AR2-,i1EF . V.

e eepsiowc
Technische flogaschaol
INHOUD
Delfi
AIAA /SNAKE ADVANCE MARINE VEHICLES MEETING, Norfolk, Virginia,
May 22-24, 1967.

67-346 Some special problems in surface

effect ships R.D. Waldo

67- 348 Captured air bubble (CAD) vehicle

progress report Allen G. Ford

67-349 Captured air bubble vehicle

stability tests Robert A. Wilsoh

67-350 Waterjet propulsion for high- L. Arcand

speed ships C.R. Comolli

67-351 The U.S. Navy hydrofoil

development program - A status
report William M. Ellsworth

67-352 On the prediction of the seakeeping

characteristics of hydrofoil ships I.A. Hirsch

67-353 Development of an autopilot for the

dolphin hydrofoil H.D. Ranzenhofer

67- 354 Eigh speed towed hydrofoil sleds R. Altmann

67-355 Adequate strength for small high

speed vessels Philip J. Danahy

67- 356 Advanced concepts in ocean

transport capability: the container,/
barge quandary Roy R. Moffett

67-357 PGM 84 class aluminium gunboat Bertel Lundgaard

machinery ani controls Harold M. Mathers

67- 358 United States Army shallow draft

boat program John F. Sargent
 0111"11 11/4"11"01111"*""1""Imill.

-2-

67 - 359 Preliminary désign of a catamaran

submarine rescue ship (ASR) Herbert A. Meier

67-36o Aspects of performance avaluat ion

of waterjet propulsion systems and
a critical review of the state-
of - the - art John H. Brandau

67-361 Water jet propulsion D.N. Contractor

Virgil E. Johnson, Jr.

67 - 362 The water-augmented turbofan

engine - A new concept in marine W. Richard Davison
propulsion Thomas J. Sadowski

67-363 Electromagnetic propulsion for

cargo submarines S. Way

67-364 Life support for inner and outer

space vehicles similarities and Thomas V. Bolles
differences Harold Wallman

67- 365 The effects of single curvature

on stresses at reinforced circular
holes Peter van Dyke

67- 368 Selection and utilization of

batteries for deep submergence N. Kuska
vehic les J.A. Cronander

67-370 The deep ocean work boat (DOWB),

an advanced deep surmergence
vehicle Scott C. Daubin

67-371 A submarine design for work and

research beaver mark IV F.G. Archbold

67-372 Manned submersible development Kenneth R. Fitch

Raymond J. Munz
No. 61346

SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SURFACE EFFECT SHIPS

by

R. D. WALDO
Aeroiet-General Corporation
El Monte, California

Paper No.
67-346

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

volumes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10319
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to uthor and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 2.05, 3.08
 SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SURFACE EFFECT SHIPS
R. D. Waldo
Aerojet-General Corporation
El Monte, California
Abstract
An engineering analysis of the Ca ptur e d Air
Bubble Surface Effect Ship concept has identified a
number of developmental task areas which present
problems in either design suitability or optimality.
These task areas fall b r oa dly into the following
areas:
Structural design,
Seal design,
Sideboard design, and
Propulsion,
and their relationships to:
The mission,
Ship arrangements,
Ship performance, and
Stability and seakeeping.
The investigation presented wa s directed toward
understanding the problems and developing the nec-
essary tools for a more exhaustive analysis. No
specific blocks to technical feasibility have been
identified, however.
The SES offers one outstanding characteristic.
This is the ability to operate at or near the air- sea
interface at speeds significantly above those for
operational displacement hulled vessels. This speed
potential must, however, be associated with suitable
operating characteristics. It may require, for ex-
ample, a significant range/payload capability, eco-
nomic operation, small turning radius, survivability
in severe storms, a mission profile having diverse
operational requirements, a useful life of many years
with low maintenance and repair requirements, or
unusual seakindliness during normal operation.
This paper presents some data associated with
structural design, seal design, sideboard design,
and propulsion and their relationship to operational
requirements, especially range-cruise efficiency.
Operations analyses suggest an island-hopping
procedure similar to that employed by aircraft. Be-
cause of a cruising lift-to-drag ratio of between 20
and 30 and a reasonable range requirement, struc-
tural weight is a critical factor. Inflatable flexible
seals are found to offer possible advantages because
of the added dimension of controllability they pro-
vide. Sideboards, when de s ig n e d for significant
buoyancy, present a non-trivial hydrodynamic de-
sign problem. A planform suggested by Hydronautics
offers a promising solution to some potential cavi-
tation problems. Overall propulsion efficiency is a
sufficiently critical parameter as to suggest a major
emphasis on achieving a high value.
1
Introduction
The success of the Captured Air Bubble Sui.face
Effect Ship will depend upon the detailed knowledge
of many pertinent characteristics which must be
taken into account when making key decisions. Pre-
liminary design studies have shown that a complete
analysis leading to an optimum design is a complex
problem involving a large number of variables. Such
an analysis must involve, first, a determination of
the required desirable characteristics and the vari-
ous factors which influence them. This paper deals
with some of these characteristics and aspects of
design which are largely unique to SES and, in par-
ticular, CAB. It presents various problems, some
of which appear readily solvable and others which
are related to important but elusive factors suchas
human creativity, the current and projected level of
technical development, the cost of advancing tech-
nology, and the associated risks involved.
A list of the desired characteristics for CAB is,
of course, no different from that of a conventional
ship; but the nature of the characteristics themselves
are completely different. Such a list should include:
Seakeeping qualities and survivability under
exceptional circumstances;
Stability and controllability;
Versatility and flexibility of utilization; and
Economy of,operation.
This last characteristic is influenced by such fac-
tors as lift-to-drag ratio, propulsive efficiency,
maintainability, reliability, useful loa d fraction,
range requirements, etc. It should be noted that in
the final analysis, it is the economy of operation,
whether expressed in military terms as cost effec-
tiveness or in commercial terms as cost per ton
mile, that will decide the success or otherwise of
the SES. All the other characteristics are attainable
if, among other things, some aspect of economy
is sacrificed. For example, controllability can be
achieved by introducing control surfaces and there-
by increasing drag, or survivability by increasing
structural weight and thereby reducing load fraction.
The following sections deal with some of the most
important SES parameter s that, as shown by studies,
bear a great influence upon the characteristics of
the ship and reveal some of the unique problems to
be found in the design and analysis of the SES and
its major subsysterns.
Configuration
The general ship arrangement and shape is shown
in Figure 1. Rigid sideboards project down from
the sides of the main hull and deflectable seals trans-
verse the bow and stern. These appendages are
 \
4300 TONS DISPLACEMENT 1,8 = 4 \

i
P/L = .5 ' \
42 \
BB
1
\
1, I, \
40 ,

Ss LB = 3 \
\
\
\
37
\
\
\

A \
350
150
Pl. = 1.0k

Figure 1. Basic Configuration.

325

P/L = 1.5
\ wraw L/11 = 2

SEW
300

normally in contact with the water and, together

¡law,.
with the bottom of the hull, form the bubble cavity. 275

Air for the bubble is supplied by blowers; typically

the pressure required is greater than the ram air
pressure. Main engine exh.aust is an alternate means
of pressurizing the bubble. This configuration in-
dicates the use of waterjet propulsion, but alternate
250
r .\4
means are considered as is shown in Figure 9. The 225
\
dimensions for length of bubble, LB, breadth of \
300

bubble, BB, and height of hull, HH, are indicated

in the sketch. The LB and BB combine with the 200
ll \
\\
bubble pressure, PB, to give the important design
parameters LB/BE and PB/1_,B. The relative plan-
form geometry associated with these parameters is
shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 is added to provide an
175
/AM\ \

500 PSF
\
\
.9)
400 35°

absolute meaning for these parameters. In this case rPB

a 4000 ton ship is selectedand, for ranges of LB/BE 150

and PB/LB, values of LB, BE, and PB are given.

As an example, with L/B = 2 and P/1_, = 1, the bub- 125
ble length is 262 feet, the bubble breadth is 131 feet
and, from the dashed line, the bubble pressure is
262 pounds per square foot. Note that by presenting
the data in this way, the planform geometry can be 100

visualized directly by means of the rectangle con-

taining the zero ordinate, zero abscissa, and the 75

orthogonal lines connecting the design point to the

axes. Limitations on these dimensions will be im-
posed by considerations of stability, volume, and
overall beam as an example. Other implications of
the LB/BB and PB/LB are covered in the following
discussions. 25

Structures
75 IDO 125 150
o 20

With performance characteristics more like an BUBBLE BREACTI4 BB (FT)

airplane thana ship, the weight of the SES structure
takes on great significance. Conventional ship de-
sign practices may need to be reconsidered, although
it is not clear how significantly they can be relaxed.
As an example one may consider the structural safety
criteria which include design safety factors and
criteria specifying the amount of damage that the
ship can sustain and still survive. Comparing the
structural safety criteria of ships with those for
airplanes suggests a n intermediate specification
which allows economical operation of the SES with
suitable survivability and lifetime.
2
Figure 2. Geometric Identities.
The problem of materials selection is that of
finding the best compromise between factors such
as high strength/weight properties and experience
with these materials, cost, corrosion resistance,
and fabricability. Possible materials appear to be
high strength steel, s ta inle s s steel, 'aluminum,
titanium, and c omp o site s. Of these materials,
aluminum alloys and GRP (glass-reinforced plastic)
 NL
1.0 1.5
2. Double skin panels
La Box core or honeycomb
Hr .___i_r core sandwich
Truss core, or corru
2
.1C:: C-1
_i
gation sandwich
Foam core sandwich
AA VA VA AVAV YAM

For materials evaluation purpose s, preliminary

3
C-7 C1=11 Cli:
weight/strength calculations were made for a simple
stiffened panel and for a sandwich design. The rela-
tive weights for these two panels, when constructed
of various materials, are shown in Table I, using
an H Y- 1 3 0 stiffened skin design as a reference.
4
-------1 Ci=ill il=1 1

Table I.
R E LA TI V E STRUCTURAL W EIGHTS FOR COMPRESSION PANELS
Figure 3. Relative Planforms. PANEL CON- SINGLE SKIN

composites appear particularly attractive, all fac- MATERIAL

STRUCTION STIFFENED
I 1 = Cost
SANDWICH Relative
Factor
tors considered. Considering the aluminums, the T1 bAL-4V .26 (10)
7000 series are preferred on a strength basis. 181 GLASS REINFORCED EPDXY .28 (.6)
Weldability, corrosion resistance, and stress cor- 17-7 PH .29
rosion cracking susceptibility are, however, poor (2)

for 7075, 7079, a-nd 7178 alloy s. The 7039 and 7075-T6 CLAD .30 (I)
X7106 alloys hold the greatest current promise; both 5456-H343 .46 (1)
of these are readily weldable to themselves and to 181 GLASS REINFORCED EPDXY .52
the 5000 series alloys. Current practical aluminum 7075-Té .53
alloys are selected from the 5000 and 6000 series
alloys. For sideboard usage, 5083 and 5086 alloys 5086-H34 . 54

are acceptable. Above the waterline (e. g. , main 5456-H343 . 5.

hull), 6061 alloys may be considered as suitable. 5086-H34 .65
The composite materials such as 181 gla s s- reinforced Ti 6AL-AV .70
epoxy hold exceptional promise using structural de- 17-7 PH .99
signs which are technically beyond current fiberglass
shipbuilding procedures. One problem associated HY-130 1.00
with the use of GRP composites is the panel fatigue HY-80 1.06
strength under repeated impact. Another problem ZOO MARAGING 1. 10
is the low modulus of elasticity, if indeed it is a
problem. In both cases the problems do not appear Sandwich construction is the lightest, wi th glass
insoluble. reinforced plastic and aluminum alloys being the
The weight/strength properties of the candidate most promising. Titanium alloy sandwich is the
materials have been investigated for the ship' s most efficient, but cost may be prohibitive and it
plating. On the basis of analyses of the compressive appears that the optimum facings will be too thin to
and shear stresses in the sideboard and hull plating, resist puncture or other damage. This is also true
the use of thin sheet panels is indicated over a large for the stainless steel (17-7 PH) sandwich design.
portion of the ship. These panels are then limited Broadening the scope of the structural design, it
in design strength because of buckling. Slamming becomes desirable to evaluate some important para-
forces, particularly in the forward areas of the ship, meters and make assumptions fixing many others.
will provide design criteria for panel bending. The A representative listing of structural design para-
optimization of panel construction therefore involves meters is:
the selection of stiffener and frame sizes and spac-
ings, as well as the thickness of the panel skin. In Design Criteria Parameters
general, the optimum stress for single skin panel Safety factors
construction is much lower than the yield stress, Mission definition (service life, service environ-
whereas double skin (sandwich) construction would ment, etc.)
be optimum near the compressive yield of the facing Cargo handling, cargo density
material. Compartment flooding requirements
Failsafe criteria (i. e. , load path redundancy)
Each type of panel construction must be optimized Stiffness and natural frequency requirements
separately before comparison between types can be Control methods (for stability and maneuvera-
made. Possible types to consider are: bility)
1. Single skin stiffened panels Maneuvering capabilities required
Sheet - stringer T T
Configuration Parameters
Sheet - corrugation A . Bubble length
C. Integrally stiffened Bubble breadth

3
 .45
Ship length
Ship beam
Total depth of midship
Depth and lines of sideboards (and centerboard,
if used) La/HH = 8

Location of cargo doors (and number and sizes

required) .35

Location of blowers
Location of pilot house
Location of fuel tanks .30
VOLUME
Location of cargo storage LIMIT
Deck levels and compartments required
Overall surface contours .25
Seal configurations
Thrust vector location Pa/La = 1.0

.20
Loading Parameters 1.0 1.5 2.0 25 30
Weig ht distribution, c. g. ' s, I s (dead load =
structure + outfit + machinery; live load = L8/B9
fuel + cargo)
Sea state definition, including winds 1.5

C. P. locations, on and off bubble attitudes

Quasi-static aero- and hydrodynamic pressures
and accelerations
Slamming and irnpact pressures (repeated load
spec tra)
Thrust and control forces
Structural Design Variables 1.0
Materials (steels, aluminum, plastics, etc.)
Fabrication methods (welding, integr ally VOLUME
stiffened, sandwich, etc.) LIMIT
Full depth longitudinal spar locations
Intermediate longitudinal beam locations
Full depth bulkhead locations
Intermediate frames, variable depth
Panel stiffeners, panel curvature .5
0.5 10 15 20 2.5 3.0
Deck beams or arches
Lightening holes, machined tapering PB/LB

The variables of primary concern in this paper Figure 4. Weight Parameters.

are LB/BB and PB/LB. Hull depth is also consi-
dered for its effect on structural weight and drag.
The resultant weight parame ter s are shown in
Figure 4 for a 4000 ton CAB constructed of 5086
aluminum alloy. In preparing data such as this, a
major unknown is the proper bow region slamming
loads. These loads have a large effect on the struc-
tural weight. The results in Figure 4 were based
on approximately 15 psi pressure in the nose plating
and result in a weight fraction of about 0.25. This
weight fraction increases to 0.35 if designed to peak
slamming pressures of 300 psi. Methods of allevi-
ating wave impact and slamming loads on primary
structure, through use of the forward seal or addi-
tional shock absorbing systems, should therefore
be further investigated.
Sideboards
The sideboards of a CAB ship are the elements
which largely give the craft the characterigtic mode
of behavior which differentiates it from GEM craft.
Basically, in CAB craft anattempt is made to mini-
mize the flow of air in the lateral direction at the
cost of adding hydrodynamic drag due to the wetted
sideboards. The seals, of course, deal with the
fore and aft flow.
Solely from this point of view, the advantages of
Captured Air Bubble ships over Ground Effect Ma-
chines are open to discussion. However, properly
designed sideboards add some very advantageous
characteristics to CAB ships which are not shared
by GEM' s.
F r structural reasons, sideboards cannot be
designed as flat thin sheets; and even a minimum
practical width for a large craft insures that the
sideboards will have a considerable buoyancy when
the ship is off the bubble. There is, then, very little
additional weight penalty to design the sideboards so
as to displace the full weight of the ship when off
the bubble. These voluminous sideboards offer some
definite advantages. Firstly, as discussed mor e
fully in the section on propulsion, the sideboards can
accommodate the complete propulsion system from
intake to pumps at the lowest possible elevation.
Secondly, the sideboards give a flexibility to the
mode of operation which may vary from the full fly-
ing mode with maximum bubble pressure and the

4
 minimum of immersed sideboards down to a full
displacement mode when the sideboards carry the
full weight of the vehicle. This latter mode provides
a low power, low speed operation with the ability to
ride out heavy storms holding just enough way to
orient to the sea.
Sideboard design offer s some serious challenges.
At the high speeds of 70 to 100 knots, cavitation may
be a serious threat to the sideboard structure. Even
at top speed, enough of the sideboard will be exposed
to the water as to suggest a proper profile design.
Figure 5 shows such a profile. The upper water
lines are a modified parabolic shape developed by
LB 2.0 PL 1.0
FULL DISPLACEMENT AT ML 23
257 FT
WL 3 FT
EL 23
STATION
23 FT
257
Figure 5. Sideboard Profile.
Hydronautics, Inc., and the lower water lines show
an aft thickening to accommodate the waterjet pro-
pulsion system. Under zero yaw conditions this
shape s ho ul d be relatively free from cavitation,
although yaw will still lead to cavitation aft of the
leading edge. The sterns of the sideboards are blunt
but with the ship on the bubble should become fully
ventilated at very low speeds so that base drag should
be practically eliminated. However, a matter to be
investigated is the conditions under which ventilation
occurs for various depths of immersion of the side-
board. In this connection it should be noted that if
the propulsion is by waterjet located at the stern of
the sideboards, the jets will help to produce venti-
lation at low speeds.
Another problem related particularly to the flying
mode, although also important for the displacement
mode, is the relationship between sideboard shape
and size and parameters such as controllability,
maneuverability, stability, and seakeeping. How-
ever, this particular problem must be considered
in relation to the overall control and stability prob-
lem. Nevertheless, the sideboards must obviously
play an important role here. For example, it can
be seen that with the ship configuration shown, the
air bubble does not contribute to stability in roll or
pitch. Therefore this task must devolve upon the
sideboards together with the seal s, and possibly
some other appendages as may be deemed neces sary.
Seals
Providing good fore and aft seals for the SES
poses one of the most challenging tasks in the ship's
development. A brief review of some of the im-
portant seal characteristics serves to indicate why
this is the case.
Bubble Leakage
The fundamental requirement of the seal is, of
course, that it prevent or limit the leakage of the
cushion air in the fore and aft direction. Leakage
can occur at the interface between the sea and the
seal, between the sideboard and the seal, between
the seal elements, and also through punctures or
failures in the seal. The most likely source of leak-
age is the interface between the sea and the seal. It
is the problem of closing this path without introducing
undesirable characteristics that produces the seal
challenges.
Drag
The seal drag is composed of a viscous drag,
form drag, wave making drag, and spray drag. For
most reasonable seal designs the Froude number is
so high that the wave making drag of the seal will be
small. For many shapes spray drag can be reduced
FT-1 by adding a ski device at the bottom. Aerodynamic
drag of the forward seal is significant and should be
considered in evaluating seals which have irregular
plan view shapes such as scallops.
Dynamic Response (Seal/Hull)
The dynamic response characteristic s of the seal
and the interactions with the ship' s motions are per-
haps in most serious conflict with the requirement
of sealing in the bubble air. It is necessary to com-
promise between a very stiff spring rate or highly
loaded seal which can keep the gap closed but will
provide a hard ride to the ship and increase the seal
drag, and a more flexible seal which will soften the
ride but not have sufficient response to keep the gap
closed. The problem is similar to the automobile
suspension problem in terms of the spring stiffness
and sprung to unsprung weight ratios. The accelera-
tions required to follow waves without hopying is
readily obtainable. Based upon Cockerell( ) Fig-
ure 6 shows the magnitude of seal acceleration
500
TRAVERSING SINUSOIDAL WAVES
TH NO LEAKAGE
400
SHIP SPEED
(KNOTS)
300
MN_
120
200 100
100 116,\E 60
80
0
10
WAVE HEIGHT Hw (FI)
Figure 6. Seal Acceleration Requirements
required to prevent "hop" leakage as a function of
wave height and speed. Note the high acceleration
requirements associated with low waves, decreasing
5
a s wave height increase s. The increa se in require- ranging from below 50 tons to over 20,000 tons are
ment as speed increases from 60 to 100 knots is also envisaged. The adaptability of the seal to exhibit
noteworthy. its characteristics over a wide range of sizes is
Weight
thus a desirable though not essential feature.
The seal has an obviously direct effect on the Figure 7 presents a sampling of general seal
structural we ight of the ship. More important,
however, is the effect of the moving mass on the
dynamic response, as already noted. \
Simplicity and Maintainability
Ec on om i c considerations suggest the use of
simple, easily maintained seals. Seals with re-
placeable or serviceable segments are particularly
desirable and complex supporting systems (e. g.
hydraulic or pneumatic systems) will register a
disadvantage on this point.
Damage Resistance and Operational Survivability
The resistance of the seal to damage bears sig-
nificantly upon the seal selection. A related con-
sideration is that the seal, having sustained some INGLE ROLO MEMBRANE MULTIPLE FOLD MEMBRANE

damage, should be able to continue operation even

though in a degraded mode. Damage modes to con-
sider a r e fatigue, cavitation erosion, corrosion,
deterioration, and impact with foreign objects.
Controllability and Power Required
It is possible that some seal concepts could,
through control of buoyancy, extension and spring INFLTED SECT. SHAPES MAIN
rate, provide some control inpitch, heave, and roll. TAMED BY DROP THREADS OR
mEMBRANES

