences on a pet, paying attention to adequate spacing of
words.
6. Manipulate the hands of a clock to show a quarter to a given hour.

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7. Walk briskly around the playing field for five minute intervals demonstrating correct
hand and foot movement.
8. Construct at least five given geometric 3d models.
9. Weigh given objects accurately in grams using a scale.
10. Sketch a representation of a given object after listening to an oral description.
11. Dismantle a flower to identify its main parts.
12. Pantomime a given poem to portray the actions of an identified character in the poem.
13. Draw symbols to indicate where given tourist accommodations are located in
Barbados.
14. Grip a pencil using correct finger placement to form the letter ‘C’ accurately.
Illustrative Verbs to be used in Writing Psychomotor Objectives for Lesson Plans
Psychomotor Domain Taxonomy (Harrow, 1972; Moore, 2009) and Illustrative Verbs
Fundamental Track , trace, crawl, hear, react, move, grasp, walk, climb, jump,
Movement grip, stand, run, balance, hold, place, replace, step on, align,
follow, repeat, grip
Generic Movement Drill, construct, dismantle, change, hop, clean, manipulate, follow,
use, march
Ordinate Movement Play, connect, fasten, make, sketch, draw, weigh, wrap,
manipulate, swim, repair, write, colour, circle, measure, paint
Creative Movement Create, invent, construct, manipulate, play, build, pantomime,

perform, make, compose , dramatise

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REMEMBER - In the lesson, the set induction, learning activities and assessment
procedures must be clearly linked to the objectives.
Writing Well-Stated Objectives
Objectives state WHO will do WHAT and HOW WELL (measure) under WHAT
CIRCUMSTANCES.
Mager (1984; 1997), Kibler, Barker & Miles (1970) and Moore (2009) identify four components
of a well-stated objective:
1. Performance
2. Product
3. Criteria
4. Condition
Performance – what the student does. For example: write, create.
Product – what the student produces. For example: a composition, a model.
Criteria – According to Mager (1984), it is not always practical to include criteria in a learning
objective. However, when used, the criterion could be numerical or a modifier. For example:
accurately or correctly.
Condition – Mager (1984) contended that it is not always necessary to add a condition. He
suggested using it only if it provides clarity and removes ambiguity, and if it seems reasonable.
For example: given certain materials, without a calculator.
Remember that your lesson plan objectives should be

SMART.
SOURCE:
http://www.learnmarketing.net/smartsmall.gif

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Specific Is the objective precise and well-defined?

Is it clear?
Can it be clearly understood?
Measurable How will the individual know when the task has been completed?
What evidence is needed to confirm it?
Have you stated how you will judge whether it has been completed?
Achievable Is it within the students’ capabilities?
Are there sufficient resources available to enable this to happen?
Can it be done at all?
Realistic Is it possible for the individual to perform the objective?
How sensible is the objective in the context of the lesson?
Does it fit in with the overall pattern of work?
Timely Is there a deadline?
Is it feasible to meet this deadline?
Is it appropriate to do this work now?
Adapted from Petty, 2009, p. 411.
Learning Outcomes Versus Learning Activities
Although an instructional objective must contain an action verb, action verbs are also used to
specify learning activities. The teacher must, therefore, be able to differentiate between learning
outcomes and learning activities. Please note that learning outcomes (objectives) are end products
of instructional episodes. Learning activities, on the other hand, give students the opportunity to
do something that will lead to the achievement of the learning outcome. The objective must,
therefore, mention the end product or the change in behaviour which will indicate that learning has
taken place.
Learning activity (process) Learning outcome (product)
1. Study pictures of words that sound alike. 1. Match two words that sound alike from a
list of given words.
2. Listen to a piece of classical music. 2. Identify at least two string instruments
used by an orchestra.
3. Watch a videotape on animals. 3. Describe at least two ways in which
animals move.
4. Play a game involving fractions. 4. Add two simple fractions with different
denominators.

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Activity # 1
Write “YES” after each statement below that constitutes a specific or an instructional objective.
1. Form the shape of a square on a flat surface using four drinking straws.
2. Grasp the concept of an objective.
3. State orally three reasons why people should exercise.
4. Using the computer three times a week, become familiar with the technology.
5. Write ten sentences, underlining the verb in each.
6. Understand the benefits of using Standard English when speaking and writing.
Activity # 2
Answer the following questions.
1. List the benefits derived from writing objectives.

a. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. List the four components of a well-stated objective, giving an accurate description of

each.
a. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________________________

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_____________________________________________________________________
d. _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. It is sometimes unwise to share your objectives with students. (True/False)
4. Specific or instructional objectives should only be written for the cognitive domain.
(True/ False)
Activity # 3
Choose a topic for each of the four (4) core areas and write one general objective you would use
in your instructional plan. For each general objective, write three (3) specific objectives, one
from each domain.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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TEACHING STRATEGIES/METHODS
Direct Instruction/Explicit Teaching/Teacher-Centred
Direct Instruction or Explicit Teaching is the term “used to describe lessons in which you
transmit information directly to students, structuring class time to reach a clearly defined set of
objectives as efficiently as possible.” (Slavin, 2014, p. 199)
Teacher-Centred instruction is undergirded by traditional philosophical perspectives such as

perennialism and essentialism that focus on delivering a body of knowledge to all students,
without much consideration for students’ interests and individual differences.
Direct Instruction is most effective when teachers:

1. State learning objectives and orient students to the lesson.
2. Review prerequisites
3. Present new material
4. Conduct learning episode
5. Provide independent practice
6. Assess performance and provide feedback
7. Provide distributed practice and review.
Direct Instruction is “Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts and information.”
(Woolfolk, 2013, p. 519)
Characteristics
- Most commonly used teaching strategy

- Highly teacher-directed or teacher-centred, teacher as “sage on the stage”
- Includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, drill and
practice, demonstrations and others
- Is effective for providing information or developing step-by-step skills
- Usually deductive, i.e. the rule or generalization is presented first and then illustrated
with examples
- Works well for introducing other teaching methods
- Useful for knowledge construction
Limitations of Direct Instruction
- Not desirable for developing the abilities, processes, skills and attitudes
required for critical thinking
- Not ideal for interpersonal or group learning
QUESTION: Discuss the ways in which Direct Instruction affects learning by students of
varying levels of ability.

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Indirect Instruction/Student-Centred
Indirect/Student-Centred Instruction includes democratic approaches that are undergirded by

progressivist and social reconstructionist perspectives on education. It focuses on catering to
students’ interests and seeks to meet the learning needs of individual students. Teaching
methods include co-operative learning, problem-solving and hands-on activities.
Characteristics
- Student-centred, teacher as facilitator, “guide on the side”
- Methods include reflective discussion, concept formation, concept attainment, discovery,
role play, educational games, cloze procedure, problem solving, guided inquiry and
others
- High level of student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from
data, forming hypotheses
- Takes advantage of students' interest and curiosity, fosters creativity
- Flexible - frees students to explore diverse possibilities and reduces the fear of failure
- Fosters the development of interpersonal skills
- Increases understanding and retention
Indirect Instruction is most appropriate when:

- Thinking outcomes are desired
- Attitudes, values, or interpersonal outcomes are desired
- Process is as important as product
- Students need to investigate or discover something in order to benefit from later
instruction
- There is more than one appropriate answer
- The focus is personalized understanding and long term retention of concepts or
generalizations
- Ego involvement and intrinsic motivation are desirable
- Decisions need to be made or problems need to be solved
- Life-long learning capability is desired
Limitations of Indirect Instruction

- Time consuming
- Requires careful planning
- Outcomes can be unpredictable
- Students must possess prerequisite knowledge and skills
- NOT ideal for providing detailed information or encouraging step-by-step skill
acquisition
QUESTIONS
1. Describe three (3) situations in which you would use indirect instruction in your
classroom.
2. What are the challenges that teachers are likely to encounter when implementing
indirect instruction?
3. Discuss ways in which the teacher can address the challenges identified above.