While it is not clear at this time that this will be

necessary or preferable, control might well become
a desire. The power required to achieve equivalent
degrees of control will vary somewhat due to varia-
tions in the efficiencies and masses involved. SHUTTER TYPE WRAP ROUND' TYPE
(FAIRED INTO SIDEBOARDS,

Sensitivity to Bubble Pressure

Related to the question of controllability is the
relationship between the seal characteristics and
the cushion pressure. This relationship should be
known and considered in seal selection, ship stability
and ship operations.
Compatibility with Sideboards
Two means of joining the seals to the sideboards
are considered for the front seal. One is to borrow
from hovercraft technology and fair the seal around
and smoothly into the sideboard. The other .is to
bring the seal adjacent at the side of the sideboard
..BARN 000, TYPE
so as to be free to respond to wave action. In this
latter case flexible membranes may be used which (RIGID HINGED SE.ENTS RITO
are fastened to the seal end and the sideboard, giving -mULTIPLE FINGER'. TYPE
MEOIANICAL SPRING MOLD00.

a positive seal at that point. The virtues of each

vary with the seal concept being considered.
Motion Independence between Adjacent Sections
In order to conform to any but unusual wave con-
ditions, some amount of variable seal compliance is
required. Each transverse element of the seal has
its own wave form to meet. Ideally, each element
should be independent of its adjacent elements; how-
ever, practicalities of cushion sealing will assure
some interaction at best. This interaction can vary
significantly between seal concepts. BALLOON TYPE MULTIPLE CELL TYPE

Adapta.bility to Wide Size Range INFLATED BAG INFLATED BAG wITI1 SECTIONS
SNAPED BY COMPARTMENT WALLS
Finally, it should be noted that, while a nominal
4000 ton ship is being considered, ships of sizes Figure 7. Seal Concepts.

6
types. In each case their operation is self-evident
so the sketches are presented without comment.
However, applying the above criteria to each con-
cept indicates some severe shor tcomings and
limitations.
Propulsion
The selection of the best propulsion system for
the SES focuses on marine gas turbine engines for
primary power and either water screws, air screws,
or waterjet as the thrustors. It should be noted,
however, that if studies in high pressure, high tem-
perature nuclear reactors bear fruit, the resultant
horsepower-to-weight ratios available will be very
attractive for the SES. The high speed marine diesel
should also be considered for primary power. It has
a major disadvantage, however, in that its specific
weight is about ten times that of the gas turbine. In
its favor is the fact that currently it has a better
thermal efficiency than the gas turbine (by about
50%), but this advantage can disappear with the next
generation of marine gas turbines. Therefore, in
this application where weight and efficiency are con-
sidered to be more important than other factors such
as fuel and development cost, the gas turbine appears
to be the most suitable power supply.
The problem in propulsion system selection is
not only to select the best system type, but in doing
so to properly match the components and make sub-
system selections. Then remains the task of sizing
and selection in context with the overall ship opti-
mization.
Within the class of marine gas turbine primary
powerplants there are a number of problems and
considerations in selection, improvements, modi-
fications, and installation. For the 4000 ton ship
the Pratt & Whitney FT4 engine is a contemporary
example of a highly suitable powerplant. It is an
adaptation of the J-75 jet engine with a free power
turbine and modified for marine applications. This
engine has an overall thermal efficiency of about
26% at its normal continuous rating and has a growth
potential to about 29%. The possibilities for im-
provement in the thermal efficiency are suggested
by the Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbojet engine devel-
oped for the C-5A airplane. This e ng in e has an
overall thermal efficiency, exclusive of bypass, of
about 36% to 38%. The thermal efficiency is shown
as a function of turbine inlet temperature (compres-
sor power turbine) in Figure 8 with the FT4 and
JT9D indicated. To follow the efficiency line shown,
assumptions are made with regard to improving
component efficiencies and increasing compressor
pressure ratios. A very important consideration
must not be overlooked here. This is the perform-
ance potential of the regenerative cycle gas turbine.
This engine pays a penalty in weight, development
cost, complexity, reliability, overhaul c o s t, and
installed vol um e but pays a handsome reward in
thermal efficiency. The comparitive evaluation of
regenerative and nonregenerative cycles can be seen
to present a challenging problem.
Some interesting free turbine modification pos-
7
60
50
40
,,,-(No -
ef oct.
do,06 pOss
30 SO'
s\v''' 0,'I'\'' JT9D
*C-' 0)5
\'C'
20
FT4A
ID
o
2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
TURBINE INLET TEMP (.19)
Figure 8. Engine Efficiency.
sibilities present themselves for specific installa-
tions. One installation advantage is to separate the
gas generator from the free turbine. This is, in
effect, substituting hot gas ducting for a mechanical
drive. A specific attribute of the duc ting is the
possible elimination of mechanical angle drive s. An
interesting application of this might be a coupling to
a waterjet thrus tor. A conventional centrifugal pump
is located near the bottom of the sideboard with its
inlet eye facing downward and slightly forward. The
involute protrudes through the hull and a nozzle is
directed to the rear. In this manner the water inlet
can be close-coupled to the pump and the pumps can
be sequenced in t a nde m. The engines, however,
must be mounted nearly vertically, or use anangled
drive, or employ the remote free turbine technique.
At the common power turbine rotational speeds,
a speed reduction gear box is required to match to
a propeller or a pump. Design considerations of
changes to the power turbine to match rotational
speeds appear appropriate in spite of development
costs, possible added weight, and lowered efficiency.
The installation aspects of locating the engines
deep in the sideboards, taking in air and exhausting
the combustion gasses present interesting problems.
With the waterjet propulsion, the partially sub-
merged superventilating propellers, and possibly
with the supercavitating propeller, the desire to
close-couple the engine and the thrustor leads to
engines low in the sideboards. This compromises
design decisions with respect to widening the side-
board and, possibly, compromising the hydro-
dynamic characteristics of the sideboar d. An
additional strong factor of importance is the amount
of accessibility and the ease of removal which will
be provided. Both considerations lead toward widen-
ing the sideboards. Some advantages are realized
by installing the engine at an angle to the horizontal.
Against such a desire are the bearing and lubrication
problems posed and the need, at large angles, of
additional development effort.
At speeds between 70 and 100 knots, recovery of
the stagnation air pressure will increase engine per-
formance. Unfortunately, at these speeds white and
green water tends to travel in the same direction
relative to the ship as the air. Eliminating or re-
ducing water capture by inlet shape and orientation,
and by the inclusion of mechanical separators, re-
duces or eliminates the ram recovery. The location
of the inlet on the ship and its height will affect water
ingestion. Alternately, it may be possible to pres-
surize the main propulsion air intake system from
the bubble blowers and use the excess pressure for
water separators and/or filter s. In doing so, it
must be recognized that there are usually disadvant-
ages to combined systems, especially when a failure
OC cur s.
In considering these problems it is possible to
compile a list of inlet design variables and evaluate
configurational c omp romis e, performance, and
weight as decision factors. The engine exhaust has
considerations similar to those of the inlet.
The basic thrustor ty-pes we have considered are
depicted in Figure 9.
AIR PROPELLERS
WATERJ ET
SUPER CAVITATING
PROPELLERS
SUPER VENTILATING
PARTIALLY SUBMERGED
PROPELLERS
Figure 9. Basic Thrustor Types.
The air propeller can have the engine remotely
installed in the hull as shown or be directly coupled
through a gear reduction box if a nacelle installation
is used. The remote installation has the disadvant-
age of mechanical complexity with two right angle
gear boxes and a long intermediate drive shaft. The
thrust axis will produce a negative pitching moment.
The waterjet system can be located in the stern
8
of the sideboards or, with a penalty in water inlet
duct losses and weight, at the rear of the main hull.
As noted, an alternate is a tandem installation of
pumps along the bottom of the sideboards. Engine-
pump couplings can be very close although some
installation advantages accrue to an inclined system
with a long drive shaft. Speed reduction is required
for coupling unless, as noted, power turbine speeds
are redone to match the system. The greatest un-
certainty and potential problem in waterjet propul-
sion development is the water inlet and ducting. The
factors of consideration in inlet-duct design are:
Weight (including captured water),
Added drag,
Pressure recovery,
Internal and external cavitation,
Total head losses in the ducting,
Flow uniformity at the pump intake, and
Air ingestion.
These factors must be considered over a large speed
range, over a large mass flow range, and with en-
gine out. Conflict exists between these factors and
between the ship design and some of the desired inlet
characteristic s. For instance, an inlet designed for
optimum pre s sure recovery and minimum duct pres-
sure loss may add unduly to ship drag and weight.
Studies and test programs whose objective is an
optimum inlet system, considering all factors, is
important.
To accommodate a wide range of mass flows at
high speed without cavitation, a variable inlet area
will probably be required. The alternative of a
large radius inlet leading edge will add measurably
to the drag. Another problem in waterjet propulsion,
that of pump cavitation, is depicted in Figure 10. If
BOO
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY = 0.62 AT 100 KTS
6 FT 4 TURBOJETS Hw = 5 FT
LOB = 2
6 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS E. INDUCERS
600
SUCTION
20,000
8000 SPECIFIC
SPEED
P/L
400
1.5
THRUST Thf
NORMAL CONTINUOUS
200
o
20 40 60 80 100
SPEED (KNOTS)
Figure 10. Thrust Available and Drag - Waterjet
Propulsion.
a water pump is to operate under some conditions
without cavitating, it is necessary to limit its flow
rate and hence thrust produced. Two performance
lines of limiting thrust are shown at suction specific
speeds of 8,000 and 20,000. (Suction specific speed
is a measure of the ability of a pump to operate
 efficiently under incipient cavitating conditions.) A
critical performance region exists at speeds just
below and around the hump speed. An inability to
accelerate past hump speed is, in fact, indicated
under several combinations of ships and pumps. The
obvious answer of increasing suction specific speed
unfortunately comes at the expense of pump efficien-
cy. Operation of the pumps for a short time while
cavitating is not an uncommon rocket practice but
leads to pump lives which are incompatible with ship
life and maintenance considerations. Alteration of
the drag level in the hump region shows promise as
a solution to this drag versus thrust dilemma.
Supercavitating propellers show promise on the
basis of their potential efficiency of operation. With
horizontal engines, two right angle drives are re-
quired. Retraction may also be required or desired
as indicated by Booz, Allen Applied Research. (2)
The blades are subject to cavitation erosion and
leading edge fatigue failures. The design created
by the USN David Taylor Model Basinfor the Mari-
time Administration's Dennison hydrofoil ship may
have solved the latter problem.
The partially submerged superventilating pro-
peller is a relatively new concept in which the low
pressure side of the blade experiences pressures
closer to atmospheric than cavitation. A propeller
which is efficient over a wide operating range re-
sults.
The installation in the Captured Air Bubble con-
figuration pPaces two propellers, one each at the
bottom aft end of the sideboards. A ship with eight
engines will thus have four engines driving one pro-
peller through shafts, an aggregating gear box, and
speed reduction gears. The mechanical problems
are at once evident. Pe..riodic loadings of the blades
present problems in blade fatigue, habitability, and
ship's structural excitation. The latter part of this
problem can be reduced by increasing the number
of blades.
To facilitate a "first cut" analysis of the different
propulsion systems, an overall efficiency has been
used. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of thrust
work out to fuel energy in times one hundred. At a
given speed and power required, then, the overall
efficiency is inversely proportional to the fuel flow
rate. It does not directly include variations in drag
associated with the installations. Figure 11 gives
the results of this analysis at a speed of 70 knots.
The reference turbojet case assumes an engine of
42% thermal efficiency without bypass and without
afterburning. The other efficiency points indicated
are defined as follows:
Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofan engine as
specified (bypass ratio approximately 5).
Advanced JT9D engine with higher bypass
ratio (about 10).
Estimated ultimate for advanced bypass
engine with a thermal efficiency of 42% and
a bypass ratio of about 20.
Turboprop installation using eight FT4A
type units coupled to 13.7 foot propellers.
9
30
70 KNOTS
DRAG = THRUST = 315 000 LB
20 O
FT4
ID
JT9D
o
TURBOJET TURBOFAN TURBOPROP WATERJET SUPER CAVITATING
PROPELLERS
Figure 11. Overall Propulsion Efficiency.
Seven FT4A type units coupled to 21.1 foot
propellers.
Six FT4A type units coupled to 34. 5 foot
propeller s.
Turboprop units with efficiency comparable
to the Pratt & Whitney JT9D and 8,100 sq.
feet of propeller area, e.g., six 41. 4 foot
diameter propellers.
Advanced turboprop engine with a thermal
efficiency of 42% and 8,100 sq. feet of pro-
peller area.
FT4A turbine engine with a good current
state-of-the-art waterjet thrustor having
a propulsive efficiency of 62%.
Gas turbine engine with JT9D level of per-
formance and a waterjet thrustor having a
propulsion efficiency of 62%.
Estimated ultimate for advanced turbine
engine and advanced state-of-the-art water-
jet system.
Supercavitating propeller with 65% effi-
ciency coupled to the FT4A engine.
Supercavitating propeller with 70% effi-
ciency coupled to an engine with JT9D level
of performance.
Supercavitating propeller with 75% effi-
ciency and an advanced performance gas
turbine engine.
Drag
The drag of CAB craft is very much affected by
variations in design, especially bubble geometry
and bubble pressure. Being one of the key elements
in the performance of CAB, much attention has been
given to a proper evaluation of this parameter. The
drag estimates which are shown in Figures 12 to 16
have been calculated using a rrietA0 which is essen-
tially that of Chaplin and Ford. The calculations
are based on the following assumptions:
The sideboard submergence is just sufficient
 to prevent bubble leakage. most noticeable effect on the hump drags in the speed
The trim angle of the sideboard is equal to the region of 30 to 40 knots. In this region the drag is
arc tangent of the bubble drag-to-lift ratio. predominantly bubble wave drag. With increasing
Bubble pressure is adjusted to compensate for speeds, the differences in drag decrease until, at
the buoyancy of the immersed portion of high speeds in the region of 80 to 100 knots, there
the sideboard. is little difference between the va rious ratios of
The aerodynamic lift and seal lift is 5% of the PB/LB' Based on this curve alorxe, it would appear
total lift. that lower values of PB/LB would be preferable in
The aerodynamic drag coefficient of the hull that over the whole speed range up to 100 knots, the
above the water line, CD, equals 0.5 (this drag at any speed is always lower. However, refer-
is for a well-streamlined SES). ring back to Figure 2, it is seen that lower bubble
The momentum and energy penalty as sociated pressures are associated with larger dimensions,
with the bubble air is neglected. lower ship structural densities, ineffective use of
available volume, and heavier structural elements
Figure 12 is for a ship of nominal LB/BB = 2 and for a given total all-up weight. The choice, then,
PB/LB = 1. The cur ve s show the effect of wave is apparently between small efficient craft with high
height, particularly at high speeds due to the larger hump drags (with the associated problems of hump
800 cavitation, etc. ) and larger less efficient craft but
with lower hump drags. However, some preliminary
4000 TONS studies indicate that it may be possible to combine
LB/B = 20, PB/LE, = 1.0 the best features of these two alternatives.
600
Figure 14 shows the effect upon drag of varying
length-to-beam ratio, LB/BB. For the values of
800
1
1

400 4000 TONS

Pa/LB = 1.0

WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT
600

200

400 L/8 = 4

20 ao 60 80 100

VELOCITY ( KNOTS )
AsoL/B ' 2

Figure 12. Drag Curves - Wave Height. 200

wetted area at the sideboards. Note also that at L/B = 3

lower speeds the drag reduces with wave height. o
This paradox is due to the complicated relationship o 20 40 60 80 100

between bubble lift, sideboard lift, bubble drag (wave VELOCITY (KNOTS)
drag), and sideboard drag (viscous drag).
Figure 14. Drag Curves - L/B.
Figure 13 shows the effect of varying the pres sure-
to-length ratio, PB/LB. This parameter has the LB/BB considered, it is seen that this parameter
800
I I
does not affect the drag as significantly as the para-
4000 TONS meter of PB/LB.
L8,13,3 = 2.0
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT Figure 15 shows the variation of aerodynamic
600
drag with the depth of the main hull. This informa-
tion is useful in determining the "best" hull depth
PA
when used in conjunction with other criteria affecting
hull depth suchas structural weight, stability of the
400
1.5 vessel, and cargo volume requirements.
1.0
----------------.. Figure 16 shows the effect on drag of varying
operating weight for a given configuration designed
for 4000 ton operation. The most noticeable effect
X
200 occurs at hump speeds, with a lessening effect as
the speed increases.
Some inteiesting features emerge if the lift-to-
drag ratios are calculated for the different operating
o
o zo 40 60 80 100 weights. Considering first the speeds for minimum
LID in the flying mode (best cruise speeds), it is
V ELOCI TY ( KNOTS)
seen that best cruise speed increases markedly with
Figure 13. Drag Curves - P/L.
10
 800 , r
4000 TONS
estimates for ground effect machines. The relative
LB,13B = 2.0, P8 /L6 = 1,0
characteristics might be quite different, however,
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT especially under large wave deflections when the
600
seal' s contribution to drag will be large. A valid
estimate for aerodynamic drag is difficult due to the
HH FT) presence of the 'ground' plane. The aerodynamic
so drag is probably dominated by the contribution of the
o 400

M. 40
30
front seal/bow and the bases and these are highly a
function of specific shape. The addition of an equiva-
lent drag to allow for the blower system is important,
frequently guessed to be 10% of the total drag, but
290 r 111.P.- the very nature of the Captured Air Bubble Surface
Effect Ship lays open the question of the blower re-
quirement. Hopefully, the leakage might be low
enough under some sea conditions as to add negli-
o
20 40 60
gibly to the overall power required.
80 100

VELOCITY (KNOTS)
Route Analysis
Figure 15. Drag Curves - Hull Depth. In the typical situation of ship operations with
conventional hulls, nonstop routes are established
800
between the port of origin and the port of destination.
NOMINAL 4000 T CONFIGURATION
= 2.0, PB/L
The SES, as compared to a conventional ship, has
LB BB = 1.0
WAVE HEIGHT = 5 FT
an L/D approximately one tenth as large and a thrust
specific fuel consumptionabout two times as large.
600
The obvious implication of this is that for the SES

,
the versatility of no n s top operations is severely
curtailed. This ship has, in fact, range character-
OPERATING
WEIGHT istics more nearly like those of an airplane. The
400
4500 expectation that strategically located refueling stops
4000
___----------' will be desirable is a natural result of this evalua-
3500 tion.
200 An analysis has been undertaken to quantitatively
evaluate specific routes and possible refueling base s.
The desired result of this study was to determine
reasonably correct nonstop range requirements for
0.00
0 20
the SES so that meaningful tradeoff analyses can be
40 60 110 100
made.
VELOCITY (KNOTS) Table II is a compilation of distances between
Figure 16. Drag Curves - Weight Variation. Table II
increased weight, so that on a typical mission the DISTANCES BETWEEN PORTS

ship can be maintained at best cruise speed by de- fono. Mid-

San
Fran- Tan
celerating as fuel is consumed and the vessel lighten.s. Guam
Guam Rau
3318
Lg Shui Wake

It may be noted that the actual minimum L/D values F1onolulu 2301
2301
1149
2304
5542
5053
2091
1505
4398
1334
2004
Midway 2301 1149 4421
decrease by approximately 4% for a weight change Saigon 2304 5542 4421
2792
6878
*3130
*1130
1034
3580
from 3500 to 4500 tons. At 80 knots there is a 10% San Francisco
Tan Shui
5053
1505
2091
4398
2792
*3130
6878
s1,30 5611
5611 3821
.2400
increase in L/D, and at 100 knots an 18% increase. Wake 1334 2004 1034 3580 3821 *2400

These values apply only to this particular configura- Ascen-

sion Azores Bremen
Cape- George-
town town
Gib-
raltsr
New Ply- Porto
York mouth Grande Said
tion and may be considerably different for other Ascension
Azores .3125
.3125 .4700 2409 2758 *3279 4395 .3565 .1740 *5204
configurations. Brernen *4700 1815
1815 5152
6447
2488
4300
1102
1626
2098
3614
1264
573
1316
*3165
3027
3551
Capetown 2409 5152 6447 5026 5082 6786 7157 3958 5354
Georgetown
The curves shown on the aforementioned figures Gibrahar
2758
.3279
2488
1102
4300
1626
5026
5082 3358
3358 2217 *4000
3180 1075
*2300
1539
5283
1925
New York
indicate the relative effects which the various para- Plymouth
4395
.3565
2098
1264
3614
573
6786 2217
7157 a..
3180
1075 3063
3063 2881
2271
5105
3000
meters have upon drag. However, at this stage a Porto Grande
Said
*1740
*5204
/316
3027
*3165
3551
3958 .2300
5354 5283
1539
1925
2881
5105
2271
3000 3464
3464

number of uncertainties li m i t the possibility of *Author' a estimate.

accurately estimating absolute values of drag. There Source: Distances Be.een Port. - 1965. Hydrographic Office Publication 151.

is, as always, the question of scaling from the data

obtained from experiments performed upon small points for typical ports and possible refueling bases
sized models. The estimation of viscous drag of the in the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. These and
s i de board in the presence of waves can only be other routes are also shown in Figure 17. From
approximate because of the lack of knowledge of these possible routes, five specific and representa-
boundary layer build-up as the wave sweeps the side- tive terminal port groups were selected. Missions
board. Seal drag estimates are taken from trunk were analyzed for these routes considering both
11
 7P'S;i0
£8.181,
---;
der
Figure 17. Route Map.
nonstop and intermediate refueling stop operation. a short two hour refueling layover. The ship's pay-
A 4000 ton ship was postulated with a total useful loads which resulted from the analysis (allowing a
load fraction of 0.60 which could be allocated to fuel 10% fuel reserve) are shown in the third column as
or payload in any proportion. A nominal condition payload in tons. This payload is established by the
with a significan.t wave height of 5 feet and a cruise longest port-to-port distance including the refueling
speed of 85 knots was selected. An extreme condi- stops. The payload-flow parameter, payload/block
tion with a significant wave height of 20 feet and a time, is shown in the next column. This parameter
cruise speed of 60 knots was added as a check on the includes the compensation for the disutility of the
conclusions. The information generated is shown longer block distances and layover times involved
in Table III. The block distance shows that the with refueling stops. From Table III it may be
readily seen that great increases in payload and
Table III consequent decrease in cost per ton-mile may be
ROUTE ANALYSIS FOR SELECTED PORTS achieved in spite of an increase in block time be-
Significant Wave Height = 5 ft
Sigruficant Wave
Height = 20 ft
tween port of origin and port of destination. Of equal
Vo = 85 Ms Vo = 60 Kta importance, these calculations show that the longest
De 8 tina-
Block Block W
Dintance Time Payload --,,,,
Block
Time Payload
6W
leg of the most productive route to the ports exam-
tion Intermediate
2,, ir,SFO
cm. Hrs Ton, .13 Mrs Ton, B
ined is 2400 nautical miles in the Pacific and 2800
Sa tgon 6878 80.72 114.63
nautical miles in the Atlantic. These figures sig-
Wake
Guam Midway
7459
7397
83.06
9I.02
645
1118
7.18
12.08
106.30
127.28 583 4.58
nificantly affect the overall design of the vessel by
Guam Wake Honolulu 7733 96. 98 1342 13. 84 134. 88 901 6. 68 reducing the heretofore assumed range requirement
66.01 0.8k 93.50
Tan Shui
(Taiwan) Midway
5611
5779 69.99
57
1018 14.54 98.32 443 4.50 of 3500 to 4000 nautical miles.
Wake Midway 6226 77.05 1118 14.47 107.77 583 5.41
Wake Honolulu 6495 80.41 1298 16.4 112.25 838 7.47
8.55
Guam
Origin: N. Y.
Wake Honolulu 6934 87.58 1342 15.30 001.57 1039
References
Bremen 3614 40.52 740 07.40 60.23 49 O. 82
Plymouth
Azores
3636
3913
41.78
48.01
993
1436
00.18
09.89
60.60
65.00
407
1035
6.90
15. 87 Cockerell, C. S., "An Introduction to the General
Said 5105
5105
60.06
60.06
55
939
0,65
15,13
85.03
87.03 3.80
Principles of Hovercraft," November 1963.
Gibralmr 331
Gibraltar Azores 5125 64,29 1436 00.34 89.42 1035 11.57 Chaplin and Ford, Design Principles of Ground
Capetown
Luanda Porto Grande
6801
7286
80.31
89.70 1077 12.00
103.35
025.43 525 4.19
Effect Machines, Section G, "Drag," May 1965.
Ascension Porto Grande
Ascension Georgetown
7290
7384
89.76
90.87
1077
1033
10.00
02.46
005.50
007.07
525
604
4.09
4.76
"The Surface Effect Ship in the American Mer-
Yip = Payload, TB = Block Time. LAgepcodocticityintOflSper5OUr.
chant Marine," Final Report for the United States
Department of Commerce, Maritime Adminis-
a ddi tion of intermediate refueling stops has the tration, by Booz-Allen Applied Research, Inc.
undesirable effect of increasing the total distance
c overed. The block times were c omputed a ssuming

12
No. 61-348

CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE (CAB) VEHICLE PROGRESS REPORT

by

ALLEN G. FORD
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-348

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-11.50)
2.05, 5.08, 6.14
 CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE (CAB) VEHICLE PROGRESS REPORT

Allen G. Ford
Deputy Director for Research and Development
Surface Effect Ships Project Office
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
(Formerly the David Taylor Model Basin)
Washington, D.C.

Abstract
The Captured Air Bubble (CAB) is a sidewall air
cushion vehicle (ACV), a high-speed waterborne
craft that is inherently non-amphibious. Some gen-
eral vehicle comparisons are shown, as well as pare-
ametric results pointing to the need for large
multi-thousand-ton surface effect ships (SES) to
fulfill transoceanic requirements. Then comparisons
of theoretical drag predictions and experimental
CAB drag data are made, in smooth water and in
straight-ahead waves. Because the CAB has large
structural members, the sidewalls, in direct contact
with the water, there is a unique opportunity for
the utilization of high speed water propulsion sys-
ems. A comparison of air propeller and water-jet
propulsion systems is then made. The water-jet
shows significant efficiency advantages, particu-
larly for the medium "hump" speeds, and this in turn
allows CAB vehicles to have higher specific loading
for a given installed power. There is a structural
advantage to this higher specific loading, but a
slight power disadvantage. A sample tradeoff is
then made to indicate profitable design trends. Figure 1 - Artists Concept of 4000 Ton SES

General Vehicle Comparisons
There are two principal contenders for the sur-
/ face effect ship (SES) class of vehicle. The first
is the hovercraft developed by the British; the
second is the sidewall captured air bubble (CAB)
vehicle which has received a less extensive in-house
Navy development. The term, "surface effect ship
(SES)", was first used several years ago by the
Maritime Administration, in studies performed by
them. As used here, SES simply implies a "large"
or "ship" size of an air cushion vehicle (ACV), re-
gardless of specific configuration.
are likely to be amphibious, that is, to have over-
the-beach capability, and, further, they are likely
to be associated with air propulsion systems. ate
national program in the United Kingdom for about 10
years, together with commercial incentive, has
brought this craft to an amazingly advanced state
of development for this time period.
FLEXIBLE
TRUNKS
/0 0 r-----;<-4 r(7,

Figure 1 shows an artist's concept of a 4000-

ton SES propelled by a waterjet propulsion system.
The specific configuration shown is neither the
full-peripheral skirted ACV nor the full-sidewall Figure '2 - Hovercraft Design Trend
ACV, but a hybrid of the two, with skirts ex-
tending around to the aft portion of the vehicle.
Like the hovercraft, the captured air bubble or
Development of the hovercraft (Figure 2) or full- CAB sidewall craft (Figure 3) is supported on a
peripherial skirted ACV has occurred within the last pressurized region of air beneath the craft. This
10 years, principally in Britain. ate most signifi- pressure region is retained by sidewalls and mechan-
cant design trend in the last 4 to 5 years has been ical or fabric seals fore and aft. In this case,
the introduction of flexible trunks or skirts; this the fan power is likely to be less than in the hov-
feature has allowed a reduction in the so-called ercraft case, but in both classes of vehicles there
"daylight gap" (the distance between the water and is a potential for sea state alleviation, that is,
soft structure) and an increase in the distance be- a potential for an essential platforming action in
tween the water and the hard structure. These craft which the body of the vehicle moves along relatively

1
straight and level, with a very highly dynamic per-
formance of the fore and aft seals. A second char-
acteristic of the CAB class of vehicle is a poten-
tial for utilizing the sidewall volume to install
propulsion and machinery systems of the water pro-
pulsion type. Because of its sidewalls, the CAB
is not amphibious. Water propulsion systems may
show propulsive efficiency advantages, but their
use restricts the craft to water operation, al-
though running half up on a beach would be possible
with proper seal and sidewall design, such as that
shown in Figure 1.
this plot. Improvement with size would be even
more marked in a rough sea.
For the hovercraft or ground effect machine
(GEM), the daylight clearance was taken to be con-
stant with size; hence the non-dimensional daylight
clearance was assumed to decrease with size. Some
detailed features and limitations of these pro-
jections are discussed in Reference 3.
o
1000 cc

Compared to the hovercraft, the CAB has had

rather limited development. Most of the work has 500
ILINIIIIIII
iiiiL sN
300

20051'
o
o
a
been done since 1960 and principally within naval , a.
laboratories-the Naval Air Development Center, the vti
Naval Air Engineering Center, and the David Taylor
300 o A loo
Model Basin. 200 80.
We: io
i 4-,. ',-PIA(-- 60 ct'''
SHP 467 50 fe,

LB MO 40

FAN
HP
"cuNR,
..
mi
A VI \, , 30

50
100ro5
GEM
\ 7k./Jii,
, 7o V
.... S '
\,
20o
u
30 o1. , , es ,) \, ti-
,s ` 4/ Fe, / 3
a.
AFT
PLANING SURFACE
AIR
BUBBLE
FORWARD
PLANING SIIIPACE
20 -0
,, `,",'
r,
---.0
Ai
-4
, \
4 \\ 5 .
SMEBOARD- 1&,.. ''''' . e` u
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000
V IN KNOTS

:7 Figure 4 - Gross-Weight/Povver Ratio versus Speed for

--__ AMUR'
PLANING SURFACE
IN WAVES
Figure 3 - Captured Air Bubble (CAB) Sidewall Air Cushion
Vehicle (ACV)
In the summer of 1965, the Model Basin published
a study of the technical feasibility of future high-
speed Navy vehicles.1 Figure 4, from Reference 1,
shows a comparison based on the weight-to-power
ratio of various overwater vehicles as a function
of speed for various weights. It is evident that
the air cushion vehicles (ACV's) of both the hover-
craft (or GEM) and the CAB (or sidewall) types show
very advantageous (high) weight-to-power character-
Various Over-Water Vehicles
The projections of Figure 4 are based on the
utilization of air-propellers for the ACV's with
propeller areas taken as 20 percent of the base or
cushion areas. Since publication of this TMB re-
port', the subject of high-speed water-propulsion
systems (water jets and super-cavitating propel-
lers) has been investigated more fully. These
studies show substantial promise over air propel-
lers, at least for the CAB sidewall ACV craft.
0.50
0.40

istics at high speeds (50 to 100 knots, typically).

For example, if speed and weight are held constant
(100 knots and 10,000 tons, respectively), there
is a reduction of five to six in power required 0.30
for the ACV's relative to the comparable high-speed o
large dibpZaCCruetit hull. The ACV's of both classes L)
a
show an attractive proximity to the well known
von Karman-Gabrielli line.2 This is an empirical o
a
o 0/0
line drawn between aircraft and ships (ships meet
the line about a decade over the upper limit of a
this chart). The relatively poor performance of
other than ACV's at high speeds, as measured by
their distance from the von Karman-Gabrielli line, 0.10
has been referred to as the "naval gap." In this
general sense, Reference 1 pointed out that the
ACV's had a potential for doing much toward filling
this existing high-speed over-water-vehicle "naval 3000 4000 5000
gap." o 1000 2000

RANCE IN NAUTICAL MILES

It is also evident from Figure 4 that both ACV
types show a substantial improvement with vehicle Figure 5 - Payload Fraction versus Range for Various
size, even for the calm water conditions given in Gross Weights

2
 Payload fraction as a fupction of range in nauti-
cal miles for a CAE vehicle"' is shown in Figure 5.
Vehicle gross weight or displacement is treated
parametrically from 100 to 50,000 tons, with cor-
responding vehicle velocities listed. If trans-
atlantic ranges (3000 to 4000 miles) are required
and it is desired to have reasonable payload fract-
ions of the order of 25 to 30 percent, then the in-
tersection region in Figure 5 calls for craft of
the 2000- to 5000-ton category.
Figure 6 shows speed as a function of gross dis-
placement of the craft for various sea conditions.
It is seen that the design-determining condition
turns out to be the case of high (State 6) seas.
A special importance is attached to the capability
to maintain a good speed in a 'itate 6 sea because
it is estimated to be the worst sea state which a
high-speed ship need ever encounter, making use of
modern sea state forecasting and taking advantage
of the more reliable route planning made possible
by higher speeds. :.loreover, a tAate 6 sea need be
encountered only over short distances, on the order
of 100 miles. If a good speed is maintained, it
should be practical to drive ahead through the
distrubed area at full power in a few hours, with-
out prohibitive fuel burnoff. If a good speed
could not be maintained, however, then the full-
i.ower fuel burnoff would become excessive, and it
would be necessary to reduce power and increase
transit time to traverse the disturbed area at low
speed.
150
CAB
pa - 0.8 .e1b - 2
W 'HP -60 lb 'hp
llol.
prIJIlip
iordil
50
5 2 4 6 8 2
500 1000
DISPLACEMENTINLONGaUDINALTONS
Figure 6 - Speed versus Gross WeightforVarious Sea States
If a fixed, above-the-hump speed of 50 knots is
taken as a minimum for the condition of a L;tate-6
sea, then Figure 6 shows that a large vehicle of
3000 to 4000 tons is required.
The major problem areas that apply to new vehi-
cle developments in general and to ACV's in par-
ticular are:
Resistance (LID)
Stability
Dynamic Loads
Structural Weight Fraction
Propulsion - (efficiency)
- (weight, reliability)
The remainder of this paper deals with specific
technical information in two of these areas that
was not available in the time frame of References 1
and 4. The two areas are (1) resistance (or L/D),
and (2) propulsion. The third topic of stability
is treated in Reference (5).
Resistance
During 1966, tests of a 12-foot-long model of a
4000-ton CAL sidewall vehicle were conducted at
the T1413 high-speed towing tank facilities at
Langley, Virginia. This model is shown as Figure
T. It has fabric seals forward ana mechanical
seals aft; both respond very dynamically in waves
relative to the body of the craft itself.
Figure 7 - CAB Model (1 27.2 Scale) of a 4000-Ton SES
Figure 8 shows a significant comparison
between theoretical drag-predictive methods and
experimental results for smooth-water conditions.
It considers model drag as a function of model
speed and compares a calculated theoretical pre-
diction of drag to experimental values. The ex-
perimental points are shown as various shaped dots
representing 1, 2, 3, and 4 blowers. in the 28-
foot per second case (model speed), representing
10,000 MON 87 knots for the 4000-ton CAS, the 1-, 2-, 3-, and
4-blower cases represent 5, 10, 15, and 20 percent
of the total vehicle power invested in fan or cush-
ion power. Each blower represents a flow of ap-
proximately 350 cubic feet per minute. A compari-
son of the theory and experiment is valid only at
speeds above the hump. The primary conclusion that
can be drawn from Figure 8 is that there is essential
agreement (fnr the smooth-water case and with ade-
quate fan power) between the experimental results
and the theoretical drag and power predictive meth-
ods used in References 1 and 4.
3
 0.25 100

0.125 50 90

45 0.20 80

0.100 40 70

35 0.15 60

0.075 u 30 50
a
o
w 25 0.10 ô 40
o
0.050 20 30

15 . 0.05 20
1 BLOWER
2 BLOWERS
0.025 10 3 BLOwERS 10

4 BLOWERS

O
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
mODEL SPEED IN FT/SEC
25 SO 75
0
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS
mODEL SPEED IN FT SEC
0 25 50 75 100 Figure 10 Model Drag Results in Waves
PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 8 Model Drag Results in Smooth Water Propulsion

Figure 9 is a similar comparison for this model
in 3.0-inch regular waves (6.5 feet full scale).
Again there is an essential agreement between theory
and experiment, provided adequate fan power is pres-
ent. There is, however, an anomalous effect that
begins to appear, i.e., the best experimental points
are above the theory at interim speeds, but, they are
below the theory at the highest speed,32 feet per
second (model scale) or 100 knots ( full scale),
The anomalous effect is still present in Figure 10,
where the best experimental points at high speed are
considerably better than predicted.
0.20 80
70
0.15 60
It was mentioned previously that the amphibious
hovercraft would likely have air propellers; these
are compatible with overland operation. The CATS,
which is not amphibious, has a potential advantage
in the use of high-speed, water propulsion systems.
The propulsor, gears and prime mover can be in-
stalled, partially or totally, in the sidewalls of
the vehicle.
Figure 11 is a picture of a water-jet propulsor,
together with a turboshaft engine and associated
machinery installed in the sidewalls of' a large
CAB vehicle. The water is ingested at the bottom
of the siciewall into an inlet-diffuser region.
From here it moves through the water-jet pump and
exits through a nozzle at the rear of the sidewall.
It is very significant that the duct lengths can
be of minimum length with minimum bends; this
allows the most favorable overall duct loss coef-
ficients, without prohibitive water weights.

50

0,10 2 40

30

0.05 20

10

o
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32

MODEL SPEED IN FT SEC

25 50 75

PROTOTYPE SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 11 - Water-Jet Propulsion Installation in a
Figure 9 Model Drag Results in Waves CAB Sidewall
 A computer program has been established on
water-jets 0.7 as well as air propellers; vpAcle
drag and power characteristics are included'''.
Air propellers and water jets can now be compared
based on results of this program for a 1O00-ton
CAB vehicle.
If more reasonable,but still large propeller ar-
eas are accepted (20 percent of base area), it can
be seen from Figure 13 that higher shaft nowers
are required because of lowered propulsive effici-
encies. The efficiency drop is caused by the lower-
ed mass flow rate.