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Teaching Strategies/Methods
Study each teaching strategy/method below and insert “Direct” or “Indirect” to indicate the type of instruction.
Teaching Strategy/Method Type of Advantages Disadvantages

Instruction
Brainstorming -Gives students the -Requires follow-
A method of eliciting a opportunity to offer through to sort and
broad variety of ideas and ideas and information select suggestions
information from members -Values the ideas of -Can discourage
of a group on a given topic each student students whose ideas are
or question not selected
Case Study -Requires little or no -Can be time consuming
Presents real or contrived equipment -Can result in pooling of
situations for the sake of -Students are able to ignorance
problem diagnosis and address difficult topics
solution in a controlled manner
-Allows good control
over content
-Excellent opportunity
to learn in a practical
fashion
Computer Assisted -Element of fun -Can be expensive
Instruction -Considered -Requires special
A student completes a task innovative equipment (hardware)
or set of exercises using a -Individual and software
computer system participation in -Requires special
learning process training
-Often provides timely -Can be
feedback intimidating/frustrating
-Makes self-pacing to the unskilled user
possible
-Can be set up in such
a way as to promote
high level thinking
Cooperative Grouping -Element of fun -Unpredictable outcome
Focuses on learning with and -Fosters cooperation -Can be disruptive
from group members and collaboration, -Can be dominated by
social skills overassertive
-Encourages divergent individuals
thinking, innovative -Members can wonder
answers off track
-Active participation
decreases boredom
-Appreciation of
differences

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Instruction
Debate -Element of fun -Requires careful
Organised competitive -Can develop skills of controls
discussion of differing points oral persuasion -Not suitable for the
of view between teams and -Provides variety very young
students -Can expose students -May develop into
to diverse opinions controversy
-Can make pupils
uncomfortable
-Can fail if students
refuse to participate
Demonstration -Visual and often -Can be costly
Person stands before class, hands on -Requires special
shows something -Can serve to teach equipment
(equipment and materials), scientific method -Requires time
usually a process and tells -Usually a high consuming setup
what is happening or what interest level -Outcome can be
has happened or asks to -Reinforces theoretical unpredictable,
discuss what has happened aspects of a topic dangerous without
proper controls
Discussion -Students directly -Unpredictable outcome
Carefully structured involved, participation -Can be disruptive
interactive dialogue in which -Students can air views -Can be dominated by
students exchange ideas on a on a given topic, ask overassertive
given topic, directed to a for clarification, etc. individuals
specific goal, may involve examine their own -Members can wander
whole class or small group thinking off track
-Improves
communication and
listening skills
-Fosters cognitive
development and
critical thinking skills

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Instruction
Dramatisation -Elicit students’ -Can bring out
Spontaneous creative knowledge of certain unintended emotions
expression acting out real situations -Can be difficult to
life situations in structured -Brings out students’ control
settings feelings and -May be taken too
sensitivities to certain seriously or not taken
issues seriously enough by
some participants
-Can make some
participants
uncomfortable
Drill and Practice -Ensures students -Not very engaging
Common method used by understand the -May turn into busy
teachers to teach the prerequisite skills for work especially if tasks
fundamentals to children, the day’s lesson are too easy or too
especially young children. -Can enhance difficult for the majority
understanding of students
-Can be used for
diagnostic purposes
Educational Games -Element of fun and -Focuses mainly on
Activity in which students competition cognitive information
compete against an -Can be motivating, -Can place too much
individual or team. Generally arousing and emphasis competition,
combines the cognitive, sustaining interest winners and losers
affective and psychomotor. -Provides variety -Can be disruptive
Can be used for review, -Educational -Requires prerequisite
reinforcement, critical objectives are clear knowledge
thinking, problem solving -Opportunities for -Must follow rules
and decision-making repetition of important
information
-Encourages teamwork
Field Trip -Often entertaining -Requires time
Visits to sites of interest, and enjoyable -Put consuming, detailed
authentic learning situations. people in the context planning e.g
They provide opportunities of their environment correspondence,
to put people or activities in -Have models and preliminary visit, etc.
the context of the materials not available -May have costly
environment. elsewhere transportation
-Can be structured to -Unpredictable outcome
address difficult due to uncertainty of
objectives interactions
-Concerns regarding
liability

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Instruction
Guided Discovery -Students develop -Can be time consuming
A means by which students knowledge and skills -Can make some
follow a well-defined while engaging in participants
sequence of steps in an problem solving uncomfortable since no
attempt to solve a problem activity one correct answer is
through direct experience required
Independent Study -Student applies -Requires high level of
Learning is carried out by knowledge to real maturity
students with little guidance, world situations -Some students can go
can include learning -Develops skills in off tangent
contracts critical thinking,
problem solving
-Responsibility for
own learning
Individualised Instruction -Element of fun -Can be costly
Students engage in learning -Designed to fit needs -Requires close
activities tailored to meet and ability of monitoring
their individual interests, individual student -Can be frustrating for
needs and abilities (e.g. -Student actively students who need
Computer Aided Instruction) involved in learning human support
process
-Provides immediate
feedback
-Makes self- pacing
possible
Inquiry -Students develop -Can be time consuming
Students establish their own knowledge and skills -Some participants feel
procedure for solving a while engaging in uncomfortable without
problem through direct problem solving being given specific
experiences activity guidelines to follow

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Instruction
Lecture -Can transmit large -Students are passive
Teacher presents information amounts of observers
without student interaction. information in a short -Difficulty holding
A short lesson can set a time audience’s attention
lesson atmosphere, focus -Caters well to large -May be short retention
student activities or wrap up groups and limited
a unit activity, or lesson. -Requires little understanding
materials
-Excellent way of
presenting background
information when
building a unit frame
of reference or when
introducing a unit.
Lecture-Recitation -Time efficient in -Can be dull
Teacher presents information terms of flexibility and -May not be appropriate
interspersed with or followed learning for all material
by question-answer session. -Actively involves -The teacher must be
The basic structure of students in the lesson skilled in questioning in
teacher talk/teacher -Highly adaptable to a order for it to be truly
question/student large variety of topics effective
response/teacher talk –
makes questioning a key
component of this method.
Questions are used to
summarise the content of the
lecture, and to help students
consolidate and organise the
presented information.
Panel - A useful way of - Considerable
Panel of experts or students giving information or preparation time
prepare in advance an exploring differing -Some students may
informal discussion about an opinions about a topic lack the resources or
assigned issue to be or examining issues basic knowledge
presented to the class. -Emotions may run high
-Some students may
internalise the “expert”
title.