Figure 12 shows shaft power versus speed, where
the shaft power depends both on the vehicle drag
characteristics as a function of speed and on the
propulsive efficiency. This plot applies to water-
jet propulsion of the 'type shown in Figure 11 en-
closed within the sidewalls. The same power re-
sults can be obtained for air propellers, but in
this case, the propeller area must be absurdly
large, 80 percent of the base or cushion area of
the craft.
If more practical air propeller areas are con-
sidered (5 percent of the base area) as shown in
Figure l, then the propulsive efficiency loss is
severe and results in high values of required shaft.
power. Roughly a factor of two in installed power
required is shown in Figure 11+, 150,000 shaft
horsepower for the water jet versus 300,000 shaft
horsepower for a.n air propeller of 5 percent pro-
peller-to-base-area ratio. This difference is of
paramount importance in large craft with long re-

,
quired ranges.
200

150

eon:
omm,
50-
WATER JET
OR AIR PROP Sp/S =0.80

00000
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

SPEED IN KNOTS
Figure 12 - Power versus Speed for Water-Jet and for Large
Air Propeller Array
250

200

150 AIR PROP Sp/S = 0.20

100

*moo*
50-- WATER JET momo
OR AIR PROP Se/S=0.80 moo**
moo..
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 13 - Power versus Speed for Smaller Air Propeller Array

5
 300

250
AIR PROP Sp/S .0.05

200

AIR PROP SEIS = 0.20

x 150

LIJ

100

50 WATER JET
OR AIR PROP Sp/S = 0.80

01100111

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 14 - Power versus Speed for Small Air Propeller Array

Propulsion considerations are not independent;
they interac't with the choice of vehicle chara.cter-
istics. For example, if the vehicle specific load-
ing (weight/cushion-area) increases, 'there is a
likelihood of a reduction in structural-weight
fraction,which can then be invested in payload or
in fuel to increase range. But the upper value of
vehicle specific loading is controlled by the
wave-making drag at the hump speed and the pro-
pulsive efficiency at the hump speed (for a given
installed power).
Figure 15 shows structural weight fraction as a
function of the pressure-to-length ratio (P/L).
The pressure P is essentially the specific load-
ing (weight/cushion area). This, plot shows that
there is, in fact, a substantial potential savings
in the structural weight fraction for high (P/1)
values; the value 0.13 is typical of the present
state-of-the-art and 1.5 is a possible projection.
The exact downward trend of Figure 15 is subject
to further definition of loads and designs; how-
ever, the principal conclusions of the subsequent
trade-off argument will be relatively insensitive
to the exact finalized shape of Figure 15.

STRUCTURAL WEIGHT
GROSS WEIGHT

REFERENCE

02 0.4 06 0.8 10 1.2 14 1.6 18

P/L IN LB/FT'
Figure 15 - Structural Weight Fraction versus Pressure/Length
Ratio

6
 300

250

200

150
uJ
o
o_

100

50

O 10 20 30 40 50

SPEED IN KNOTS

Figure 16 - Power versus Speed for Several Pressure/Length

Ratios over a Range of Wave Heights

Figure 16 shows power calculations for a 14,000-

ton CAB as a function of speed, with (P/L) a para-
meter. For each value of (P/L), a hign and a low wV1 Wi)
sea state condition is calculated (State 2 and 6 RAliGb =
P 7177 ln (Wf
seas). because highly efficient water-jet propul-
sor systems are utilized, the powers at the hump 1
speeds (30 to 40 knots) are low for (P/L) of 0.8. RANGE = K () ln
wf)
Figure 14 shows that the greatest power advantage
for an efficient propulsion system is at and near Wi = Initial Weight
hump speed. For a (P/L) of 1.5, 150,000 shaft
horsepower at hump speeds is not exceeded. This Wf = Final Weight After Fuel Burn off
power value is sorewhat arbitrarily selected; SFC = Specific Fuel Consumption
however, the argument to be made is a relative one, = Power
and (P/L) values of 0.8 and 1.5 will be used.
W = Weight
For the low sea state, the cruise velocities V = Velocity (VK in Knots)
are equal (about 85 knots) for both (P/L) values; = Constant
for the high sea state case, the velocity for a
(PIL) of 1.5 is only about 3 knots lower than for FIGURE _
WV 1 (DL
a (P/L) of 0.8. By going to (P/L) of 1.5, how- OF MERIT - P T7TF7 \OW) VK
ever, we gain significantly in payload or fuel load
(Figure 15).
To evaluate the tradeoff implicit here, a tenta-
tively selected figure of merit M was used. It has This figure of merit M is plotted in Figures 17
many of the terms of the Breguet range equation, and 18. These figures confirm that the trend to high
and expresses proximity to the von Karman-Gabrielli (P/L) values is a profitable one. For these reasons,
line (Figure 4). It is proportional to disposable- it is concluded that the ACV field will probably
load fraction (VL/GW), that is, fuel plus payload trend to higher (P/L) values, typically from 0.8 to
fraction, and inversely proportional to specific 1.5, particularly in sidewall CAB craft where effi-
fuel consumption (SFC), which expresses power plant cient water-jet systems can be utilized.
efficiency.

7
 2.0 VON KARMAN-GABRIELLI LINE FOR -DL - 50 PERCENT
GW

LB)2.0
P/L (--FT3
1.5 1.5

FIGURE OF 1.2
MERIT

1.0 0.9

)
LB/HP HR
(KNOTS

0.2

0.1
20 30 50 100 200 Figure 19 - Semi-Submerged Supercavitating Propeller
Installation in a CAB Sidewall
VELOCITY IN KNOTS

Figure 17 - Figure of Merit versus Speed for Several

Pressure/Length Ratios

0.8
1.8 -
0.7
1.6

1.4 0.6

1.2
0.

M 1.0
0.4

0.8
0.

0.6
a.

0.4

0.2r
1,6 0.9 1.0 13
0.5 0.
0.8 1.2 1.5 2.0
ApvANCE RATIO 1-
NO
P/L
Figure 20 - Propeller Efficiency versus Advance Ratio for
Figure 18 - Maximum Figure of Merit versus Pressure/Length a Semi-Submerged Supercavitating Propeller Model
Ratio
A second class of propulsion to be considered
is a partially immersed supercavitating propeller;
see Figure 19. An advantage of such an installat-
ion in a CM sidewall is that there are no shafts
or large pods in the water; the shafts and machin-
ery can be contained within the sidewall. References

Figure 20 shows early test results of propeller
efficiency as a function cf advance ratio).O. The
value of the maximum propeller efficiency is encou-
ragingly high, as high, in fact, as a fully immersed
supercavitating propeller, exclusive of shaft or
pod losses of the fully immersed propeller.
The availability of two promising possibilities
for high-speed water propulsion of CAB vehicles;
water jets and partially immersed supercavitating
propellers; raises the probability for the success-
ful development of at least one of these systems.
1. Todd, F.H., Chaplin, H.R. , Ellsworth, W.M. Jr.,
Radler, J.B. , Nakonechny, B.V., "A Study of The
Technical Feasibility of Future iiigh-Speed NavY
Vehicles (U), "David Taylor Model Basin Feport
C - 2050 (July 1965) Confidential.
Gabrielli,. G. and von Karman, T., "What Price
Speed?" Mechanical Engineering (Oct 1950).
Chaplin, J.R. , "The New Trend in Gems'',
Astronautics and Aeronautics (Oct 1965) Vol 3
No. 10.

8
 Nakonechny, B.V. Breitenstein, K.O., "Cost Con-
parison and Tradeoffs for Surface Ships, Air Cush-
ion Vehicles, and Aircraft in Naval Transport/Sup-
ply Missions (U), (Preliminary Study)," David
Taylor Model Basin Report C - 2123 (Nov 1965)
Confidential.
Wilson, R. A., "Captured Air Bubble Vehicle
Stability Tests", Presented at AIAA/SNAME
Advanced Marine Vehicle Meeting (May 1967).
Levy, J., "The Design of Water Jet Propulsion
Systems For Hydrofoil Craft" Presented before
Southern California Section SHAME (May 1964).
Johnson, V.E. Jr, "Water Jet Propulsion for
High Speed Hydrofoil Craft", AIAA paper So. 64-306.
Ford, A.G., "Prorress in Air Cushion Vehicles",
David Taylor Model Basin Report 2280 (Oct 1966).
Chaplin, H.B., Ford,'A.G., "Some Design
Principles of Ground Effect Machines, Section D -
Drag" David Taylor Model Basin Report 2121 D
(June 1966).
Shields, C.E., "Open-Water Performance Char-
acteristics of Several Semi-Submerged Supercavi-
tating Propellors" David Taylor Model Lasin
hyuromechanics Laboratory Test Report 193-h-01
(Dec 1966).
No. 61-349

CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE VEHICLE STABILITY TESTS

by

ROBERT A. WILSON
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-349

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author ánd to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
3.08, 7.07, 10.11
 CAPTURED AIR BUBBLE VEHICLE STABILITY TESTS

Robert A. Wilson
Aerospace Engineer
Surface Effect Ships Project Office
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
(Formerly the David Taylor Model Basin)
Washington, D.C.

Abstract There were many parameters tested such as

Results of calm water, steady state turn stabil-
ity tests on numerous Captured Air Bubble (CAB)
vehicle design configurations are presented. The
relatively high speed experienced by the CAB
vehicle with its high center of gravity present sta-
bility problems whose solutions are intrinsically
enmeshed with the nature of the craft itself. Strong
interactions between sideslip (yaw), roll, heave,
pitch and bubble pressure increase the complexity
of the problem. A test technique was devised
where, by virtue of the Fraude scale laws, models
are analogs of larger vehicles in turns with equal
centripetal accelerations. In this test technique
used, side-slip angle is taken to be the prime
independent variable, being closely related to the
centripetal force (or acceleration) on the craft in
a turn. Roll, pitch, heave and bubble pressure are
dependent variables. The goal has been to find
configurations that exhibit yaw and roll static
stability in relatively severe smooth water turn
conditions. Primary configuration variables are
beam dimension, sidewall shape, forward and aft
seal design, centerboard and ventral stability fins
of various designs. Quantitative results are pre-
sented which identify design directions that provide
significant progress toward the goal of a stable
craft.
Introduction
Calm water steady state turn stability tests
were conducted on a 1/7 scale model of the XR-1
Captured Air Bubble (CAB) vehicle together with
numerous vehicle design modifications. The tests
were carried out on the Rotating Arm Facility, a
260 foot diameter test facility at the David Taylor
Model Basin (DTMB).(1)
The purpose of the test was to determine vehi-
cle design modifications to be made to the )CR-1,
the first CAB type vehicle, to insure steady state
turn stability. These objectives were broadened
when the complexity of the problem areas were
evaluated in the early stages of the test. The ob-
jective was expanded to evaluate vehicle designs
which could be used on future CAB type vehicles.
The complexity of the total vehicle dynamic prob-
lem caused by the cross coupling of the modes of
motion lead to the test technique chosen. Models
tested in this way are, by virtue of the Froude
scaling laws, analogs of larger craft in turns with
equal centripetal accelerations. The Froude scal-
ing guarantees hydrodynamic similarity.
vehicle weight, c.g. etc., but the primary param-
eter has been design configuration. Over one-
hundred configurations have been submitted to the
same set of test conditions. The primary variables
within these design configurations have been length
to beam ratio, sidewall shape, forward seal design,
aft seal design, centerboard/no centerboard, and
ventral stability fins.
In general the goal has been to find configura-
tions that exhibit yaw and roll static stability in
relatively severe smooth water turn conditions.
Behind the assignment of this goal is the knowledge
that the more general problem of dynamic behavior
in turns is not being addressed at this time.
Model
The CAB stability model which was tested is
presented in Figure 1. The model is constructed
of aluminum with plexiglas or wood sideboards and
plexiglas centerboard. The forward and aft seals
are constructed of plexiglas, neoprene coated fab-
ric or neoprene coated fabric reinforced with
spring steel depending on the configuration. Six
axial fans are utilized as compressors to lift a
percentage of the model weight and to pressurize
the seals when required.
Two sets of standard TMB block gauges are
utilized to measure three component force data on
the bow and stern of the craft in the body axis.
Moments can be calculated for pitch and yaw. Roll
moment is measured on an independent gauge.
Lateral forces on the sideboards are measured
fore and aft on smaller block gauges. Vertical
position indicators on the bow and stern mea.sure
the angle of pitch and the height of the center of
gravity referred to the water level. Roll angles
were also measured. Continuous recordings of
the vertical position of the forward and aft skis
and the bubble pressure were made on an oscillo-
graph. All other forces, moments and displace-
ments were digitized and typed data obtained. The
center of gravity of the model corresponded to the
scaled center of gravity of the XR-1. The force
and moment gauges were located with their center
of action and roll center at the center of gravity
(see Figure 1).
The model was supported beneath the carriage
of the Rotating Arm on two vertical traversing
screw jacks. The Rotating Arm acted as the pro-
pulsive force for the model. The model was

1
 12 Y2 X2 X1 Y, Z.,

-- :111,1

-- 6.9 - COORDINATE SYSTEM

SIDEBOARD GAUGES
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS IN FEET
SCREW JACK

TYPICAL TMB BLOCK COUNTERWEIGHT

GAUGE ASSEMBLY TYPICAL
- PIVOT ARM

Z2 Y2 '2 Xl V1Z,
1 -
At_4 r

0.73
0.83 j
_t i L. 1
V/b
FEET
4.34 B/2
2.79 2.17 3.5 1.43 B
0.1 i H- 5.0 (BUBBLE LENGTH) 2.35 2.12 (BUBBLE WIDTH)

FIGURE 1-CAB STABILITY MODEL.

allowed to roll unrestrained within pre-set limits
to insure a zero roll moment when this condition
is desired. The model can be restrained in roll
when non-zero roll moments are needed.
The tests were conducted at a Froude Number
of 1.57 which corresponds to a 20 foot per second
model velocity and scales to 31 knots on the XR-1A.
Figure 2 shows the model in operation. Side slip
(or yaw) angle was the primary independent vari-
able used for testing each configuration. For each
sideslip angle, the model was allowed to seek an
attitude of zero pitching moment and zero rolling
moment. The total weight of the model and instru-
mentation exceeded the scaled model weight by
approximately 200%. The correct lift distribution,
taking into account the pitch down moment (with
respect to the c.g.) due to drag and the air propul-
sive system for thrust was calculated. The lift
distribution on the model was achieved by raising
or lowering screw jacks independently (see Fig-
ure 1) until the desired lift at the bow and stern is
obtained as read from the z gauges. The sideslip
angle was increased until a severe roll condition
was experienced, at whiCh time a sideboard or seal
is out of the water and the bubble vented. Data
pointsare taken in the vented, non steady state
condition. The model weight in this case was in-
correct but a zero rolling moment exists. These
latter data points are useful in identifying the
details of instabilities associated with venting.

Results and Discussion

Configurations are evaluated by comparing the
attitude, yaw moment, side acceleration and bubble
pressure for the sideslip range tested. The sever-
ity of the turn is established by comparing side
accelerations which can be equated to turn radius.
In the discussion presented, frequent reference is
made to the model's yaw or roll stability. The use
of these terms herein will be explained for clarity.
A craft which is yaw stable (without the use of
FIGURE 2-CAB STABILITY MODEL IN OPERATION
rudders) has a characteristic yawing moment
ON ROTATING ARM. which opposes any increased sideslip angle. A yaw

2
instability implies an inherent yawing moment
which tends to force the craft into a more severe
turn. In Figures 4 through 14, a negative (-) yaw-
ing moment curve slope is stabilizing. It should be
noted that the yawing moment is not only a function
of side slip angle but largely dependent upon roll
angle, pitch angle and c.g. height referred to the
water surface. Since the model was tested on the
Rotating Arm, it was always operating in a curved
flow. It is this curved flow which tends to induce
a yawing moment at zero side slip (5) angles. If the
craft were tested in a straight towing basin, the
yawing moment at zero 5 would be zero.
Roll stability is a function of the height of the
center of gravity of the craft, pitch angle and roll
angle. A roll stable craft is one with a character-
istic rolling moment which opposes any change in
roll angle from the steady state roll attitude for its
specific c.g. height and pitch angle. As will be
observed in the results shown, many configurations
exhibit a roll instability at very severe sideslip
angles which result in a loss of bubble pressure
leading to an inoperable attitude for this high speed
craft. Note that this instability was affected by the
increased wetting of the sidewall due to flow along
the sidewall from the yaw attitude and slight lower-
ing of the c.g. and change in pitch angle.
Early portions of the test were used to define a
method of test and verify the validity of the results.
The first model tested was 1/7 scale of the )CR-1
which has a length to beam ratio, (0/b) of 3.5 as
shown in the narrow beam in Figures 1 and 3a.
This vehicle, the first in the CAB vehicle series,
had a roll-yaw instability which resulted in the
craft rolling over in a high speed turn. The steady
state turn attitude history for the model is pre-
sented in Figure 4. The model rolled outboard in
a large radius turn and continued to roll outboard
as the severity of the turn increased. The model
demonstrated a stabilizing yawing moment initially
(negative moment) but the slope of the curve was
destabilizing (positive slope). The craft became
yaw unstable at a 0.08 g turn which scales to an
approximate 1000 ft. radius turn for the XR-1 at
31 knots. The height of the c. g. relative to the
water is constant through the sideslip range tested.
A severe roll instability was experienced when the
craft had rolled outboard to an angle of approxi-
mately 40. The trends shown by the data seemed
-epresentative of observed attitudes of the XR-1.
Based upon these observations, confidence was
gained in the test technique and the results of the
test. The follow on tests were to make basic de-
sign configuration changes to the model to correct
the roll and yaw instabilities.
Beam Increase
The beam of the craft was increased 50% to an
( e/b) of 2.35 as shown in Figures 1 and 3a in the
attempt to ensure a roll stable craft and hopefully
augment the yaw stability. This would cause the
3
s.eir
,
3-a-BEAM DIMENSION, SIDEBOARD SHAPE,
CENTERBOARD'NO CENTERBOARD
INCREASED SIDEBOARD
THICKNESS
3-b-VENTRAL FINS VERTICAL CANTED
FORWARD SEAL
AFT SEAL
3-c-SEAL LOCATIONS
SPRING ACTUATED PRESSURE ACTUATED
3-d-AFT SEAL DESIGN
SEMI-FLEXIBLE RIGID
PLENUM PRESSURE ACTUATED
FAN PRESSURE ACTUATED
3-e-FORWARD SEAL DESIGN
NON-RIGID
FABRIC
3-f-RIGID/NON-RIGID SIDEWALL DESIGN
FIGURE 3-DESIGN CONFIGURATIONS TESTED,
hydrodynamic force vector to have a longer mo-
ment arm above the c.g. and a larger restoring
roll moment than the narrower craft. In yaw, the
sideboard drag vector would be larger and out-
board roll could produce a yaw stabilization.
Figure 4 demonstrates the effect of beam increase
on roll and yaw. The wider craft has become more
stable in roll than the narrow craft as observed by
the slower rate of outboard roll with increased
sideslip angle. Yaw sta.bility was affected by de-
laying the sideslip angle at which the instability
occurred to a 5 of about seven degrees.
The roll attitude of the craft strongly influences
its yaw stability. Figure 4 shows that the height of
the center of gravity with respect to the water is
constant with changes in roll angle. As the side-
slip angle increases and the craft begins to roll
outboard, the force on the sideboard is increased
since the projected area perpendicular to the flow
is increased. The percentage increase of wetted
area forward of the center of gravity rises at a
faster rate than the percentage increase of wetted
area aft due to the aft c.g. location and the large
initial wetting aft even at zero 5. The hydro-
dynamic force which is proportional to the wetted
area will move forward with increased roll. A
point is finally reached where the yaw moment
curve turns down (see Figure 4), and eventually
where it crosses zero and exhibits an absolute
static instability in yaw.
 0.6 12 and tends to roll the craft outboard in a turn at
1-
a greater rate than a craft with no fin. To mini-
E 0.5 mize the roll destabilizing affect, the fin was
P canted 45° under the craft. This would direct the
0.4 .... force toward the e.g., reducing the unfavorable
o - -,..'"-- \ Sp
roll moment by reducing the moment arm. The
ace 0.3 \ projected area of the 45° ventral fin acted upon
Ui \ by the hydrodynamic force is 30% less than that
of the straight ventral fin. This explains the de-
.0- - --
u- 0.2
u crease in yawing moment for the configuration
o
using a 45° ventral fin in Figure 5.
0.1

0.6 I 12
0 O

25 -
CONFIGURATION
0 NARROW MODEL, 0/b = 3.5 10
E 0.5 10 7
u_
AWIDE MODEL, 0/b = 2.35 6,
0.4 i
20 8
_ 8
u_ o ce

15
_ - 6
0.3 I' ..\\
6
Ui \ \\ LU
12
J Uio
u- 0.2 4
o_
Lu
Lu 10 4
co
o
0.1 2
-5 _ -2 o o

Aii
"t
41111 1Al 0
O
CONFIGUR ATION
o

NO VENTRAL FIN
-25 LSTRAIGHT VENTRAL FIN 10
-2 045 VENTRAL FIN
5
--..
0-, AO
ma
20 8
2 10

15 -6
1
_ 11C0/ -5
.

FAKE.
4
I I I I

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

_..,
2
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 13

FIGURE 4EFFECT OF BEAM INCREASE UPON O

. o
STEADY STATE TURN STABILITY.
5
. 2
Observations of the model at roll angles of
approximately 4° show the bubble venting under the 2 10
bow seal and on the side which is slightly out of the _ LLI

water. When this venting occurs, the bubble Pres- 1 5

sure can no longer support the vehicle weight,
shifting the weight of the craft onto the sideboards o 0
and aft seal. The sideboards then become deeply 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
immersed causing the craft to become yaw un- SIDESLIP ANGLE, 13
stable in the manner previously discussed.
FIGURE 5VENTRAL FIN CONTRIBUTION
Ventral Fins TO YAW STABILITY
A series of tests were conducted with ventral
fins of the size, shape and location shown in Fig-
ure 3b to improve the vehicle's yaw stability. The Sideboard Shape
effect of no fin, a straight fin and a fin canted 45° The shape of the constant section portion of the
under the craft are presented in Figure 5. The XR-1 sideboards made a 30° included angle with
hydrodynamic force vector is assumed to act per- the vertical inner surface of the sideboard. The
pendicular to the fin surface. The straight ventral hydrodynamic vector acting perpendicular to the
fin located at the stern of the sideboard creates a outer surface Oas only marginally stabilizing in
moment about the z-axis which is observed to give roll and as the severity of the vehicle's attitude
a substantial increase to the yaw moment. The increased in roll and yaw, the roll moment was
direction of the force vector with respect to the not strong enough to oppose the craft's inherent
x-axis creates an unstable roll moment component destabilizing roll moment. A 45° dead rise angle

4
would direct the force vector above the c.g. pro-
viding roll stability through a greater roll range.
Figure 3a presents the 30° and 45° dead rise
angle sections tested and their vector direction
for a zero degree roll condition. Figure 6 pre-
sents the effect upon stability of changing the side-
board angle from 30° to 45°. The configurations
also have the benefit of pressure compartmentation
for roll stability. Increasing the angle on the side-
board delayed the rate at which the craft rolled
with increased sideslip angle. The increased roll
stability further increased the craft's yaw stability
which made the craft stable in a higher g turn.
0.6
0.5
d. 0.4
o higher pitch angle (less wetted area forward of the
ce
0.3
u,
0.2
the opposite side retained by the centerboard will
lead to an increased restoring roll moment. It
should be noted that the forward and aft seals were
planing surfaces as shown in Figure 3c and that
these seals were in two lateral sections for the
model with a centerboard and only one lateral sec-
tion for the model containing no centerboard. The
results of this comparison can be observed in
Figure 7.
Both models with a centerboard rolled into the
turn approximately until a 0.1 5 g turn at which
time it began to roll outboard as the severity of
12
the turn increased. Of these two, the vehicle with-
out lateral bubble pressure compartmentation
rolled outboard at a greater rate than the vehicle
10
with pressure compartmentation. The yaw stability
for the craft with lateral pressure compartmenta-
8 tion was the highest of the two because it had a
6 c.g.) and was in a higher g turn when the craft
became roll unstable.
4

0.6 12
0.1 2

-
0.5 10 7.-
CO
CONFIGURATION
30° INCLUDED ANGLE 0.4 8 cc
-25 A 45° INCLUDED ANGLE - -10
----:"- - ---'.--Z- -.
0.3 -6
8
,
0.2 %--` 4
-6 , \ -J
CO

0.1 ,,, 2 cia

-4 \LI
o O
-2
-25
-- -10
Alk
-20 8
-2
-15 -
10

-10
5

-_ -5 -2
1

4 6 8 10 12 141 160 \ .........-2/

SIDESLIP ANGLE, O O

.. .....'rONFIGURATION
123 NO CENTERBOAPD
FIGURE 6-THE EFFECT OF SIDEBOARD INCLUDED 5 - L), CENTERBOARD WITH - 2
ANGLE AND SHAPE UPON STABILITY. LATERAL COMPARTMENTATION
0 CENTERBOARD WITHOUT

Centerboard
2
1.- -..--.,--..--......-....---
HCG"'
LATERAL COMPARTMENTATION
. .. fa
...
O
c.n

The effect of a centerboard upon stability was 1 - 8 _ 5 z

determined by testing models containing a center- .0
board, with and without lateral bubble pressure O
''. J 1 , t
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
compartmentation and a model with no centerboard.
SIDESLIP ANGLE,
A centerboard was installed to divide the bubble
into two lateral segments for roll stability. If the
craft tended to roll to the extent which the bubble FIGURE 7-COMPARISON OF NO CENTERBOARD, CENTER-
BOARD WITH, AND WITHOUT LATERAL
vented under the seal or sidewall, the pressure on BUBBLE PRESSURE COMPARTMENTATION.

5
 The model with no centerboard and one piece for both are similar for low roll angles but as the
bow and stern seals (laterally) exhibited a zero craft rolls outboard, the pitch angle increased for
roll angle to a 0.1 g turn at which time it began the constant stiffness pressurized seal as antici-
to roll outboard as the severity of the turn in- pated.
creased but at a slower rate than both of its
counterparts in this comparison. The g force on 0.6 12
the craft when it became roll unstable by virtue
of the bubble venting was not as high as the g force 0.5 -10
on the craft with lateral pressure compartmenta-
tion but the peak value yawing moment for the two 0.4 8
craft were only 10% different. The yawing moment
for the vehicle with a centerboard but no lateral -6
0.3
bubble pressure compartmentation was approxi-
mately 50% lower.
0.2 4

Figure 7 demonstrates that the stabilizing effect

of a one piece seal (laterally) upon roll appro,d- 0.1 -2
mately equals the roll stability gained through
lateral bubble pressure compartmentation. Yaw
stability has not suffered appreciably and decreas-
ing the wetted surface by removing the centerboard -25 - -10
would decrease the drag on the craft.
-20
u_
Aft Seal Stiffness and Actuation cri
The aft seal is spring actuated and for all pre- -J. -15 - -6
vious configurations has had the same spring
constant. The effect of a softer aft seal was ob- -4
tained by halving the spring constant. Evaluating
the affect can be accomplished by noting the yaw- _ - -2
ing moment and pitch angle curves in Figure 8.
The soft stern seals caused a change in nominal
pitch angle from 0.5° to 1.2° and a 43% increase
of the peak value of the yaw moment curve. The
soft skis proved beneficial for stability but the CONFIGURATION
0 SPRING ACTUATEDSTIFF
-2
increased sideboard wetted area would presumably SPRING ACTUATEDSOFT
Q PRESSURE ACTUATED
cause a substantial increase in drag. 10
Uj. _ZICG I

Another method of controlling the stiffness of -5 z

the aft ski is by pressurization, the method shown Co.

in Figure 3d. The higher a spring actuated ski is 1

6
I I
8
1

10 2 16
o

raised by the water beneath, the stiffer it becomes. 2 4 114

This effect of the spring actuated ski could be SIDESLIP ANGLE, t3

detrimental to yaw stability. As the craft rolls FIGURE 8-COMPARISON OF AFT SKI STIFFNESS AND
outboard and greater vertical forces are exerted METHOD OF ACTIVATION.
on the aft ski, the stern of the model will be forced
to ride high in the water decreasing the pitch angle Solid vs. Semi-Flexible Seals
and causing the hydrodynamic vector to act nearer A one piece bow and stern seal appears to be
the bow. The stiffness of a pressurized aft ski can equally stabilizing in roll as a two piece seal with
be regulated by changing the diameter of the ori- lateral bubble pressure compartmentation as has
fice between the ski and plenum thus changing the been previously mentioned. The disadvantage of a
pressure. The ski stiffness is constant once the one piece solid seal is its inability to conform to
orifice diameter is set. Thus the craft will ride a quartering or beam wave. A possible solution
high in the water for small roll deflections and as would be a seal which is flexible locally but rigid
the craft rolls outboard and the vertical forces on when considering spanwise loading. This type seal
the aft ski associated with roll stability become was constructed (in the scale of the model) of
higher, the stern will ride lower in the water and spring steel ribs covered by a layer of a thin neo-
should be more yaw stable in this condition. prene coated fabric. Such a ski would have the
pressure acting over the entire width of the craft
Figure 8 also compares the pressurized aft ski providing a stabilizing roll force but could deflect
and the spring actuated aft ski. The yaw moment locally, allowing a qua.rtering wave to pass beneath
curve for each is very similar but the total side without allowing the plenum to vent. This type of
force where the yaw moment curve peaks for a seal is shown in Figure 3e. The rigid flap portion
pressurized aft seal is 10% higher than its counter- of the bow seal as shown in Figure 3e was forced
part with a spring loaded aft seal. The pitch angles down with air pressure greater than the plenum

6
pressure. This pressurization afforded better
shaping of the forward seal for performance con-
siderations, good bubble retention characteristics
and tends to keep the bow high for favorable yaw
considerations. Figure 9 compares the data for
configurations utilizing the semi-flexible forward
seal and the solid forward seal. The roll angle for
each model is similar through a 0.2 g turn. The
lower yaw moment experienced with the semi-
flexible forward seal configuration is due to the
slightly higher e.g. height, resulting in less side-
wall wetted area as demonstrated by the lower
side accelerations in Figure 9.
0.6
ventral fin located at the stern of the sideboard.
The height of the center of gravity with respect
to the water was lowered 15% to better insure roll
stability. This configuration is compared with that
of the XR-1 in Figure 10. The XR-1A demon-
strates roll and yaw stability to a 0.4 g turn. Tests
using rudders showed a capability of putting the
craft in a 0.15 g turn. Although the data shows the
craft becoming yaw unstable at a 0.4 g turn, it is
felt that the dynamics of the problem will not put
the craft in a catastrophic condition.
12
0.6

0.5
, ,
f 12

0.5
/
0.4
-
o
6 0.4 f 0.3
__-
___ ------
-0

-6 ,01 .
-I-
17. 0.3
0.2 \
0.2
0.1
x>

0.1 -2
O O
....
-, CONFIGURATION ...
-2 - 0 XR-1 _ 10
OXR-1A
".(2.10
20 -8
u_
-20
-15 -6
u_
-15
10 4

w -10
o
o -5 _ 2
F
- - 0
...,--- O

..
5
.--, .7.
CONFIGURATION
D SOLID SEAL
0 SEMI-FLEXIBLE SEAL
10
2
0 10

----7-
1 5

H cG
1 -5 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
o SIDESLIP ANGLE, ß
2 4 6 8 10 2 14 16

SIDESLIP ANGLE, ß FIGURE 10STEADY STATE TURN STABILITY

FIGURE 9COMPARISON OF SOLID AND SEMI-FLEXIBLE
FORWARD SEALS.
XR-IA Configuration
The original goal of this test was to determine
a design configuration to which the XR-1 could be
modified and operated safely. The modifications
based upon test results recommended were: in-
crease beam dimension by 50%, change the dead
rise angle of the sideboards to 45° , use one piece
seals (laterally) on the bow and stern with the
stern seal bubble pressure actuated, and a 45°
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE XR-1 AND XR-1A.
Current Status and Problem Areas
The data presented in Figure 11 represents the
current advancement in the stability of the craft.
This model, which retains the reference e.g. height,
is not as roll stable as the configuration repre-
senting the XR-1A which had a lower e.g. The
higher e.g. seems more reasonable when one con-
siders that the vehicle's ability to "swallow" waves
is dependent upon the bubble height and in turn, the
height of the e.g.

7
 Although the craft shown in Figure 11 has good These effects can be explained in the following
stability characteristics to a 0.36 g turn, it does manner. As the craft rolls outboard, a larger area
go unstable in roll and yaw past this point. The becomes wetted creating a higher side force. The
data taken at [3 =16° does not represent a craft in percentage of wetted area ahead of the c.g. in-
a steady-state attitude, because the weight sup- creases at a faster rate than the portion aft. This
ported is incorrect. The craft has rolled outboard explains the rapid decrease in yaw stability.
past the point at which the bubble vents. The test
points taken are zero roll moment conditions. The Possible Solutions
craft has been lowered into the water in two steps, There are two possible solutions to these in-
approximately holding the pitch angle of the last stability problems. The forward section of the
steady-state condition consta.nt. At point number 1, sideboards could be constructed from a fabric
the craft has rolled to a position where the bubble which would contain the bubble but be unable to
has vented. The yaw moment immediately became support a hydrodynamic side force. As the craft
unstable but the total side force felt by the craft rolls and the hydrodynamic force increases, the
increased only 15% implying a slight decrease in greater portions of the force would be aft of the
turn radius. The second data point was taken at a center of gravity creating an ever increasing
greater immersion and a slightly different model restoring yaw moment. The restoring yaw mo-
weight. This resulted in a more severe roll angle. ment would tend to increase the turn radius and
The yaw moment became very destabilizing and the pull the craft out of the turn. The second solution
total side force increased 170% in this second case. would be to prohibit the craft from rolling by
Further, the craft has gone from a 0.4 g turn to a always having a restoring roll moment. This could
1.0 g turn with only a slight change in roll angle. possibly be accomplished by adding a variable
thickness section to the sideboard which would
0.6 12 allow the hydrodynamic vector to remain above
°2 el the c.g. as the force becomes high.
0.5
A fabric sideboard would not utilize the type of

V
a, o
c+ 0.4 .....0 seal previously tested, namely a movable planing
o ..._ -.....; surface. A fabric bag type forward seal shown in
Figure 3f could be used. This seal would be an
ace 0.3 integral part of the fabric sideboards. The pres-
Ui
surization would maintain the shape of the forward
uu 0.2
-..
- seal and create a tension force longitudinally in
\ the fabric sidewall which would tend to prohibit
0.1 the fabric from collapsing when the side forces
become high.
6 O
o
Tests examining the effect of fabric sidewalls
-25 0 XR-1
CONFIGURATION
- -10 and the seal shown in Figure 3f were undertaken
CI ADVANCED CONFIGURATION in four steps, the extremes of which are presented
%

8
in Figure 12. Ventral fins were not used in order
-20 to single out the effect of fabric sidewalls upon roll
2, and yaw stability. The sideboards were moved aft
i-
i

i
6 18 inches from their original position in six inch
steps and shortened at the stern. The craft with
4 normal length sideboards demonstrates some yaw
411, --P <IC
stability to a 0.2 g turn. As the craft rolls from
0 P 2
o-J points 1 to 2, (in Figure 12), it becomes more yaw
.>/
5
unstable as it progresses from a 0.35 g turn to a
0.6 g turn.
O O

N2 -.0 The fourth configuration tested in this series

t- 2 (the second configuration presented) consisted of
s- a set of sideboards shortened 18 inches or approx-
10 imately 25% of the sideboard length. The slope of
2
-- .A2 --- the yaw moment curve in this case was always
- CG ..................0
-, 5 z stabilizing regardless of roll angle. The maximum
1
side forces represented a 0.42 g turn. The inabil-
ity of a fabricsidewall to react a side force near
the bow results in a lower total side force but a
1 I 1 I

O
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

SIDESLIP ANGLE, #
high yaw stability. The trend of these results
represents a possible solution to the yaw stability
FIGURE 11-OVERALL ADVANCEMENT AND BASIS problem regardless of the roll attitudes of the
FOR FUTURE WORK craft.

8
 0.6 12 0.6 12

10 0.5

P /
/ /

./. -
-.6 --,,,,... V
/7. \ --,..
.....
4

t.\\
4
..

2 \ 2

CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION A 0% S.B. THICKNESS INCREASE
-10 -25 10
-25 - 0 0% FABRIC SIDEWALL L. 60% S.B. THICKNESS INCREASE
0 25% FABRIC SIDEWALL
-20 8
i

1 -6

--r -
L
.2

-2
.... 1

O O

_
5 ......

2 10

licG7-- 5
LU

_ -- 8

O
u

6 8 10 12 14 16
, I
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 0 1
,
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

FIGURE 12YAW STABILITY ACHIEVED WITH THE
USE OF FABRIC SIDEWALLS NEAR
THE BOW OF THE CRAFT.
The previously mentioned sideboard additions
intended to iinprove roll stability were tested.
A section cut of this addition is shown in Figure 3a.
The results of these tests are presented in Fig-
ure 13. The addition made to the sideboards ex-
tended from the stern of the sideboard forward
65% of the sideboard length. The planform thick-
ness of the addition tapered from zero thickness
at its forward most point to 60% of the sideboard
thickness at the stern for the previously mentioned
length.
The roll history experienced was generally as
anticipated up to about 9° of (3. The sideboard
addition caused the model to roll less. However,
this addition caused the craft to exhibit poor yaw
stability. The decrease in yaw stability can be
understood by observing the pitch angles which
decrease as the sideslip angles increase. The
increase in sideboard thickness created an in-
creased planing lift at the stern. As the side slip
angle increased, the wetted area of the sideboard
SIDESLIP ANGLE, 0
FIGURE 13INCREASED SIDEBOARD THICKNESS FOR
ROLL STABILITY.
increased creating a greater lift and caused the
stern to raise. As the stern rises, the hydro-
dynamic vector translates forward causing a yaw
instability.
Tests are currently being performed which will
combine a fabric sidewall at the forward end of the
craft for yaw stability and thicker, solid side-
boards at the stern for roll stability. These tests
will be reported at a future time.
Conclusions
1. Beam increase improves roll stability.
Z. A sideboard dead-rise angle of 450 directs
the hydrodynamic vector above the center of
gravity improving roll stability.
3. Ventral fins increase yaw stability but they
must be canted under the craft yielding an effective
dihedral to minimize their detrimental effect upon
roll stability.