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Instruction
Peer Tutoring -Effective means of -Presenter lacks
A student presents disseminating credibility in eye of
information to a peer or peers information receiver
on a given topic -Useful when -Can be inadequate
professional personnel when a high degree of
are not available sophistication is
-Receiver can often required
relate better to peer -Incorrect information
than teacher may be delivered
-Provides modeling
experience
Project Method -Incorporates teacher -Time consuming

The activities usually instruction and life -Some students may
included in project work are experiences lack the resources
observation, collecting -Integrates learning -Slower students may
information, interviews, from different find it challenging to
experiments, collections of disciplinary areas effectively complete a
artifacts, research, reading -Allows students to project
and writing, discussion and study topics in-depth -Not suited for all
reporting -Supports learner aspects of the
autonomy curriculum
-Students feel more
engaged
Problem Solving -Can serve to create a -Can be time consuming

Scenarios that need a questioning -Can make some
solution: written, oral, atmosphere participants
practical -Divergent answers uncomfortable since no
Sets ground rules for acceptable one correct answer is
participation -Develops a required
questioning strategy
Questioning -Interest and attention -Many teachers,
Teacher asks questions of getting especially beginning
students for a variety of -Encourages higher ones, experience
purposes. This enables level thought problems in this area
teachers and students to processes such as asking complex,
establish what is already -Allows for diagnosis ambiguous questions
known, to use and extend this and checking student etc.
knowledge and develop new learning
ideas -Structures and
redirects learning

26

Instruction
Role Play -Requires no -Can bring out
Students act out assigned equipment unintended emotions
roles -Interesting and -Can be difficult to
No script, but participants entertaining control
given parameters -Can address different -May be taken too
topics in affective seriously or not taken
domain seriously by some
-Allows participants to participants
express feelings
Simulation -Element of realism -Time consuming
An artificial situation or -Can address real -Can be expensive
event that represents reality world problem without -Difficult to use with
in which students make risk large groups
decisions -Opportunity for
repetition of important
skills
Socratic Method -Effective when -Not desirable if
Teacher uses question-driven students possess students lack requisite
dialogues to draw out requisite knowledge knowledge
information from students -Useful for assessing -Requires careful
rather than pour it into them student learning phrasing of questions,
probing and feedback
-Does not suit large
groups
Textbook Recitation -Is an effective -Does not foster true
Students are assigned technique for teaching understanding
content to read and study in basic information -Does not allow for
their textbook and then since students are application of the
questioned on what they often motivated to read assigned content
have read or studied and study the
assignment in
anticipation of being
called on
-Provides
opportunities for
students to learn from
the replies of their
students
-Gives student
feedback on the
accuracy of content
learnt

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Cooperative Learning Methods
Circle the Sage - First the teacher polls the class to see which students have a special
knowledge to share. For example, the teacher may ask who in the class was able to solve a
difficult math homework question, who had visited Grenada, who knows the chemical
reactions involved in photosynthesis. Those students (the sages) stand and spread out in the
room. The teacher then has the rest of the classmates each surround a sage, with no two
members of the same team going to the same sage. The sage explains what they know while
the classmates listen, ask questions, and take notes. All students then return to their teams.
Each in turn, explains what they learned because each one has gone to a different sage, so they
compare notes. If there is disagreement, they stand up as a team. Finally, the disagreements are
aired and resolved (Kagan, 1994).
Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) – This could be used for the
teaching of reading and writing in nine to eleven year olds. Students work in cooperative
learning teams of four. They engage in activities with each other. These include reading to
each other, making predictions based on narrative stories, summarizing stories to each other,
writing responses to stories and practising spelling, decoding and vocabulary. During the
language arts periods students engage in writing drafts, revising and editing each other’s work
and publishing booklets (Slavin, 2014).
Cooperative Scripting – Students will work in pairs and take turns in summarizing sections
of the material for each other. While one student summarises, the other listens and corrects
any errors or omissions. Next, the two students switch roles and the process is replicated
(Slavin, 2014)
Group Investigation – Students work in small groups using cooperative inquiry, group
discussion, and cooperative planning and projects. Students form their own groups of two to
six members. They choose subtopics from a unit that the entire class is studying, the groups
break their subtopics into individual tasks and carry out the activities that are necessary to
prepare group reports. Each group then makes a presentation or display to communicate its
findings to the entire class (Slavin, 2014).

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Jigsaw - Groups with five students are set up. Each group member is assigned some unique
material to learn and then to teach to his group members. To help in the learning students
across the class working on the same sub-section get together to decide what is important and
how to teach it. After practice in these "expert" groups the original groups reform and students
teach each other (Wood, p. 17, as cited in Kagan,1994). Tests or assessment follows (Kagan,
1994).
Learning Together – Students work in four- or five-member heterogeneous groups on

assignments. The groups hand in a single completed assignment and receive praise and
rewards based on the group product. This method emphasizes team-building activities before
students begin working together and regular discussions within groups about how well they
are working together (Slavin, 2014).
Numbered Heads Together - A team of four is established. Each member is given numbers
of 1, 2, 3, 4. Questions are asked of the group. Groups work together to answer the question so
that all can verbally answer the question. Teacher calls out a number (two) and each two is
asked to give the answer (Kagan,1994).
Partners - The class is divided into teams of four. Partners move to one side of the room. Half
of each team is given an assignment to master to be able to teach the other half. Partners work
to learn and can consult with other partners working on the same material. Teams go back
together with each set of partners teaching the other set. Partners quiz and tutor teammates.
Team reviews how well they learned and taught and how they might improve the process
(Kagan,1994).
Round Robin Brainstorming - Class is divided into small groups (4 to 6) with one person
appointed as the recorder. A question is posed with many answers and students are given time
to think about answers. After the "think time," members of the team share responses with one
another round robin style. The recorder writes down the answers of the group members. The
person next to the recorder starts and each person in the group in order gives an answer until
time is called (Kagan,1994).

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Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD) (Slavin, 2014) -Teacher presents skill or

informational lesson. Students then work in teacher selected groups to master the information.
These teacher selected groups are designed to be heterogeneous in terms of achievement,
gender and ethnicity. Students are tested individually, and those who improve over previous
test scores or who do well can help their group earn recognition.
Team Pair Solo (Kagan, 1994)- Students do problems first as a team, then with a partner, and
finally on their own. It is designed to motivate students to tackle and succeed at problems
which initially are beyond their ability. It is based on a simple notion of mediated learning.
Students can do more things with help (mediation) than they can do alone. By allowing them
to work on problems they could not do alone, first as a team and then with a partner, they
progress to a point they can do alone that which at first they could do only with help.
Think-Pair-Share - Involves a three step cooperative structure. During the first step
individuals think silently about a question posed by the instructor. Individuals pair up during
the second step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their responses with
other pairs, other teams, or the entire group (Kagan, 1994).
Three-minute review - Teachers stop any time during a lecture or discussion and give teams
three minutes to review what has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions
(Kagan,1994).
Three-Step Interview - Each member of a team chooses another member to be a partner.

During the first step individuals interview their partners by asking clarifying questions. During
the second step partners reverse the roles. For the final step, members share their partner's
response with the team (Kagan,1994).
Adapted from Kagan (1994) and Slavin (2014)
For further information on Cooperative Learning, see Appendix B.

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Discussion
Discussion
Discussion is a structured interactive dialogue in which students exchange ideas on a given topic,
directed to a specific goal, may involve whole class or small group Discussion can be the
exchange of ideas between the teacher and the students or among students. The teacher is a
facilitator of or guide to learning.
For both the experienced and inexperienced facilitator, finding an appropriate format for the
discussion or debate activity that you wish to run is invaluable. There are two basic discussion
forms:
Whole-class – led by the teacher

Small-group
Following are some suggestions on how discussion activities could be structured.
Small-group Discussion Types
1. Brainstorming
Brainstorming involves generating a great number of ideas – no matter how far-fetched and
without explanation – in a fixed period of times. The goal is free association and creativity; all
ideas are received neutrally, with no praise or criticism. The more ideas that are generated, the
better, since more ideas increase the likelihood of original thinking. Each idea is captured on
paper, a board or screen.
2. Buzz groups
In buzz groups, teams of two to four students exchange ideas informally in a limited period of
time, typically five minutes or less. They are not required to reach agreement or to report back to
the class. All groups can discuss the same question, or each group can have its own topic. Buzz
groups can be used as a warm-up exercise before class discussion to encourage students to think
about a topic (e.g. "Where do you stand on the question of corporal punishment?").
3. Envoys
Once groups have carried out an assigned task, one person from each group is selected as an
‘envoy’ and moves to a new group to explain and summarise, and to find out what the new group
thought, decided or achieved. The envoy then returns to the original group and feeds back. This
is an effective way of avoiding tedious and repetitive ‘reporting back’ sessions. It also puts a
‘press’ on the envoy’s use of language and creates groups of active listeners.

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4. Fish bowl
During a fishbowl discussion, part of the group observes while another group discusses a topic.
Fishbowls can be used when an instructor wants to have a discussion with very large groups; it's
a way of involving an audience in a small group discussion. Observers are looking for specific
themes (e.g. soundness of argument) or more general patterns (e.g. types of issues raised), and
roles can be reversed. In one variation, the discussing group leaves an 'empty chair' where an
observer can sit momentarily to make a comment or ask a question.
5. Goldfish bowl
A whole group comes to the front to express their position and be questioned by the class.
6. Hot seat
One student is placed at the front and can express their opinion and respond to questioning on a
topic. If this seems a bit intrusive you could ask the students to take on particular viewpoints or
personas to make this less personal.
7. Learning cell
To increase interaction among students and give them opportunities to reflect on and use the
course material, consider learning cells. In learning cells, students pair off to discuss homework
assignments, perhaps reading an article or chapter, solving a mathematical problem, visiting an
art exhibit, or some other activity. As part of their preparation, students prepare two questions
about the assignment, such as 'Which of these materials will float? Why will a given material
float?’ The students work in pairs to ask and answer each other's questions. In another variation,
students may read a piece of work and compare and clarify their understanding of the piece
through discussion. Alternatively, students may read different pieces and then share what they
have learned and their perspectives.
8. Rounds
Rounds offer everyone in the class, including the teacher, an opportunity to make a statement
about a topic without being interrupted for a specific interval, e.g. 30 seconds. In classrooms,
rounds can go clockwise or counterclockwise, or the first speaker can pick the second speaker,
the second the third, and so on. Any member of the group may propose a topic, related to the
subject or the group process. Examples of topics for Rounds: The worst thing that could happen
when it's my turn to lead the discussion... Something I learned that I didn't know before... The
question uppermost in my mind at the end of today's session...
9. Two-column lists
A two-column list compares views or presents the pros and cons of a position, including every
relevant viewpoint students can think of for each column. Students are required to generate ideas
on each side which helps promote a more thorough discussion and can be used as a pre-
discussion activity.

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Guided Discovery
According to Slavin (2014) Guided Discovery is a teaching strategy in which the teacher
plays an active role by giving the students clues, structuring portions of an activity or
providing outlines to assist them.
When using this teaching strategy the teacher should:

 present a series of structured situations to the students who will then study these
situations in order to discover some concept or generalization.
 provide scaffolding information in the form of additional clues, which assist the
students and guide them to discover the rule or generalization.
 ask students to identify the rule or generalization.
A lesson in which the teaching strategy guided discovery is used should include the following
components:
1. Introduction: the students and teacher work to generate excitement about the material or
topic to initiate a productive session of exploration.
Students are provided with a set of three-dimensional shapes and guidelines.
2. Brainstorming: the students generate ideas about the given resources. The teacher
provides appropriate prompts and cues.
Students brainstorm about the similarities and differences of the three-dimensional

shapes.
3. Exploration: the students experiment with the resources with guidance from the teacher.
This allows them to be active participants in the learning process and affords them the
opportunity to identify rules or generalisations and formulate questions.
Students are allowed to explore the three-dimensional shapes and collaborate to

identify the properties.
4. Communication: the students have an opportunity to share the fruits of their exploration
and point out aspects that they feel would be of interest to the class.
Students share their findings about the properties of three-dimensional shapes with
class.
5. Establishment of rules/generalisations: the students and teacher work together to

formulate the rules/generalisations. These should be clearly presented.
Students and teacher work together to create a classroom chart that clearly outlines
the properties of three-dimensional shapes. This should be displayed in the classroom.

33
6. Wrap-up: the students suggest ways in which the resource should be handled and
maintained. This provides a framework for future guided discovery lessons.
Students give suggestions about how to use, store and maintain the three-dimensional
resources and the chart.
Activities
1. Select an age group and outline how you would use a named co-operative grouping
strategy to teach an identified topic in a subject area of your choice.
2. Generate a list of demonstrations that would be appropriate at the class level you
currently teach.
3. A parent has criticised the use of games as a teaching strategy in your classroom; prepare
a response entitled “Why Our School Uses Games”.
4. Identify some core values that could be taught using role play.
5. Describe how you would use discussion to enhance teaching and learning in your
classroom for a specific topic and age group.
6. Select a direct and indirect teaching method.

a. For each method selected, explain how you would teach a selected subject and
topic to an age group of your choice.
b. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?
c. Suggest how you would address the aforementioned disadvantages.
7. You have been assigned to a Class Three. The class consists largely of slow learners who
are restless, disinterested, and difficult to control.
a. What teaching strategies and methods would you use to alleviate these problems?
b. Give a valid rationale for your selections.

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Instructional Planning
The Teacher's Planning Role

The major responsibility of any teacher is ensuring that students learn. In this regard, planning
is essential for maximizing success. Instructional planning involves the identification of
objectives and the selection of learning activities and assessment procedures that are suitable
for the target group of students. This serves to maximize the students' acquisition of
knowledge and the development of desirable skills and attitudes. "Teaching is a challenge that
requires long hours of work and preparation. But above all, it requires skill in planning and
skill in the classroom" (Moore, 2001, p.1).
The degree of detail at each level of planning will vary from school to school and from one
teacher to another. However, it is advisable that at the beginning of each academic year,
teachers meet in teams to discuss the curriculum and plan units of instruction for each term.
The Instructional Plan
Since a plan is an organised set of intentions, an instructional plan is an outline of the teacher's
instructional intentions for a selected group of learners over a specified period of time. Also
referred to in the literature as a unit plan, an instructional plan indicates the sections of the
curriculum to be covered for a specified time period (Moore, 2009).
While planning is essential, the instructional plan serves as a guide, and not a prescription for
instruction. Therefore, the instructional plan should be general enough to allow for flexibility.
It is, therefore, recommended that the objectives should be written in general terms.
Format
There are several formats for writing an instructional plan. However, the format
recommended is one that includes a page outlining basic information, followed by a table of
one or more pages in which the intentions are listed. The teacher should ensure that there is
cohesion among the various components.
The first page of the plan should state the following:
 Duration of the plan
 Class for which the plan is intended
 Age Range of students
 Theme
 Rationale
 Comments