9
 Lateral bubble pressure compartmentation Recommendations
achieved through the use of a centerboard is sta-
bilizing in roll but the same effect can be achieved A general observation from the test data is that
by increased beam dimension and improved side- a craft with rigid sidewalls the entire length of the
board geometry without the problems of added drag vehicle cannot easily be made statically stable in
associated with a centerboard. very severe conditions because of the roll-heave-
yaw interactions. Preliminary tests have shown
Flexible seals are beneficial for sea-keeping a craft with partially non-rigid and partially rigid
but contribute little to roll stability. sidewalls can be made yaw stable even though the
craft exhibits a heave-roll instability. Increasing
Laterally rigid seals contribute to roll sta- the sidewall thickness aft of the c.g. can provide
bility. heave-roll stabilization but lift at the stern asso-
ciated with the increased volume and wetted area
Pneumatically actuated bow and stern seals creates a lift which decreases the pitch angle and
provide the best pitch attitude leading to improved decreases the craft's yaw stability.
yaw stability. A sidewall containing both of the above men-
tioned properties could yield a craft which exhibits
Fabric sidewalls forward of the c.g. cannot both heave-roll and heave-yaw stability. If this
react side forces on the craft leading to improved can be achieved, the more general problem of the
yaw stability. The fabric sidewalls must be an
integral part of a fabric forward seal which contrib- vehicle's
can be
dynamic behavior in turns and sea-ways
subsequently addressed.
utes little to roll stability.
A sidewall with increased thickness for roll Referenc es
stability creates lift at the stern and lowers the 1. DTMB Report No. 1053, A Rotating Arm and
pitch angle which tends to decrease yaw stability. Maneuvering Basin, July 1956

10
No. 61-350

WATERJET PROPULSION FOR HIGH-SPEED SHIPS

by

L. ARCAND and C. R. COMOLLI

Pratt and Whitney Aircraft
West Palm Beach, Florida

Paper No.
67-350

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vemcies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.501

4.04, 5.08
 WATERJET PROPULSION FOR HIGH-SPEED SHIPS
L. Arcand, Assistant Project Engineer,
and C. R. Comolli, Project Engineer,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Florida
Research and Development Center,
Div. of United Aircraft Corp.,
West Palm Beach, Fla.
Abstract
Gas turbine-waterjet propulsion offers signif-
icant advantages in many high-speed or special
purpose ships. These ships generally have speed
capability above 30 knots and installed power-to-
weight ratios of more than 10 hp per full load ton.
The ships included in this category are destroyers
of the DD type and some smaller DLs, hydrofoils
above 40 knots, surface effect ships, and planing
craft. Optimization of gas turbine-waterjet
installations for maximum net thrust (system
thrust less drag penalty associated with the pro-
pulsion system) depends primarily on the L/D
ratio of the basic hull, design speed, ship length,
and various component efficiencies. The major com-
ponents are the inlet, pump itself, gearbox, gas
turbine, and associated auxiliaries required for
an installation. For high-speed ships, propulsive
coefficients of 60%-65% are possible with conserv-
ative component loss assumptions. Optimization of
water jets from a total propulsion machinery plus
fuel cost for the ship life points out the impor-
tant effect of machinery reliability (overhaul
time), estimated ship life, and duty cycle. In
an optimum installation, gas turbine-waterjet
systems can be shown to cost about half as much
per payload ton-mile as a comparable steam power-
plant for the same application, despite higher
priced fuel.
I. Introduction
The acceptance of seagoing propulsion using gas-
turbine powered waterjets has received increasing
attention in recent years. The acceptance of the
modified aircraft gas turbine powerplants resulta
from their light weight and high power density,
both of which are critical in high speed ships due
to their relatively low lift/drag ratios. As ves-
sel speed increases, weight reduction becomes crit-
ical if any useful payload is to result. The reason
for consideration of the waterjet varies with the
intended application. In the case of landing craft,
the absence of propeller damage and the improved
maneuverability of the craft play an over-riding
part in recommending waterjets. In other instances,
the improved work efficiency of the vehicle, as
compared to the propeller-driven vehicle, is the
over-riding concern. Machinery simplification
frequently is the reason for selection of waterjets
because of the possibility of eliminating lengthy,
expensive power trains. In the final analysis,
where the waterjet is selected it will do the task
at lower total cost to the user, whether this lower
cost results from improved reliability, better work
efficiency, lower maintenance, or lower installed
cost. This paper identifies some applications
where the waterjets promise better overall effec-
tiveness than comparable propeller systems. A
typical gas turbine-waterjet propulsion system is
shown in Fig 1. The gas generator, which is an
aircraft gas turbine modified for marine use,
1
delivers hot gas to a free turbine. The free tur-
bine power is delivered to a large water pump,
which accepts water from the inlet, raises its
energy, and discharges it through a nozzle. This
system differs from the propeller in the same way
propeller-driven aircraft differ from jet aircraft;
that is, the acceleration of the working fluid is
greater in the jet than in the propeller. These
higher accelerations can result in lower propul-
sive coefficients. The advantages are higher power
per unit weight, lower vessel drag per unit thrust
increased payload fraction, and reduced horsepower
required. Determining when the advantages outweigh
the disadvantages is the subject of a propulsion
optimization program.
1 Bare Hull Drag 6 Pump Efficien,
2 External Drag of Inlet 7 Nozzle Loss Coefficient
3 Inlet Ene, Loss 8 Gearbox Efficiency
4 Drag Due to Machine, Weight 9 Drag Due to Fuel Weight
5 Drag Due to Contained Water Weight 10 Engine Performance
FIGURE 1. POWERPLANT OPTIMIZATION CONSIDERATIONS
II. System Optimization
The basic approach we use to select waterjets
in our design studies is an iterative solution of
the net thrust equation for varying inputs. The
powerplant is said to be optimized when the ship
thrust requirement is satisfied at the minimum
shaft horsepower. The technique is essentially the
same as that used in References 1 and 2, except
that in large displacement ships boundary layer
ingestion effects alter the solution appreciably.
As will be shown later, minimum shaft horsepower is
riot always a proper criterion for choosing propul-
sora, but its calculation yields a maximum practi-
cal propulsive coefficient based on machinery per-
formance, weight estimates, and component perform-
ance. Fig 1 is a sketch of a waterjet-vehicle sys-
tem showing the items of importance to optimization.
Item 1 is the drag of the hull at design speed
without conventional propulsion system appendages,
such as rudders, bearings, struts and propeller
shafts. Item 2, the external drag of the inlet,
is that drag in excess of the smooth (unpierced)
hull drag: this results from the waterjet inlet.
This term consists of friction drag from the
increased hull surface (if any) exposed to flow,
interference drag generated at the "corners" the
inlet makes with the hull, and any profile drag
 that may result from external diffusion. It is 0
100,000
the least definitive term in the optimization.
Item 3 is the inlet energy loss coefficient that
represents the actual dynamic head loss of the
water in the induction system, plus an elevation
n10,000
loss term to reflect the raising of the water to
some point above its normal level. Elevation loss E-
is generally negligible in displacement hulls and X
can be significant in hydrofoils. Item 4, the
additive drag due to machinery weight, is simply 1

the estimated weight of the prime mover, gearbox,

waterjet and associated ducts, stacks and founda-
tions divided by the lift/drag ratio of the hull.
Item 5, the drag associated with weight of the
100
water in the system, frequently leads to argu- 100 1000 10,000 100 000
ments that water contained below the waterline of SHAFT HORSEPOWER
the hull has no weight effect. Inasmuch as the
water occupies space and communicates with the sea, FIGURE 2. MARINE GAS TURBINE WEIGHT (AT MAXIMUM
it represents a lost buoyancy term. For this CONTINUOUS POWER) VS SHAFT HORSEPOWER
reason, we bookkeep it as a dead weight, and accept
100,000
a drag loss, which is divided by the lift/drag Mar'ne Practice
ratio of the hull. Pump efficiency, item 6 in the Simple Herringbone Gears
optimization program, is the overall mechanical 0
efficiency; i.e., np = (AHW)/550 shp. Typical
values of pump efficiency possible for the region n, 10,000
Aircraft Practice
of interest to waterjet designers are 85 to 90%. Planetary Gears
E.
The lower number reflects relatively low power 0
machines. Nozzle loss coefficient, item 7, is
simply the energy loss coefficient of the nozzle,
1,000
typically about 2% of the velocity head. Gearbox
efficiency (item 8), additive drag due to fuel
weight (item 9), and prime mover sfc (item 10) are
obvious influence factors. As previously men-
tioned, in finding the minimum installed horse- 1 1 1 1 1 I 1

power we must calculate the maximum net thrust of 1,000 10,000 100,000
the system, that is the thrust required to move SHAFT HORSEPOWER
the ship less the thrust required to move the pro-
FIGURE 3. GEARBOX WEIGHTS FOR WATERJETS
pulsion machinery and fuel. For preliminary
(REDUCTION RATIO . 4/1)
design purposes, estimates of weights of the var-
ious components are required. Figs 2, 3, and 4 1,000,000
are weight curves used in this study for gas tur-
bine weight as a function of power, gearbox weight
as a function of shp and waterjet weight as a 100,000
function of flow rate. There are restrictions on .n
several of these figures. The gearbox weight
curve, which is given for marine practice and air- 10,000
craft practice assumes a simple nonreversing reduc-
tion gearbox with reduction ratios of 4:1. This
implies relatively high waterjet rotational speeds.
In our studies, particularly of low speed ships at 1000
low shaft horsepower, we find that low rotational
speed lead to waterjets that are approaching ducted
propellers or pump jets. This situation has led 100 I I

to our arbitrary definition of the limit of water- 1000 10 000 100S00 L000000
jets operating at a pump specific speed of Ns = WEIGHT FLOW -11,/m,c
10,000 or less. We consider optimized values above FIGURE 4. WATERJET WEIGHT VS FLOW RATE
this number either pump jets, or simple propellers. 1.00

Three Shafts
0.90
Na M. =
L = 400 ft
10,000
y/8 = 0.4 900 rpm ...in ..
0.80
Typical study results for displacement hulls,
using the pump speed limits and weight estimates E 030
are plotted in Fig 5, which shows propulsive
115
0116/"--
Ailliirr
0.60
0
coefficient versus displacement/drag ratio for " -
various speeds for a fixed boundary layer operat-
ing condition. Fig 6, a more general curve, shows
0.50

0.40
/r 40
30
...--
20 Speed (Knots)

1 C2 to C4
typical values for different types of craft and 030
propulsion systems. In arriving at these curves,
020
L SES Ships Class Freighters-11
Destroyers
waterjet weight is taken as twice the wet weight
value shown in Fig 4 to account for the weight of 0.10

water in the inlet ducts and the ducts themselves. o . 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1

The weight of the entire propulsion system is o 10 100 1000

increased by 20% to account for machinery founda- DISPLACEMENT/DRAG RATIO
tions, miscellaneous auxiliaries, and stacks FIGURE 5. OPTIMUM GAS TURBINE WATERJET PROPULSIVE
chargeable to the propulsion system.
COEFFICIENTS VS DISPLACEMENT/DRAG RATIO

2
 0.80 Large Ship Ga. Turbine Waterjets
Boundary Layer Ingestion
E-
0.60
o 0.40
Small Craft
estroyer Propellers
4 0.20
MN%MI Propellers
ifgall6SM Waterjets
o the case of a propeller - hull matching, the
a.
o
40
O 20
VELOCITY - knots
FIGURE 6. DESIGN PROPULSOR COMPARISONS
In the particular cases shown, the ship length
is 400 feet and the inlet is positioned at 90% of
the ship length. This consideration is quite
important in studying displacement hulls, because
it determines the momentum of the boundary layer
flow available to the propulsor. In the case of
hydrofoils, or planing hulls, there is usually no
coherent boundary layer flow available to the pro-
pulsor, so ship length is not a consideration.
The boundary layer velocity distribution used
in this study is Von Karman's description of tur-
bulent flow; e.g.,
v/Vo = 9,177
where v is the local velocity
Vo is the free stream velocity
y is the dimension perpendicular to the
flow at which v is measured
6 =the boundary layer thickness.
The definition of boundary layer thickness used is
a simple approximation of the Schoenherr - Von
Karman development and is
6/x = 0.02065 - 0.00138
where x = hull length, ft
VK = speed in knots
This formula is quite accurate at values of
log10 (VK.x) above 2.8 and for open sea tempera-
tures. 6/x typically ranges from 0.014 to 0.017.
The importance of the efficient ingestion of
the boundary layer is shown in Fig 7. In this
figure waterjets for an 80-knot 350-foot ship were
optimized for different ingestion percentages with-
out consideration for the limits of geometry. The
curve shows a possible variation in propulsive co-
efficients from approximately 81% at 10% ingestion
to 70% at 40% ingestion.
In most cases that we studied an inlet ingesting
only 10% of the boundary layer results in unreal-
istic geometries where inlets are wider than the
ship. A more realistic ingestion percentage would
be y/6 = 0.4.
The reason propulsive coefficient is sensitive
to boundary layer suction has been discussed in
the literature by Wislicenus (Reference 3),
Gearhart (Reference 7), and Thurston (Reference 6)
among others. The simplest and clearest explana-
tion is that of Wislicenus, who points out that, at
a fixed flow rate through the propulsor, thrust
is proportional to Vj - VI, while power required is
proportional to VJ2 - V12. Therefore, for a fixed
thrust and flow rate, the propulsor with the lower
inlet velocity (relative to the propulsor) will
Hydrofoil Waterjets require less shaft work.
Supercavitating Propellers Naval architects have for decades been faced
with boundary layer effects that skew the velocity
profile of the water approaching propellers. In
velocity profile is a problem because the blade
60 80 100 faces varying angles of attack in each revolution.
In a waterjet installation it is possible to turn
this problem into a significant advantage, much as
is done on torpedo pump jets.
Y/8 = 0.1
Ya = 0.2
Y/d = 0.3
Y/.1 = 0.4
14 18 22 26
WATERJET WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec
FIGURE 7. IMPORTANCE OF THE EFFICIENT INGESTION
OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER (80 KNOTS,
350-FOOT SHIP)
The actual optimization procedure is done on a
log10 (VK.x) small engineering computer and is a simple itera-
tive procedure in which flow is incremented and the
powerplant is redesigned in each step until the
minimum installed power is reached. The block dia-
gram (Fig 8) shows the flowpath used. As shown,
the program optimizes a ship and speed for each
case at various lift/drag ratios. This optimiza-
tion can be changed to include mission capabilities
merely by specifying sfc and endurance for several
power settings. In this way, the optimization is
affected by fuel weight, which generally reduces
optimum propulsive coefficient by a small amount
(on the order of 2 points).
The program is a basic iterative loop that is
dependent on some engineering approximations for
some of the input. For example, choice of y/6 =
0.1 would almost always result in early abort of
the calculation at a low propulsive coefficient and
high shp. Typical data are shown in Fig 9.
Inlet Systems
Three technical areas of interest in inlet dif-
fuser design are (1) external drag, (2) internal
performance, and (3) cavitation as it affects per-
formance and structural damage.
3
 Input Block One Ship, One Speed, One Mission - Varying LID

Calculate Drag
Calculate Flow
Assume Machinery
Weight
Check shp
Increasing
Correct Displacement Decreasing Increment Flow
Correct Drag Iterate

Calculate(iFlow Print Out shp,

Increment AH Flow,Ns,
P'
S, Drag,rp,
Ypá , Vim, W/Y,
PC and L/D
Calculate/1V
Required at Flow
Assumed
If L/D >
Check LID Limit I...I
L/D Maximum

Calculate Inlet
Lip Velocity Vim Increment LID

Return to
Calculate Overall
Head Required
(:2)

Calculate Pump Store Weights for

Head Required Next Iteration

Calculated Ns, S,
NPSH, shp, Calculate Propulsion
and PC System Weight

Calculate y,
and Ainlet

Exceeds Limits

Check Ns, S, and W

Against Input
Limits

FIGURE 8. SAMPLE OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURE BLOCK DIAGRAM

1
External Drag. External drag of a waterjet
Displacement
Hull inlet is one of the most important inputs to the
0= 40 propulsor optimization program. Unfortunately,
1../D = 20 only a limited amount of data are available.
Data for airplane inlets are available (Ref-

1111 ME ----- erences 4 and 5), generally for relatively low

Reynolds numbers with thin boundary layers. The
marine data available are limited to condenser
E mp--- Minimum eh. Design Point inlets with several exceptions, none of which
provides the data in the area of interest.
5

0 40
/i 60 80 100 120
hp X 10-3
140
WATERJET WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec, z 10-3
160 180 200
The problem is to minimize the external drag while
keeping internal losses to a minimum and avoiding
cavitation. In studying inlets, we consider only
external drag as a drag term and classify the
"internal drag" as an energy loss chargeable to
the waterjet. This technique differs from that of
FIGURE 9. TYPICAL PRINTOUT DURING OPTIMIZATION
condenser designers who consider both as drag terms.

4
The net effect is the same, increasing horsepower
above the ideal (bare hull) value. External drag, R = 1.90
as mentioned previously, consists of viscous drag
due to any added surface area, interference drag
occurring at the intersections of the hull and the
inlet, and any ram drag that may result from exter-
nal diffusion forward of the inlet. In studying the
- atikA 1.000
Hull Line
available data, two types of displacement hull in- Vt.\r = 0.032
lets suggest themselves, submerged (or flush, Fig 10)
and extended (or scoop). Most displacement hull 1.000
0.250
waterjets available today utilize the flush inlet.
According to Hoerner (Reference 5) such inlets pro-
vide no external drag. In addition, they lend
themselves to incorporation into the waterjet inlet
casing and permit easy installation in small craft.
The disadvantages of these inlets are (1) a rela- FIGURE 11. BASELINE FLUSH INLET MODEL - EXPANSION
tively high internal loss coefficient, and (2)
RATIO 4/1, INLET ASPECT RATIO = 4
susceptibility to cavitation.

The reported zero drag coefficient for these

inlets is fictitious, although our early experi-
ments indicate that they probably have the least
amount of drag of the candidates. To study the
external drag of such inlets, we built a small wind
tunnel in which we simulate the velocity ratio and
boundary layer profile for typical vessel operating
conditions. Our baseline test unit is two-dimen-
sional with a flush inlet followed by a rectangular
Flow Flush Inlet diffuser. Fig 11 is a sketch of the baseline model
Hull Line and Fig 12 is a photo showing the test setup. In
addition we built a baseline scoop inlet, Fig 13.
FIGURE 10. TYPICAL FLUSH INLET DESIGN Both of these units are designed to establish meas-
urement techniques and obtain primary data on eas-
ily reproducible configurations.