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Theme
The theme which is written on the cover page of the instructional plan is taken from the
thematic web. It is the title of the unit of study on which the instructional plan is based.
Rationale
Every instructional plan should be designed to serve a specific purpose. This purpose should
be clearly described in the rationale and be broad enough to cover all the content to be taught.
The rationale should be precise but sufficiently complete.
Comments
The teacher may wish to comment on concerns to be addressed, highlight curriculum content
previously covered, or mention arrangements to be made to meet the needs of learners
requiring special attention.
Column Headings
On the second and subsequent pages, a table is displayed with the following column headings:
 Sub-Theme
 General Objectives
 Teaching Strategies/Methods
 Learning Activities
 Technology/Materials
 Assessment Procedures
 Follow-up Activities
Sub-Theme
The Sub-Themes used in the instructional plan are taken from the thematic web after having
been formulated from the broad theme.
General Objectives
Objectives in the instructional plan must be broad and abstract and must cover the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains. They are based on the content of the Sub-Themes in the
Thematic web. Verbs such as know and understand should be used at this level since the
objectives will be broken down into specific objectives in the lesson plan.

36
List teaching strategies and methods to be used and methods associated with each. Strategies and
their associated methods include (e.g. lecture, demonstration, problem solving, inquiry,
discussion, co-operative learning, field trips).
Learning Activities
The learning activities should state what students would do in order to achieve the objectives.
These activities should reflect the strategies and methods listed. These should begin with a
verb that describes the activity in which students will be engaged and should end with the
suffix ‘-ing’.
Resources/Technologies
The list of equipment may include technology such as the computer, multimedia projector,
television, DVD player, overhead projector, videocassette recorder, etc. The textbook, charts,
learning packages, checklists, rubrics et cetera would be listed as resources. If the teacher
intends to use a resource person to enhance the lesson this could be listed under this column
as a human resource. Standard items found in the regular classroom, such as the chalkboard
and chalk, may be omitted. The learning activities should reflect the use of the resources and
technology listed.
Assessment Procedures
The assessment procedures must be based on the objectives and should state
those activities (written or performance-based) through which the students will demonstrate
what they have learned. These assessment procedures may include question-answer sessions,
the completion of worksheets, teacher-made tests, class presentations and other activities.
“Observation” and “Check List” should not be used as assessment procedures since they don’t
specify the task or activities that students are required to perform.
Follow-up Activities
Follow-up activities include tasks to be completed by students outside regular school hours.
These may include, but are not be limited to, collecting materials, researching, surfing the
Internet, conducting interviews, completing enrichment exercises or preparing for the next
lesson.

37
INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN
DURATION: _____________________________________________________________________________
CLASS: __________________________________ AGE RANGE: __________________________________
THEME: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
RATIONALE:
COMMENTS:
38
Sub-themes General Teaching Learning Resources/ Assessment Follow-up

Objectives Strategies/Methods Activities Technologies Procedures Activities

39
Lesson Planning
Planning is an essential aspect of teaching that maximizes the chance of success. The teacher
should prepare a plan for every lesson. Informed by a pre-assessment of learning needs, the
lesson plan should indicate what students are expected to learn. Each lesson plan should contain
specific learning outcomes and the accompanying set induction, materials, and learning activities
that are designed to help students achieve the objectives. The plan should also include sections
on closure, assessment procedures and intended follow-up activities. Provision should be made
for writing an evaluation of the lesson after it has been taught. Since a plan is a set of intentions,
it is essential that the lesson plan should be prepared and available BEFORE the lesson begins.
Lesson Plan Format
The lesson plan should contain the date, starting time and the duration of the lesson in minutes.
The form/class and age range of the students should also be included. Next, the plan should
indicate the lesson topic and subject. If the thematic approach is being used, then the subjects to
be integrated should be indicated.
Lesson Objectives
Objectives should be clearly stated in specific, observable terms. They should cover the three
domains: cognitive (knowledge, concepts and principles to be acquired), affective (attitudes and
values to be adopted or emphasised) and psychomotor (skills to be developed).
Where the thematic approach is being used, objectives should be listed for each subject area that
is integrated. For example, if Mathematics is integrated with Science, objectives for both
Science and Mathematics should be included.
The lesson plan should indicate whether the teaching strategies to be used to deliver instruction
are Direct, Indirect, or otherwise and the specific methods should be stated, for example:
discussion, field-trip, discovery, co-operative grouping, demonstration, etc. The strategies and
methods utilized in the lesson should be appropriate for the age group and ability level of the
students, and be suitable for the content being delivered.
Resources/Technologies
The lesson plan should list materials, technologies and other resources to be used. These should
be compatible with the strategies/methods stated. The plan should show how the items listed are
to be utilized by the teacher or students to enhance learning during the lesson.
Set Induction
Moore (2009) defines set induction as “what the teacher does at the beginning of the lesson to
get the students’ undivided attention, to arouse their interest, and to establish a conceptual
framework for the information that follows” (p. 125). Set induction is also known as
introduction or entry. The set induction should last for about 1 to 3 minutes, depending on the
40
length and nature of the lesson and is used to link prior knowledge to what is to be presented
(Arends, 2009). The opening event of the lesson should therefore “be stimulating, arousing the
curiosity and interest of the children and making them responsive and alert” (Farrant, 1980,
p.178).
Learning Activities/Experiences
The section on learning activities or experiences outlines the learning behaviours in which the
students will engage. Therefore, the activities should clearly show how the connection between
the teaching strategies/methods and the resources/technologies would lead students to the
achievement of the lesson objectives.
Assessment Procedures
Since teaching seeks to facilitate student learning, the teacher should monitor students during the
lesson (formative assessment) so that he or she may modify instruction to meet individual needs.
The assessment procedures should provide students with the opportunity to show mastery of the
objectives by answering questions, demonstrating a process, displaying a product, or through a
conference with the teacher. These procedures provide evidence that the teacher can use to
document the extent to which each student has achieved the objectives.
By examining and marking written exercises, observing individual or group behaviour, asking
probing questions or having students report on what they have learnt, teachers can gather
evidence that learning has taken place. Therefore, the teacher should stipulate the specific
knowledge and skills to be assessed by the various procedures. For example:
a. Have individual students complete a worksheet requiring them to underline verbs in
given sentences.
b. Have students work in groups to conduct an experiment on objects that float and sink in
water.
c. Have individual students prepare a bar chart on the ways in which classmates travel to
school.
Closure
Closure is the deliberate action that brings the lesson to a formal end (not the ringing of the bell).
Closure pulls together the main points and concepts of the lesson and helps students to organize
and clarify their perceptions so that any gaps in understanding may be filled.
Follow-up Activities
Follow-up activities include tasks to be completed by students outside regular school hours.
These would include, but not be limited to, homework, enrichment exercises, researching,
collecting materials, surfing the Internet, conducting interviews or planning for the next lesson.

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Evaluation
The lesson can only be evaluated after it has been taught and the assessment of student learning
completed. This record documents what students have learnt, specifies student needs to be
addressed and identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson. The teacher should examine
his/her own performance, noting suggestions for improving the lesson and key points to be
considered in planning follow-up lessons. On the whole, evaluations should be honest, insightful
and thorough. In addition to reading the written evaluation, a supervisor or observer may gauge
the effectiveness of the lesson by monitoring the assessment process or questioning students about
what they have learnt.
Every lesson taught should be evaluated, in writing, the same day. The written evaluation
should include the following:
Set induction (How did students respond? How was the set induction linked to the learning
activities?)
Learning activities/experiences (Was time well managed? Was there sufficient time for
students to practice? What was the level of student participation? If there were problems,
how were these addressed? What will you do to prevent these problems next time?
Teaching strategies/methods (Which strategies/methods were used? Did they work?
Why? Why not? How did students respond? What will you do/not do next time?)
Resources/Technologies (Was the use of these aids effective? Successes? Problems? How
did you address them? What will you do next time?)
Questioning (Did you use wait time? Did you call on individual students to answer?
What feedback did you give?)
Classroom management (Was it effective or not. If effective, what did you do? If
unsatisfactory, what happened? What should you have done or will do next time?)
Assessment procedures (Did students compete the assessment activity? What proportion of
them mastered the objectives? What will you do to help students who did not master the
objectives?)
Closure (Was it done well? What was good? Unsatisfactory? Suggested changes?)
Personal reflection (What did you do well in this lesson? Celebrate the successes. What
would you like to improve? On what best practices would you like to focus next time?)
Implementing the Lesson Plan

In implementing the lesson, the teacher takes responsibility for organizing and guiding activities
designed to bring about the desired student learning. This may involve some explaining or
giving of examples, but the teacher must never assume that merely telling students the facts
means that learning has taken place. Opportunities must be provided for students to practise the
desired skills and assimilate the required knowledge. Adequate time must, therefore, be
allocated for individual and/or group exercises that involve all students.

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Time Management
Since the management of time is essential in lesson delivery, the teacher should refer to a watch
or clock periodically to gauge his or her progress. The time allocated to each activity will vary
depending on the duration and nature of the lesson, but should be monitored. It is better to have
students master one or two objectives than to attempt four or five unsuccessfully.
If the teacher finds himself/herself explaining or giving examples for most of the lesson, then the
concepts are too many or too complex. It is better to focus on one simple concept, ensure that all
students understand the examples and non-examples, and then have them demonstrate their
understanding by completing specified exercises. The exercises should be student-centred and
progressive, moving from easy to difficult, ensuring that all students are sufficiently challenged
but not frustrated.
Behaviour Management
The teacher should utilise positive approaches to discipline. Behavioural expectations should be
communicated to students and displayed in all settings. Positive behaviours should be taught,
acknowledged and reinforced. There should be clear consequences for inappropriate behaviour,
of which students are aware. These consequences should be applied fairly and consistently.
The teacher can prevent or minimize most misbehaviours by having students gainfully employed
in interesting tasks that meet their learning needs. It is also advantageous to have materials and
equipment available beforehand. By using withitness (Kounin, 1970), teachers can prevent
discipline problems and ensure that lessons are rewarding and enjoyable. Both students and the
teacher stand to benefit from this technique.
Being firm, while remaining pleasant, is the mark of a professional in the classroom. Showing
frustration or anger when students misbehave or do not understand the work is not advisable.
The teacher should refrain from making embarrassing comments or drawing attention to students
who are misbehaving. Using eye or hand signals or moving close to the offender or person not
attending should address minor discipline problems. If students are working in groups -
brainstorming, discussing issues, or doing projects - the teacher should move among the groups,
monitoring what is going on, and ensuring that each group stays on task with all members
engaged in meaningful activity.
Having children queue to have their work marked at the teacher’s desk sets the stage for several
problems. It is advisable for the teacher to move around the room, examining students’ work at
their desks, marking it and commending students whose work is correct. This reduces the
volume of work to be corrected after the lesson and allows the teacher to identify students who
are mastering the objectives as well as those who need assistance. A soft voice should be used
when helping individual students to understand concepts or correct mistakes so as not to
advertise their weaknesses to the class.

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LESSON PLAN TEMPLATE
(STANDARD FORMAT)
DATE: _______________ TIME: ____________ DURATION: __________________
CLASS: ____________ AGE RANGE: ___________________________________
SUBJECT: _________________________ TOPIC: ___________________________________
OBJECTIVES:
TEACHING STRATEGIES/METHODS:
RESOURCES/TECHNOLOGIES:
SET INDUCTION:

44
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/EXPERIENCES:
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES:
CLOSURE:
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES
EVALUATION:
SIGNATURE OF TEACHER:

45
LESSON PLAN TEMPLATE
(FOR SOCIAL STUDIES AND SCIENCE)
DATE: _______________ TIME: ____________ DURATION: __________________
CLASS: ____________ AGE RANGE: ___________________________________
SUBJECT: _________________________ TOPIC: ___________________________________
GENERALIZATIONS:
CONCEPTS:
OBJECTIVES:
TEACHING STRATEGIES/METHODS:
RESOURCES/TECHNOLOGIES:
SET INDUCTION:

46
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/EXPERIENCES:
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES:
CLOSURE:
FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES
EVALUATION:
SIGNATURE OF TEACHER:

47
Facts, Concepts and Generalizations
Introduction
Traditionally, educators have relied on the lecture method to transmit factual information to their
students. However, the notion that education is synonymous with the assimilation of facts has
gradually given way to the belief that education involves understanding and applying what is
learnt, i.e. finding answers to “why” and “how, rather than merely absorbing information.
Therefore, in an era of education reform, the use of conceptual organizers is recommended as a
means of bridging subjects, topics, generalizations, and levels of thought (Erickson, 2008),
thereby helping students to derive greater meaning from the content of their lessons. Hence,
educators have recognized the need to delineate facts, concepts and generalizations so that they
can see the necessary connections when planning and delivering instruction.
From facts to concepts

According to the Social Studies Center for Educator Development (SSCED, 1997-2000), a fact is
a truth about a particular incident or case. It is specific and limited to the particular situation.
Examples:
1. There are three people in my family.
2. I live in the parish of St George.
3. Bridgetown is the capital of Barbados.
4. An animal with a backbone is known as a vertebrate.
Focusing lessons on the learning of facts requires students to assimilate and regurgitate
fragments of information that are often disjointed. However, learning becomes more meaningful
when students are able to associate facts to form concepts that help them to understand the
world.
A concept is an idea that can stand alone. A number of facts go together to make a concept.
Eggen & Kauchak (2001) suggest that “Concepts are mental structures that categorize sets of
objects, events or ideas” (p. 312) that help people to simplify the world. A concept is also
defined by Woolfolk (2013) as “a general category of ideas, objects, people, or experiences
whose members share certain properties” (p. 299).
In the school setting, the concepts students encounter include: triangle, noun, plant, and animal,
bird, among others. With knowledge of the properties, attributes or distinctive features shared
by a category, the learner can use these characteristics to establish a rule. For example: A square
is a closed shape with four equal sides and four equal angles. This rule can then be used to
verify whether various examples of shapes belong to the concept. By classifying various shapes