FIGURE 12. BASELINE TEST UNIT

5

FIGURE 13. VARIABLE AREA INLET MODEL
The external drag coefficients measured for
these inlets are shown in Fig 14 and Fig 15. We
call this the apparent external drag coefficient,
because it compares the momentum downstream of the
inlet to the momentum of the undisturbed flow at
the same location. This is the same technique used
by Mossman and Randall (Reference 4). We believe
the real external drag of the inlet must take into
account the ideal momentum downstream of an inlet
(assuming perfect two dimensional ingestion) and
compare it to the actual or measured momentum down-
stream. Although we have performed this operation,
the data collected were not reduced in time for this
paper.
In studying the apparent drag of the two inlets,
several items become noticeable:
The flush inlet has a lower drag than the
scoop, due almost exclusively to the sharp
corner interference drag of the scoop; future
experiments will add cruise position fairings
to the scoop to fill in the sharp corners.
The closer the inlet velocity to the free-
stream velocity, the lower the drag. This
indicates flow is spilling over the inlet
at most conditions.
The thicker the boundary layer with respect
to inlet lip height, the lower the drag,
although the flush data do not consistently
demonstrate this fact.
,
W = Inlet Width
V° = Free Stream Velocity = ma
Il
6 = Boundary loyer Thmknem
-
Ist V - 86% of Vol
Ca = (Omit - 6011/h
Er. d = Momentum Thickness = joY =li -,Y; (1 -
W/h = 0.358
0 = o.ae ie. 6/6 = 078
0 = DAMS in ha =
0= 0.90 io 1,1 = 0.31
...
Ovo
-alt
02 0.4 06
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
FIGURE 14. APPARENT DRAG COEFFICIENT VS VELOCITY
RATIO FOR FLUSH INLET
h/o =1.1, W/h=3.05
h/o =1.8,
V Inlet Calculated from Flow Measu emente
and Area at h
V° = Free Stream Velocity = 95 fp
C0) = leota - e,n r=sv
= Momentum Thickness - 1--v )dy
o Vo Vo
Cruise Position Boundary Luyen Thickness =. 0.96
(at V = 95% of V0)
W = WLdth of Inlet Lip = 1.22
0 1 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
FIGURE 15. APPARENT DRAG COEFFICIENT VS VELOCITY
RATIO FOR SCOOP INLET
In studying the flow data for the flush inlet,
we have compared Vim to an ideal Vi based on two-
dimensional ingestion of a portion of the boundary
layer upstream. In the cases studied we found Vi
ideal higher than Vim, which indicates the flow is
being ingested from areas not only ahead of, but
also on both sides of the inlet. In this respect,
the flush inlet will have a better performance
than the scoop inlet, since it will tend to ingest
more of the low velocity flow near the hull than
the comparable scoop inlet. This will result in
lower drag, since the drag affected area will "see"
lower velocities than the comparable scoop.
To show how a negative drag coefficient can be
obtained, we plotted centerline velocity profiles
from an early test of a flush inlet (Fig 16) for
four velocity ratios. In most cases, the flow
downstream (C and D) has a thinner boundary layer
than the approach flow. The effect is more notice-
able as the velocity ratio increases. In calculat-
ing a "real" drag coefficient, we believe the pro-
file at D should be compared to an ideal profile
at D. In every case, we integrate these profiles
over the entire affected area downstream, which we
find is 1-1/2 inlet widths on either side of the
centerline at a distance of 4 widths downstream
of the inlet lip.
Internal Performance of Inlets. The internal
performance of an inlet diffuser system is criti-
cal to the overall system performance since each
foot of head lost here must be made up by the pump.
We define the efficiency of an inlet diffuser as
foe
1 - (Ht1-Ht2)/(V2/28)
where Hti = total head available at inlet
= total head measured at diffuser
Ht2
if-.1 dy discharge
V2/2g = velocity head available for dif-
0.43 fusion.
!Drs.
/Thrum We plot this efficiency in two ways, one based
on the measured inlet velocity Vim, using Vim2/2g
... = 0.130 11/5 = 0.43
as the available velocity head, and also as a free-
6=030 ha = . stream efficiency using Va as the available veloc-
. 0.900,700
8
1
ity. The results are shown in Figs 17 and 18.
The apparent pressure recovery or efficiency, goes
above 100% at low velocity ratios, which is an
0.8 1.0 indication that Vim measured from inlet area and
flow measurements is actually higher than calcu-
lated. This indicates separation at the inlet,
causing the ingested flow to have higher local
velocity than calculated. When we reference our
6
performance to freestream conditions, we find dif- angle of 25 and 30 degrees used was arbitrarily
fuser efficiency quite low, as might be expected chosen with the aim of making the inlet system as
in a thick boundary layer. Neither measurement is short as possible. The diffusers were made rec-
adequate, although the freestream efficiency lends tangular to avoid the transition problem between
itself to design calculations better than the the rectangular lip to the circular diffuser.
apparent efficiency. In studying the data, it Models now being prepared incorporate this tran-
is obvious that the scoop inlet (as expected) is sition and the fairings for the scoop in the cruise
a better pressure recovery device than is the position.
flush inlet. Also, as expected, the greater the
scoop extension, the better the pressure recovery.
700
o
1

410

0.20
600
0 ,

o o
500 a. ....

h
in. (4 400 o 8. Boundary Layer Thickness = 0.36 in
Vo 0 (Taken at V = 95% of V./
300 W = Inlet Lip Width =1.22 in.
A HT = Total Head - ft .

'71/ = 1. - (Hu Ht2 NV/'/210

= 200 1.- (H,0 1.1,2 )/(V/2g)
X II h/8= 0.56 W/h = 6.1
0.25 D h/8 = 1.1 W/h = 3./
com 100 0. h/8 = IS W/h = 19

A X
ra,

V. 0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 0.8 09 1.0
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
0.50

FIGURE 18. PRESSURE RECOVERY VS VELOCITY RATIO FOR

SCOOP INLET
Vo --
Inlet Cavitation. Cavitation, both internal to
075 the system and external, can present a real problem
in that compromises made to avoid cavitation may
A result in poor pressure recovery or high drag designs.
V1
This is particularly true at some of the high
Vo speeds contemplated in future ships where speeds
lo between 50 and 100 knots are proposed. Internally,
10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30 we would expect the lowest static pressure to occur
11/2 in. Left V2 in. Left 0 (On Lip) 1 in. Right
on the suction surface of the inlet opposite the
VELOCITY - ft/sec
lip. In the flush inlet, this point experiences
the most severe fluid turning on the scoop; this
FIGURE 16. CENTERLINE VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS - point is also in the minimum area of the flow
LOW SPEED TEST field, hence the lowest static pressure area. In
evaluating this problem, we compare the local
700 static pressure near the lip and compare it to
,4... .08=0.9in a static pressure in an undisturbed section of the
05=065
0 600 A-
Oa.. freestream flow. The results are shown in Figs 19
and 20 for both inlets. The flush inlet tested
X 500 h=0 23in. "Di-oiti-H 2) /v121/20 is much more susceptible to cavitation than the
0 V..99 fps 8p-1-(Hto -H62)/V,2/2)
scoop inlet, and in both inlets, the pressure at
8
.11
H,=Total Head
the sensitive location is strongly affected by
400
°'e 95% of V.
8 Taken
Vi/V0, the velocity ratio. The drag data indi-
W/b=0.356
3 cate the need for high V1/V0 values, while the
V,2 Based on Mass Flow
Measurement and Area cavitation data indicate that low values are
c,9 200 required. Neither set of data indicates any par-
ticularly strong influence of the boundary layer
a 100 1111111111111
---,....- thickness.

0
0.1 02 0.3 04 05
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
FIGURE 17. PRESSURE RECOVERY VS VELOCITY RATIO
FOR FLUSH INLET
Examination of scoop data comparing cruise to take-
off position recovery also points out one of the
basic problems found in boundary layer inlets;
efficient diffusion of a nonuniform velocity is
inherently difficult, particularly at the smaller
percentages of the boundary layer flow. The
efficiencies shown, together with associated drag
characteristics show trends and are not acceptable
values for a real installation, because of the
relatively crude models used. The inclination
06 07 08 09 10 External cavitation (that is, cavitation result-
ing from the presence of the inlet) will most
likely occur in the vicinity of the lip at the
minimum pressure point of an eqùivalent airfoil.
External cavitation will also probably occur at
the corners or intersections of the scoop and the
hull when fairing is inadequate. This external
cavitation can have two extremely harmful effects:
it can increase drag, and it can cause severe
structural damage. Unfortunately, our small wind
tunnel does not lend itself to obtaining any useful
data on the external cavitation problem. Wind
tunnels, in general, fail to provide adequate data
in cavitation studies because they do not simulate
the discontinuous medium of the vapor/liquid inter-
face, but only indicate the low pressure areas

7
where cavitation is likely to occur. In short,
wind tunnel capabilities in this area stop just
this side of useful data.

0.2
11
a. c>
0
. 0.1
wg
CID
CI)
W

Z vo= Free Stream Velocity = 99 fpe

C4 W/h = 0.356
E' Haj = Static Head At Inlet Throat
fxs Hs: = Free Stream Static Pressure Head 0 8 = 0.36in. h/8 = 0.78
U) W = Inlet Width 0 8 = assin. hid= 0.43
0 0I = 0.90in. h/8= 021 Auxiliary Ram Scoop Takeoff Flap
[ 1

L)-0.2
0 OA 0.2 03 OA 03 0.6 07
INLET VELOCITY RATIO FIGURE 21. MINIMUM DRAG VERTICAL RECTANGULAR
INLET WITH TAKEOFF FLAP
FIGURE 19. STATIC PRESSURE DROP COEFFICIENT VS
VELOCITY RATIO FOR FLUSH INLET

0.5
Waterjet Designs
I. The design of the waterjet itself can be, and
3,, 0.3
, 0.4 .........4s, lo
0. Hrx ../125.
has been, accomplished in several different ways.
Any efficient pump can be used in a waterjet sys-
Vo = Free Steam Veloocity = 96 fpe
tem, regardless of its type; e.g. centrifugal,
0.2
W = Inlet Width =...1.22 in. mixed-flow, axial-flow or propeller pump. Most of
w 171.i = Static Head At Inlet Lip these pump types have been used in waterjet appli-
1,4 01 o
cn
H. ,= Free Stream Static Head cations with varying degrees of success. For
Z h/8 W/h example, Boeing's hydrofoil "Little Squirt" is
z
5656
0 0.566.1 powered by a double-suction centrifugal pump. Most
-0.1 0
0
1.1 3.1 8 = .36 in. waterjets are straight-through axial- or mixed-flow
-
c..)
E..4 -0.2 1.8 1.9
units that minimize the number of turns made by
.40 0.31 6.1
the flow. Our approach to waterjet designs is a
-0.3 0.62 3.1 8 = .65 in.
10 1.9 mixture of our compressor cascade system modified
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 06 07 08 09
by results of our rocket engine turbopump experi-
INLET VELOCITY RATIO
ence. The basic problem faced by the waterjet
designer is similar to that of the propeller
FIGURE 20. STATIC PRESSURE DROP COEFFICIENT VS designer; he must produce high efficiency at low
VELOCITY RATIO FOR SCOOP INLET inlet pressures, while avoiding cavitation damage.
Our solution to the design problem is an axial-
We do not believe that waterjet inlet design flow rotor with varying hub radius and high solid-
problems can be solved in subscale wind tunnels. ity blading. The number of blades is minimized
The wind tunnel gives us (1) an appreciation of to improve cavitation performance. Fig 22 shows
the important variables and their qualitative a waterjet rotor of our design. A typical feature
effect on performance, (2) preliminary design of such pumps compared to classical axial-flow
data, and (3) an economical method of developing units is the low inlet flow coefficient. The flow
test techniques that can be applied to full- coefficient is a direct result of rocket inducer
scale test units. experience which, as in propellers, shows cavita-
tion performance improved with reduced inlet blade
Hydrofoil inlet designs face the same problems angle. A more detailed account of our existing
as displacement hull inlet designs with one units is given in Part IV of this paper.
important difference; the inflow is generally
planar. Hydrofoil inlets are further complicated Waterjet nozzle designs are, for the most part,
by the fact that the inlet nacelle incorporates simple low-loss, fixed-area, converging nozzles.
foil structural and actuating mechanisms. In Their performance is affected seriously only when
addition, the designer is usually faced with the the flow from the pump stator contains appreciable
necessity of making a 90-degree turn immediately rotational vectors or swirl. This swirl is inten-
after ingestion of the water. sified by the nozzle contraction, and can choke
the pump flow.
External diffusion on a hydrofoil inlet results
in high internal efficiencies (>90%) and high
drag. The takeoff problem in hydrofoils, where Variable-area nozzles for waterjets are impor-
maximum power and, thus, flow are required, occurs tant for vessels with widely varying speed range,
at minimum inlet pressure and has a strong influ- and when the inlet ram pressure is a significant
ence on nacelle sizing. A possible solution to portion of the system pressure. Under these con-
the problem is the incorporation of an auxiliary ditions, changes in vessel speed cause significant
scoop to capture as much ram pressure as possible changes in pump flow and tend to drive the unit
and in the closed position reduce drag as much as into off-design conditions. By varying the nozzle
possible. (See Fig 21.) area the pump flow can be adjusted so that the
8
pump is operating at its best efficiency point. 700
Fig 23 shows the effect of variable-area nozzles
on the thrust for a ship designed for 70 knots when = SR%
it is operating at higher speeds. At 100 knots,
the v'ariable nozzle design gives 15% more thrust 600
50% Ship Overspeed with
than the fixed nozzle. Fig 24 is a plot of a typ- 1111189 Variable Exit Nozzle
ical pump map that shows the extent of overflow and
efficiency change occurring at a 50% vessel over-
speed. The variable-area nozzle can correct this 4'4500
lk I

Design Point (70 Knots)

3335 shp 4111480
overflow and adjust the jet velocity ratio to its 50% Ship Overspomd viith
optimum value for the same overspeed condition. Fixed Exit Nozzle
a: 400
Mechanically, such nozzles should be relatively
straightforward designs. Fig 25 shows a variable
geometry nozzle. Many other schemes are possible.
300 FrMAIL

200 I1.41111r 41: ,5° 2370

1
FP'
MI o
1500
.40
2000

o
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
FIONV - gprn (rhousand)

FIGURE 24. VARIABLE NOZZLE EFFECTS ON PUMP

PERFORMANCE

FIGURE 22. WATERJET ROTOR

FIGURE 25. VARIABLE GEOMETRY NOZZLE

60 500-Ton SES
Design Point
6 SeaJet 12-1
III. Economic Consideration
General
o
o
50 _Vanabl Area In a preceding discussion, it was shown how
.o Noale Waterjet optimum propulsive coefficient was determined by
the propulsor weight characteristic, the basic
lift drag ratio of the vessel, and the performance
E. Fixed Notiele Waterjet characteristics of the machinery. These calcula-
CID 40 tions solved for the minimum horsepower required
to drive a given ship at a given speed. The anal-
ysis is limited in the sense that it does not
optimize the powerplant and the vessel for a
LA specific mission. Such an optimization requires
° 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 a great deal of information beyond the scope of
Vk this paper. There is, however, an additional facet
of the powerplant optimization calculation, which
FIGURE 23. FIXED NOZZLE VS VARIABLE NOZZLE gives insight into powerplant selection, that can
WATERJET PERFORMANCE be performed independently of the overall vehicle
study. This is an effectiveness criteria that
determines the optimum design on the basis of the
9
total cost of the powerplant. Here, knowledge of 1.14
the cost of obtaining, installing, and operating
the machinery over the useful life of the ship is
required. Obvious influences on the powerplant
1.12

1.1
=Mr shp shp,nin
selection, such as fuel cost or specific fuel con-
sumption, are frequently overshadowed by depreci-
o.
. 1.0 Cost 11111119. Propulsive Coefficient 0.7
ation period, duty cycle, and lift/drag ratio. o

O
L
Mir-Trost

MINIIIIIIPP" ...1
-
Minimum Co.
0.6

n Po Mt-
Our method of studying the effect of machinery
cost is a simple calculation and summation of all
the powerplant costs incurred in any mission for
varying horsepower levels. The contributing fac-
E.
cc

cn
O
u
1.

1.0 =MI
EMIII hDe8ig
0.5

0.4

hillbil's
illa
1. 0.3
tors are:

Gas turbine cost 0 50 60 70 80 90 100

Gearbox cost FLOW RATE - % OF DESIGN
Waterjet cost
Installation cost, including ducts, FIGURE 26. BASELINE CASE-SENSITIVITY OF COST
foundations, and auxiliaries DESIGN POINT TO SELECTED FLOW RATE
Fuel cost
Oil cost 100
1
Peicent of Lite at 1
Maintenance and overhaul cost (as a percent Case Full Power Power V,
90
of engine price). O Minimum A 80 10
ao Total Cost B 10 30
o C 5 30
Items 1 through 4 are depreciated at the useful 70
.1-.4
D 2 30
life of the vessel (typically 20 years), using the
Capital Recovery Factor method of Professor Benford 1 60 Typical Commercial Ships
A
(Reference 9). cc 50
1
40 Costa
Results of studies of several ships are shown Fuel
in Figs 26 through 29. For clarity, a base case E0 30
is taken in which: I
20 Typical Warships
o 0
10 o C B
Installed power = 50,000 shp max D
o A
L/D = 20 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
WEIGHT FLOW - lb/sec
VK = 40 kts
Useful life = 20 years
FIGURE 27. EFFECT OF UTILIZATION ON MINIMUM COST
CRF = 0.0703% (3-1/2% interest) DESIGN POINT (2000-TON, 40-KNOT
BASE CASE)
Full power SFC = 0.5
Part power SFC = 0.7 4.0
Full power - 10% of total operating life
Part power - 30% of total operation life at
25% of installed power
o
Fuel Cost = $3.00 per barrel ($0.0105 per pound)
Maintenance and overhaul cost = 5% of machinery g 3.0
cost/overhaul
period.
Overhaul period - 2000 hours o
Lube oil cost - 66ç/1b
04
The gas turbine cost chart (Fig 30) is an <4 2.0
approximation based on limited information of the
selling prices of the available marine gas tur-
bines, which vary widely due to a number of fac- E0

tors. For simplicity in calculating, an approxi- C)

mate mean line is drawn through the data and taken
to represent all such machines. The same is true '- Lo
of the gearbox data shown in Fig 31. Waterjet
prices, Fig 32, were obtained by plotting large C)
commercial (cast iron and steel construction)
pumps versus flow rate and multiplying by a factor
of 3.0 to reflect improved materials and compo-
nents required in a marine environment, and gener-
ally higher machinery loads. An arbitrary figure 0
of 1 dollar per pound of equipment is added to 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
obtain installation costs. SHEP LIME - years
*For instance, a $200,000 powerplant would cost $10,000
for maintenance and overhaul per overhaul per-toa. FIGURE 28. PROPULSION COST PER YEAR VS SHIP LIFE

10
 for relatively short periods of time, and for such
22 vessels as ferry boats. The effect of utilization
is shown in Fig 30, where application of an 800/, full
20
power, 10% part power utilization cycle (long haul
freighters) more than triples the propulsion cost
over a 10% full power, 30% part power cycle, due
almost entirely to the increased fuel cost.

The importance of reliability in propulsion

machinery is shown in Fig 31, where the total cost
of the machinery and fuel is plotted against time
between overhauls. There is a real economic
incentive for long-life machines in terms of
machinery and fuel cost alone, without considera-
tion of unavailability of the ship. This curve
8
a. o 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000 emphasizes the fact that, realistically speaking,
TIME BETWEEN OVERHAUL - hr long-life warships cannot afford a 1000-hour power-
plant, or one with a high maintenance rate equiva-
lent to the cost assumed here of a TBO.
FIGURE 29. EFFECT OF TIME BETWEEN OVERHAUL ON
TOTAL POWERPLANT COST (BASE CASE,
20-YEAR LIFE)
1000
Monel and Stainless
Steel Equipment
1,000
.0.

...
Approximately 3x
_ C = 42.7 (shp) 0.766 Lightweight Average Cost
0. Marine Gas Turbine C 76(Q)"74

10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

o
i
FLOW RATE - gpm
1 1 1 I
l L

10
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS SHAFT HORSEPOWER FIGURE 32. APPROXIMATE MARINE WATERJET ODST

FIGURE 30. APPROXIMATE MARINE GAS TURBINE COST

1000
C 9.6 (shp)1.
100 1,000
SHAFT HORSEPOWER
FIGURE 31. APPROXIMATE COST OF AIRCRAFT-TYPE
MARINE GEARBOXES (4,1 PLANETARY)
Because gas turbine-waterjet propulsion is as
yet unproved, one item not included, which could
have a measurable effect on the outcome, is
development cost. It is unlikely that realistic
development costs could be generated, particularly
as the extent of future use of these systems is
unknown.
The baseline case shown in Fig 28 is typical of
a small warship, but its implications would also
apply to short run freighters, which are at sea
The effect of ship life on total cost per year
is shown in Fig 28. This figure emphasizes the
fact that the specific fuel consumption and fuel
cost of expendable or short-life vessels (landing
craft or small patrol boats) have a negligible
effect on the total cost of powering the vessel,
and more consideration should be given to relia-
bility, weight, and installed cost.
In preparing the above comments and data, we do
not mean to suggest that a vessel's machinery can
be optimized without regard to the vehicle itself,
but merely to show those factors which have meas-
urable first order effect on the propulsion selec-
tion.
10,000 100,000
By utilization we mean the best estimate as to
how the vessel will be used. This frequently does
not coincide with the design requirements of the
vessel, since warships (for example) are built in
peacetime and operate mostly in peacetime, but
must be designed for war operations. The unhappy
result in terms of propulsor performance is usually
a ship operated at less than its potential speed
and carrying seemingly excessive fuel reserves and
power. The advent of CODAG systems tend to solve
this problem. A CODAG waterjet system where low
speed operation is by a diesel-propeller combina-
tion and high speed by gas turbine-waterjet has
the further advantage of reducing low speed drag
by eliminating the high power propeller and append-
ages associated with all propeller CODAG systems.