48
as examples and non-examples, learners can develop a clear understanding of the concept of a
square.
In the school curriculum, each subject area encompasses a number of concepts. For example:
o Art: perspective, balance, colour, shade
o Mathematics: set, probability, area, perimeter, addition, ratio
o Language Arts (English): adjective, verb, simile, and paragraph
o Science: organism, reptile, element, solution, energy
o Social Studies: population, values, culture, transportation, tourism
o Music: rhythm, melody, harmony, tone, tempo
“Concepts reduce the complexity of learning tasks,… give us a means to communicate with each
other,… and help us to better understand our environment” (Moore, 2001, p 106). Once a
concept is grasped, a person can use it to categorize new objects and information.
Communication with others is easier when people share common understandings of similar
concepts. Although specific examples differ from one culture to another, concepts are universal
and help us to understand our world (Erickson 2002).
To summarise:
A concept is a one-word or two-word mental construct that:
 Is broad and abstract
 Is timeless
 Is universal
 Represents a variety of examples that all share the attributes of the concept
e.g. conflict, culture, family, change, cooperation, human, rights, government
Generalizations
“Generalizations are statements about relationships between concepts” which are verifiable and
true, based on available evidence (SSCED, 1997-2000). Jacobsen, Eggen, & Kauchak (2002)
add that generalizations point out patterns in the world that are either correlational or suggest a
causal relationship. Examples of generalizations showing a causal relationship are:
 Change causes conflict.
 Heat makes molecules move faster (Jacobsen, Eggen, & Kauchak, 2002, p 46).
An example of a correlational generalization is as follows:

49
 Spending more time studying a subject increases one’s chances of understanding the
material.
While facts are true about a specific incident or case, generalizations are broad assertions or big
ideas that summarize information derived from facts and concepts. A person may use certain
facts to generate a hypothesis. By observing various situations, the person seeks evidence to
support the hypothesis. The person then arrives at a generalization when certain patterns and
trends are noted (Jacobsen, Eggen, & Kauchak, 2002).
Below are some examples of generalizations:
 Families vary in size and structure (SSCED, 1997-2000).
 All nations seek economic well-being. (adapted from SSCED, 1997-2000).
 Smoking causes cancer (Jacobsen, Eggen, & Kauchak, 2002, p 46).
 Countries belong to a region based on their location or historical factors.
 Festivals commemorate important community events.
 Countries celebrate independence as a symbol of their sovereignty.
 Hurricane preparedness reduces the chances of personal loss and injury.
 Pollutants released into the sea can endanger marine life.
 Poor dietary habits cause non-communicable diseases.
“When writing generalizations, use active, present-tense verbs to convey the timeless
characteristic. Avoid passive voice and past-tense verbs. Try to avoid verbs “to be” or “to
have.”” (Erickson, 2008, p. 87).
This quotation suggests that a generalization should not be written using “is,” “are,” “have” or
“has.” When these verbs are used, the statement becomes a definition.

50
Reflective Practice
Reflective practice is the process whereby a teacher examines his or her professional
functioning in an effort to improve teaching and learning. It is an efficient way of
improving practice and allows the teacher to take actions intended to enhance personal and
professional functioning. Cruickshank (1987) noted that careful reflections on past
experiences result in teacher growth and leads to more effective planning and teaching.
Through reflective practice, “Practitioners gain new knowledge or deeper insights that lead
to actions aimed at improving teaching and learning processes to benefit students” (York-
Barr, Sommers, Ghere and Montie, 2006, p. 11). Thus, reflections are critical to the
ongoing improvement of teaching and learning by providing the teacher with a sound
analysis of what was taught and how it was taught.
The practicing teacher should be guided by the following when writing reflections:
 They should be written at the end of each week

 They should focus on his or her professional and personal growth
 They should address issues related to the components of the lesson, implementation,
classroom management, use of technology and instructional materials, nature of
students’ responses, level of student participation and the effectiveness of the
teaching styles of the teacher.
 Memorable moments and achievements experienced by the teacher and students
should be documented.
When reflecting, the following questions should be considered by the teacher:
 How do I feel about what I have taught during the week?

 What was the level of student success?
 What challenges did I experience?
 What challenges did the students experience?
 How were these challenges addressed?
 What were the positives and negatives of my practice?
 How have the experiences encountered impacted my personal growth?
 How have these experiences impacted my professional growth and development?
 What else could I have done to enhance my practice?
 In what ways have the students benefited from my teaching?
 What information have I gathered from my teaching that would allow me to
improve?
 What approaches will I use in the future to improve my practice?

51
REFERENCES
Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and

assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy. New York. Longman Publishing.
Arends, R. (2009). Learning to teach (9th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Bloom, B. (1956). Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy of behavioral objectives. Retrieved from:

http://hs.riverdale.k12.or.us/~dthompso/exhibition/blooms.html
Cooper, J. M. (ed.). (2011). Classroom teaching skills (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning.
Dalton, J. & Smith, D. (1986). Extending Children’s Special Abilities – Strategies for
Primary Classrooms. Retrieved from:
http://www.gcssk12.net/fullpanel/uploads/files/revised-blooms-chart.pdf
Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms. (5th

ed.). Upper saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Erickson, H. L. (2008). Stirring the head, heart and soul: Redefining curriculum and
instruction. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Erickson, H. L. (2002). Concept-based curriculum and instruction: Teaching beyond the

basic facts. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Farrant, J. (1980). Principles and practice of education. Essex, UK: Longman, Pearson
Education.
Howard Community College's Teaching Resources. Ideas on cooperative learning and the
use of small groups. Retrieved from:
http://www.howardcc.edu/profdev/resources/learning/groups1.htm.
Jacobsen, D. A. Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (2002). Methods for teaching: Promoting student
learning. (6th ed.). Upper saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Johnson, D. & Johnson, R. Cooperative learning. Retrieved from:

http://www.clcrc.com/pages/cl.html#interdependence.
Johnson, D. & Johnson, R. An overview of cooperative learning. Retrieved from:

http://www.clcrc.com/pages/overviewpaper.html.
Kagan, S. (nd). Structures for emotional intelligence. Kagan Online Magazine. Retrieved
from: http://www.kaganonline.com/Newsletter/index.html
Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing. Retrieved
from: http://www.kaganonline.com/

52
Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York, NY: Holt
Rinehart& Wilson.
Moore, K. D. (2001). Classroom teaching skills (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill
Moore, K. D. (2009). Effective instructional strategies: From theory to practice (2nd ed).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Gilbert, G. G. & Sawyer, R. G. (2000). Health education: Creating strategies for school and
community health (2nd ed.). Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publiushers.
Slavin. R. E. (2014). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
Social Studies Center for Educator Development (1997-2000). Instruction and assessment:
Strategies to teach Social Studies 9: Teaching facts, concepts and generalizations.
Retrieved from: http://www.tea.state.tx.us/resources/ssced/instass/9.htm.
Woolfolk, A. (2013). Educational psychology (12th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

53
APPENDIX A
Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a team of educational psychologists who developed a

classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. This became a taxonomy
including three overlapping domains; the cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
Cognitive learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills:

comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing and synthesizing data, applying
knowledge, choosing among alternatives in problem-solving, and evaluating ideas or actions.
This domain on the acquisition and use of knowledge is predominant in the majority of courses.
Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of
facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the
highest order which is classified as evaluation. Verb examples that represent intellectual activity
on each level are listed here, and each level is linked to questions appropriate to the level.
Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness, interest,

attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with others,
and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are appropriate to the
test situation and the field of study. This domain relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and
values, such as enjoying, conserving, respecting, and supporting. Verbs applicable to the
affective domain include accepts, attempts, challenges, defends, disputes, joins, judges, praises,
questions, shares, supports, and volunteers.
Psychomotor learning is demonstrated by physical skills; coordination, dexterity, manipulation,

grace, strength, speed; actions which demonstrate the fine motor skills such as use of precision
instruments or tools, or actions which evidence gross motor skills such as the use of the body in
dance or athletic performance. Verbs applicable to the psychomotor domain include bend, grasp,
handle, operate, reach, relax, shorten, stretch, write, differentiate (by touch), express (facially),
perform (skillfully).
SOURCE: http://hs.riverdale.k12.or.us/~dthompso/exhibition/blooms.html

54
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy
Creating
Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things
Higher Order
Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing

Thinking
Evaluating
Justifying a decision or course of action
Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging
Analysing
Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships
Comparing, organizing, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
Applying
Using information in another familiar situation
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing
Understanding
Explaining ideas or concepts
Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining
Remembering
Recalling information
Recognizing, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding
(Adapted from Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
Retrieved from: http://www.utar.edu.my/fegt/file/Revised_Blooms_Info.pdf

55
APPENDIX B
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students
of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of
a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for
helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the
assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.
Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members:
 gain from each other's efforts. (Your success benefits me and my success benefits you.)
 recognize that all group members share a common fate. (We all sink or swim together
here.)
 know that one's performance is mutually caused by oneself and one's team members. (We
cannot do it without you.)
 feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement.
(We all congratulate you on your accomplishment!).
Why use Cooperative Learning?
Research has shown that cooperative learning techniques:
 promote student learning and academic achievement

 increase student retention
 enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience
 help students develop skills in oral communication
 develop students' social skills
 promote student self-esteem
 help to promote positive race relations
5 Elements of Cooperative Learning
It is only under certain conditions that cooperative efforts may be expected to be more
productive than competitive and individualistic efforts. Those conditions are:

56
1. Positive Interdependence
(sink or swim together)
 Each group member's efforts are

required and indispensable for group
success
 Each group member has a unique
contribution to make to the joint effort
because of his or her resources and/or
role and task responsibilities
2. Face-to-Face Interaction
(promote each other's success)
 Orally explaining how to solve

problems
 Teaching one's knowledge to other
 Checking for understanding
 Discussing concepts being learned
 Connecting present with past learning
3. Individual & Group Accountability

(no hitchhiking! no social loafing)
 Keeping the size of the group small.

The smaller the size of the group, the
greater the individual accountability
may be.
 Giving an individual test to each
student.
 Randomly examining students orally by
calling on one student to present his or
her group's work to the teacher (in the
presence of the group) or to the entire
class.
 Observing each group and recording the
frequency with which each member-
contributes to the group's work.
 Assigning one student in each group the
role of checker. The checker asks other
group members to explain the reasoning
and rationale underlying group answers.
 Having students teach what they learned
to someone else.

57
4. Interpersonal & Small-Group Skills
 Social skills must be taught:

o Leadership
o Decision-making
o Trust-building
o Communication
o Conflict-management skills
5. Group Processing
 Group members discuss how well they

are achieving their goals and
maintaining effective working
relationships
 Describe what member actions are
helpful and not helpful
 Make decisions about what behaviors to
continue or change
Adapted from: http://www.humboldt.edu/celt/tips/cooperative_learning_-

_the_5_basic_elements/

58
APPENDIX C
DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION PRIMARY
GUIDELINES FOR TEACHING PRACTICE FOLDER
1. Each student-teacher is expected to maintain a Teaching Practice (TP) Folder. A three

(3) ring binder is recommended.
2. The folder should contain:
b. Brief history/background of the school
c. Class list and pertinent information on pupils
d. Class/personal timetable
e. Curriculum Web
f. Thematic Web
g. Instructional Plan
h. Lesson Plans (in chronological order)
i. Copies of worksheets/assessment activities with relevant lesson plans
j. Copies of selected pupils’ work samples
k. Record of student assessment
l. Weekly reflections on the TP exercise
3. Lesson plans and evaluations should be written in a legible style. Please note that there is
no requirement that lesson plans must be typed. This is optional.
4. Plain paper (for printing) or lined paper (for hand writing) may be used, but not foolscap.
All pages in the folder should be of the same size (either all letter size (8½” x 11”,
preferred size) or A4, not both).
5. The student-teacher should keep the folder up-to-date with plans and lesson evaluations.
Evaluations can only be written AFTER the lesson has been taught.
6. When the supervising tutor or external examiner visits the classroom, the student-teacher
should have the TP folder ready for examination.
7. Please note that tutors should be able to access and comment on lesson plans. Hence, the
use of protective plastic to cover pages is not required. In the event that the student-
teacher chooses this option, it should not be done until AFTER the end of the TP
exercise.
8. On completion of the TP exercise, the student-teacher should submit the folder to the
supervising tutor if requested.

59
APPENDIX D
ERDISTON TEACHERS’ TRAINING COLLEGE
DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION – PRIMARY
TEACHING PRACTICUM TIMETABLE
NAME OF TEACHER: SCHOOL:
CLASS:
TIME MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY

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1

ERDISTON TEACHERS’ TRAINING COLLEGE

Erdiston Teachers’ Training College

Timothy Best, Maxine Moore and Desiré Browne

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

Curriculum and Thematic Webs 5

Writing General Objectives 8

Writing Specific/Instructional Objectives 9

Learning Outcomes Versus Learning Activities 15

Cooperative Learning Methods 26

Facts, Concepts and Generalisations 46

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

Curriculum and Thematic Webs

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

The Importance of Objectives

 Objectives assist in determining appropriate methods for assessment, to evaluate learning.

Establish Teach Evaluate

Objectives – providing direction for the Instructional Process

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

“The terms “performance objectives, informational objectives, behavioural objectives, and

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

Writing General Objectives

Verbs Used When Writing General Objectives

-know -understand -apply

-appreciate -demonstrate -cope

-conceptualise -enjoy -grasp

-realise -think -develop

-comprehend -familarise -value

-believe -imagine -recognise

Examples of General Objectives

1. Familiarise themselves with the importance of the tourist industry to Barbados.

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

Writing Specific/ Instructional Objectives

Figure 1: The Three Domains

1. List at least three uses of water.

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

Illustrative Verbs to be Used in Writing Cognitive Objectives for Lesson Plans

Cognitive Domain Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) and Illustrative Verbs

Level Student Action

Appraise, compare, justify, criticize, conclude, evaluate, contrast,

Design, plan, graph, compile , compose, organize, arrange, construct,

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

4. Work co-operatively in a group to brainstorm a list of Caribbean countries that have a

5. Participate actively in a class discussion on the use of cell phones in schools.

6. Read a given dialogue using good diction and clear enunciation.

8. Recite a poem using clear enunciation and adequate voice projection.

10. Follow basic instructions for constructing a relief map of Barbados.

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

Illustrative Verbs to be used in Writing Affective Objectives for Lesson Plans

Level Student Action

Responding Read, pronounce, conform, help, answer, practice, present, report,

Organization Defend, alter, integrate, synthesize, listen, listen, influence, adhere,

1. Paint a picture of a beach scene showing contrast of light and shadow.

6. Manipulate the hands of a clock to show a quarter to a given hour.

Best, Moore & Browne, 2020

8. Construct at least five given geometric 3d models.

9. Weigh given objects accurately in grams using a scale.

10. Sketch a representation of a given object after listening to an oral description.

11. Dismantle a flower to identify its main parts.

Illustrative Verbs to be used in Writing Psychomotor Objectives for Lesson Plans

Level Student Action

Creative Movement Create, invent, construct, manipulate, play, build, pantomime,