11
 Three classes of high speed ships are of Gas Turbine/Steam Annual Cost Ratio versus Fuel Coat
interest to potential gas turbine-waterjet propul- Fixed Displacement and Range Varying Payload
sion - high speed displacement ships, hydrofoils,
and surface effect ships. JN°
si,oV
rj .G0.80 e

High Speed Destroyers a0 G.

In considering displacement ships, our studies
have continually shown that only when the installed
conventional power is high do waterjets show O. Diesel
promise, largely due to the reduced drag from G
removal of the appendages required on relatively (4°0.50 JP at 9. per Gallon
small high powered ships. In this category, we 3GT
are principally concerned with destroyers and 0.40

escort ships. Appendage drag on such twin-screw o0 r."

io
vessels is typically above 10% and frequently as 0 A
A. 0 3.0 40 5.0 6.0
high as 30% of the total drag. Fig 33 gives
FUEL COST - DOLLARS PER BARREL
approximate values for typical twin-screw destroyers
in the high speed range. By removing appendages and
installing a waterjet, the overall propulsive effi- FIGURE 34. VARYING FUEL COST EFFECTS FOR 3500-TON
ciency* can frequently be improved, usually at DESTROYER ESCORT
reduced propulsor weight.

70 One problem introduced by waterjets in small

ships is that lightweight propulsors located below
the_center of gravity can introduce a stability
problem. On small ships, aside from the machinery,
60 fuel and ammunition, the heavy equipment, is located
0 EfiP = 0.0005.1% (V03 topside. This indicates that gas turbine powered
D = 0.1625A2 (VK)2 ships with either waterjets or propellers are not
0 simply going to be steam ships with different
°
4:4
50 machinery in the spaces, but rather new designs
E. to take advantage of the lightweight machinery.

40
In calculating the above cost comparisons, only
machinery cost and fuel cost are used, whereas in
the actual case, costs of personnel, overhaul,
30 auxiliary machines, and maintenance, etc., would be
4000 Tons added. In these other areas, the gas turbine-water-
3500 Tons jet plant should prove to be more economical than
3000 Tons the steam plant.
Z20 2000 Tons The case for hydrofoil waterjets follows a
a. similar line of reasoning, with the important dif-
P.
ferences being that the drag reduction comes about
10 by reducing nacelle diameter and an appreciable
cost and weight savings is found by eliminating
the gear train drive. Fig 35 shows a drag com-
parison of a waterjet and propeller driven
hydrofoil.
0 10 20 30 40 50
VELOCITY - Knots Surface Effect Ships
If the potential of surface effect ships is
FIGURE 33. APPENDAGE DRAG FUR DESTROYER-CLASS realized, we may someday see ships of 10,000 tons
SHIPS cruising at speeds of 100 knots carrying freight
to Europe in 35 hours. Another possibility would
be an aircraft carrier with 130-knot wind velocity
A recent P&WA study compared steam propeller, conditions over the deck.
gas-turbine propeller, and gas turbine-waterjet
propulsion for a 3500-ton DE with 2600 hours of Economic studies already published on the sub-
utilization per year. The results are shown in ject of SES ships for ocean commerce have indi-
Fig 34, where annual cost/payload ton ratio is cated the importance of high propulsive coeffi-
divided by the same ratio for steam, all plotted cients and low SFC, as might be expected in any
against fuel cost per barrel. Note that gas tur- relatively constant speed ship with long range
bine costs can be as little as 507. of comparable requirements. P&WA studies of powerplants for
steam plant costs. Most of the benefit shown here such ships indicate we may realize both the
results from the fact that the gas turbine-waterjet required propulsive coefficients ( = 657.) and the
increases payload (much lighter weight) and costs low SFC ( . 0.55) in the near future. Fig 36 is
less to install. Studies such as this indicate a plot of estimated thrust versus ship speed for
the economic potential of the waterjet in large this unit at two horsepower levels. An instal-
sizes. lation drawing of the powerplant element for a

*OveraZZ propulsive Jfficiency rp (E/D) where rp = TV-0/shp 550

12
4000-ton ship is given in Fig 37. This waterjet While the SeaJet 4-3 is a "paper design", it
is designated the SeaJet 4-3, which indicates it follows the design system utilized in the SeaJet
is to utilize the power of the FT4 marine gas tur- 12-1, a 3200 shp unit designed to be used with the
bine. A proposed installation of si* SeaJet-4 FT12 engine.
waterjets in a 4000-ton SES is shown in Fig 38.
800 ASSUMPTIONS:
7000 1

Pump Cavitation Limi 1. Fixed Design Point

Discharge Nozzle
700 2 Boundary Layer
6000 / Length = 245 ft
/ "a 3 Variable Area
Propeller Strut and Foil \ // = Semiflush Inlet
5000 // = 600
o
/
Waterjet Strut and Foil / E.
Inlet)
/
(Vertical Rectangular r
7-9 500
7 4000
/. <4
/.
//
04 Sea State
A 3000 400
/ Sea State 2
/r o Estimated Drag
E-300 Curves
2000 for 3965 - Ton SES
// -
(4600 - Ton SES at Design Point,
// 04 6(% Fuel Load)
1000 .., Waterjet Str t and Foil E. 200
(DTMB 4162)

O 80 90 100
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
VELOCITY - KNOTS SHIP SPEED - knots
FIGURE 35. HYDROFOIL REAR STRUT AND FOIL DRAG- FIGURE 36. PERFORMANCE OF SIX SEAJET 4-3 WATERJETS
34,000 GPM, 4800 SHP SYSTEM IN 4600-TON SES

659.4

235.4 112.0 312.0

37.2

FT4 Marine Gas Turbine

Shaft Support
SeaJet 4-3 3.96:1 Gearbox Bearing Box
49.7

25,000 shp SeaJet 4-3 System Weights

FT4 Engine 14,200 lb
Gearbox 4,200 lb
Pump 12,800 lb
Water 13,900 lb
Total 45,100 lb

FIGURE 37. INSTALLATION CHARACTERISTICS OF SEAJET 4-3 SYSTEM

13
 Top View
LSea Jet 4
Waterjets
Side View
FT4 Gas Turbines
Length of Bubble 262 ft
Length of Ship 341 ft
FIGURE 38. TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF SEAJET 4 WATERJETS IN 4000-TON SES
IV. Waterjet Propulsion Components
An exploratory waterjet propulsion systems
development program was begun at Pratt & Whitney
Aircraft in mid-1965. Preliminary designs were
completed on waterjets sized for the 400-hp ST6,
the 3770-hp FT12, the 20,000-hp FT3, and the 30,000-
hp FT4. Two of these, the SeaJet 6-1 (ST6 size)
and SeaJet 12-1 (FT12 size) were designed in detail
and parts were fabricated for test.
The design of the two pumps is quite similar,
as shown by Fig 39. Both have essentially axial-
flow single-stage rotors, with flow from the rotors
discharging through a stator section, which turns
the flow axially into a nozzle. The rotor drive
shaft is supported on the impeller end by a water-
lubricated journal bearing and on the drive end by
oil-lubricated bearings designed to carry both
radial and thrust loads. The rotor in both pumps
is back-vaned to minimize the unbalanced loads
resulting from the static pressure rise across the
rotor. In the SeaJet 12-1 pump, the thrust load
can be as high as 50,000 pounds. The materials
for the pump components were selected for their
light weight, high strength, and compatibility
with a sea water environment. The pump housings
are cast 356-T6 aluminum, the rotors are forged
titanium AMS 4928 (6A1-4V), and the shafting is
K500 Monel. Maximum operating stress is 40,000
psi and occurs in the roots of the rotor blading.
Weights of the two units are 340 pounds dry (490
14
m====10
1
Scale in Feet
Variable Geometry Inlet
pounds wet) and 1500 pounds dry (2500 pounds wet),
respectively, for SeaJet 6-1 and SeaJet 12-1.
The hydrodynamic designs of the pumps are based
on cascade data and an analytical program devel-
oped in support of our rocket engine and jet engine
research and development programs. The rotors for
the two pumps have a solidity (chord/gap ratio) of
three for a blade arrangement consisting of three
full blades and three half blades. The nominal
tip inlet blade angle for the rotors is 8 degrees,
which gives a 1.5-degree incidence. The blades
are swept to maintain this incidence angle along
the leading edges of the blades to provide opti-
mum suction performance. A five vaned stator sec-
tion provides constant velocity turning of the
fluid from rotor discharge through a 70-degree
turning angle for axial flow at the nozzle.
Steering systems that provide side and reverse
forces by deflection of the waterjet have been
designed for both pumps. They are designed for
mounting on a boat transom, and all maneuvering
forces are transmitted into the boat without
directly affecting the pump mount loads. Side
thrust loads for steering can be in excess of 37%
of forward thrust; reverse thrust is 502. For-
ward thrust loads are transmitted to the hull
through the pump mounts that are located in the
thrust bearing housing. Steering system esti-
mated weights are 520 pounds for SeaJet 12-1;
and 72 pounds for SeaJet 6-1.
 Steering and Reversing
Mechanism
Oil Cooler Exit Guide Vanes

Coupling
Thrust Bearing
Purnp Inlet Discharge Nozzle
RG12-3.89 Gearbox Impeller -

Bottom of Hull Hull hilet

SeaJet 12-1
61.600 69.800
Impeller

TIffustBeadng
101111,
fio,======ene=4_.
-

Exit Guide Nozzle

Vanes
ST6A Marine Gas Turbine Waterjet Pump
SeaJet 6-1
FIGURE 39. COMPARISON OF SEAJET 6-1 AND 12-1 UNITS

show the thrust vs boat velocity performance curves

A one-half scale SeaJet 6-1 steering system was for cruise conditions as well as several other pump
fabricated and subjected to experimental testing. operating speeds.
Total propulsion system weights, including 700
engine and gearboxes, are 900 pounds wet and 4500 1

pounds wet for the SeaJet 6-1 and SeaJet 12-1, V = 89%
respectively. The design characteristics of Sea- 600
Jet 12-1 and SeaJet 6-1 are presented in Table 1. $,
89%

Table 1. Design Characteristics

44 500
Design Point III.
& .%

SeaJet 12-1 SeaJet 6-1

Rotor Speed, rpm 2240 2100
cI
itisT7o0,
014 400
Flow, gpm 22,600 7730
Head Rise, feet 480 170
ilL,60%
Specific Speed
Suction Specific Speed, Cruise
3285
8740
3930
7200
M 300
1 WV
Overall Efficiency, % 89 86 200 ak% Op
Rotor Diameter, in.
Nozzle Velocity, ft/sec
Boat Speed, knots
21.6
191
55
13.4
120
40
100 Bird
O
Estimated head rise vs flow curves for 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
the two pumps are presented in Figs 40 and 41.
The design point shown represents the respective FLOW - gpm
cruise conditions for a SeaJet 6-1 and 12-1 boat FIGURE 40. ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE OF SEAJET 12-1
propulsion system application. Figs 42 and 43 WATERJET PUMP

15
 Fig 45. Both recirculation and ram water capabili-
250 ties have been built into this stand to provide
for simulating boat transient and steady-state
operating conditions. More than 50 hours of test-
86% ing has been accumulated on SeaJet 6-1, 35 hours
87.5 on SeaJet 12-1, and 20 hours on the steering system.
200 In both pumps rotor efficiency has been high,
(about 93%, as predicted), however, overall per-
formance has been less than predicted. This is
attributed to flow separation on the suction side
of the stator vanes and high mixing losses at the
cn 15
70 stator exit. New vanes have been designed to
eliminate the flow separation and parts are pres-
cni ently being fabricated. During the SeaJet 12-1
testing, a rotor-to-housing rub was experienced
at high rpm. This was attributed to insufficient
10 stiffness of the shafting, and has been corrected
2 2000 rpm
by increasing the shaft diameter. Tests on the
steering system revealed that reverse thrust was
over 50% of forward thrust, as compared to 20 to
2100 rp
25% for a commercial system. For a full turning
5 1

1500 rpm
angle of + 38 degrees, axial thrust is maintained
at over 50% and lateral thrust is over 40% of full
forward thrust. Actual steering forces and angles
required will depend on the type of vehicle and
degree of maneuverability desired.
o 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
F1ONV -gprn 16000 Suction Specific Speed
altik25,000
FIGURE 41. ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE - SEAJET 6-1
15000 Anl
WATERJET PUMP 4
V
14000
6400

5600
13000
lark ,,,:4,
.4

mc;00

,
,,,.,,,
..
12000

III smill
'zio "c"
CID
fs.,
4800
D
0411000 1116/1111
,,,_,,,

4000
10000
.. ENE %
NPSH Values
9000 SHP 20 Knots 50 Knots rm.
368 ft.
M 3200 3770 123.8 ft.

E-
3500
-3200
37.4 ft. 124.3 ft.
38.0 ft. 124.9 ft.
b. ',Ill
3 ft. 9 ft. Ht Above Waterline

2400
''. P . 64 lb/ ft
l
O 1

0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
VEHICLE VELOCITY - Knots
1600
FIGURE 43. SEAJET 12-1 TYPICAL HYDROFOIL
INSTALLATION PERFORMANCE

10 20 30 40 50 60 Current work on the pumps involves development

VEHICLE VELOCITY - knots
FIGURE 42. ESTIMATED THRUST CAPABILITY FOR TWO
ST6A SEAJET WATERJET SYSTEMS
SeaJet 6-1 and the scale steering system were
tested in a floating test stand shown in Fig 44.
This facility has the capability of direct measure-
ment of the magnitude and direction of thrust loads
in the horizontal plane. SeaJet 12-1 was tested
on the stationary stand shown schematically in
testing of SeaJet 6-1, during which new hydro-
dynamic designs will be evaluated to improve the
basic design system. SeaJet 12-1 is being
tested to evaluate performance and durability
under cavitating and inlet aeration conditions
at varying simulated boat operating conditions
(Fig 46). The capability of operating while
ingesting different types of debris, such as
sand, wooden dowels, and weeds, will also be
investigated. Successful completion of these
programs will provide the basis for operational
waterjet propulsion systems for high speed
boats in the 400- and 3770-hp range.

16

SeaJet 12-1 Waterjet
RG12-3.89 Gearbox
Recirculated
Ram Water
FIGURE 46. FT12 SEAJET 12-1 WATERJET SYSTEM
V.
"Waterjet Propulsion for Small Craft," L.
Arcand, SNAME Small Craft Hydrodynamics
Southeast Section Meeting, May 27, 1966
"Waterjet Propulsion for Marine Vehicles,"
J. Traksel and W. E. Beck, AIAA Paper 65-245
"Hydrodynamics and Propulsion of Submerged
Bodies," G. F. Wislicenus, ARS Journal V30
No. 12, December 1960
"An Experimental Investigation of the Design
Variables for NACA Submerged Duct Entrances,"
E. A. Mossman and L. M. Randall, NACA RMA7130,
January 1948
"Fluid Dynamic Drag," H. F. Hoerner, Pages 9
to 16
-
Ram Water Supply
30,000 gpm Capacity
F1'12 Gas Turbine
References
"Efficiency of a Propulsor on a Body of
Revolution Inducting Boundary-Layer Fluid,"
S. Thurston and M. S. Evanvar, Journal of
Aircraft, Vol. 3, No. 3, May 1966
"Selection of a Propulsor for a Submersible
System," W. S. Gearhart and R. E. Henderson,
AIAA Paper 65-232
"First Coast Guard High Endurance Cutter in
Twenty Years - The Coast Guard Cutter Hamilton
Powered by CODAG Plant," H. E. Russell, USNE
Journal, October 1965
"The Practical Application of Economics
to Merchant Ship Design," Harry Benford,
Marine Technology, January 1967.
18
 VI. LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Symbol Description Units

Cost dollars

Drag coefficient CD
CD
pv2
Ainlet 2g

CRF Capital recovery factor

Drag lb

Gravitational constant ft/sec2

Inlet lip height ft

Head ft/H20
Hsi Head, static inlet ft

Head, static hull ft

sx
Head, total - free stream ft
Hto
H . Head, total inlet ft
ti
Head, total - diffuser exit ft
Ht2
Waterline length ft

LID Lift/Drag ratio

N Shaft speed rpm
NPSH Net positive suction head (total ft
head above the vapor pressure at
waterjet inlet)

N Specific speed
AH 3/4
PC Propulsive coefficient TV/shp x 550
Flow rate gpm
Radius in.

S Suction specific speed NVT/NPSH3/4

sfc Specific fuel consumption lb/hp-hr
shp Shaft horsepower
Thrust lb

Local velocity ft/sec

V. Mean inlet velocity ft/sec

im
V Jet velocity ft/sec
Velocity knots
Vk
V Velocity ft/sec
o
Inlet velocity ft/sec
V1
Flow rate lb/sec

Weight lb

Distance from bow to inlet ft

Y Distance perpendicular to hull in ft

boundary layer
Boundary layer thickness ft

Displacement long tons (2240 lb)

Pump efficiency
Momentum thickness

19
No. 61351

THE U. S. NAVY HYDROFOIL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM -

A STATUS REPORT
by

WILLIAM M. ELLSWORTH
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-351

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vetoes mooring
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects ond Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
1.08, 3.07, 10.11
 THE U.S. NAVY HYDROFOIL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMA STATUS REPORT
William M. Ellsworth, Technical Director
Hydrofoil Development Program
David Taylor Model Basin
Washington, D.C. 20007
ABSTRACT
The current status of technology relating to the design
of military hydrofoil craft and major craft subsystems is
reviewed. Major subsystems covered include struts and
foils, hull, ship control, propulsion, and auxiliary ma-
chinery. Background information, characteristics, oper-
ational experience, and future plans for U.S. Navy hy-
drofoil craft are also given. These craft include HIGH-
POINT (PCH-1), PLALNVIEW (AGEH-1), FRESH-I,
FLAGSTAFF (PGH-1), and TUCUMCARI (PGH-2).
INTRODUCTION
During almost the entire first half of the twentieth
century, the flickering flame of enthusiasm for the devel-
opment of hydrofoil craft waxed and waned with only
sporadic interest and very limited financial support. Ex-
cellent summaries of activities during this period of his-
tory are given by Crewel and Hayward2 as well as by
many other authors, and it is not the intent of this paper
to deal with these historical aspects of hydrofoil develop-
ment. It is interesting to note, however, that only within
the current decade has there been a concentrated effort
to develop such craft for either military or commercial
purposes. This has led many to express the opinion that
hydrofoil development, in contrast to that of the aircraft,
now falls into the category of "too little, too late" except
for specialized situations. Certainly, it is true that
progress has been painfully slow; however, the substan-
tial growth in the employment of commercial hydrofoils
for passenger service during the last several years
strongly suggests a contrary view of the future. Further,
it is the intent of the author of this paper, in the following
sections, to show that there is a real future for hydrofoil
craft in military applications, and that this future is
comingto full realization in the currentU.S. Navy Hydro-
foil Development Program.
BACKGROUND
The U. S. Navy's interest in the potential of hydrofoils
dates from the late 1940's. In the period 1947 to 1960
the Office of Naval Research, with support by the
Bureau of Ships, sponsored a number of research and
development projects directed toward the establishment
of feasibility and fundamental criteria for the design of
hydrofoil craft. Theoretical analyses and model experi-
ments were made and tests were conducted on a variety
of small craft. Of the small hydrofoil craft, the SEA-
LEGS, Figure 1, is perhaps the most notable. SEALEGS,
through the joint efforts of Gibbs & Cox and the MIT
Flight Control Laboratory, provided the first real dem-
onstration of the feasibility and advantages of a fully-
submerged, automatically-controlled foil system. The
many hours of foilborne operation of SEALEGS produced
1
Figure 1. SEALEGS
much valuable data and only within the past year has it
been retired and donated to the Smithsonian Institution.
The year 1960 was a significant milestone in the Navy
Hydrofoil Program. At that time it was decided that suf-
ficient data had been accumulated to demonstrate that
large submerged-foil craft are feasible and that such
craft could provide the Navy with a significantly advanced
high-speed mission capability. As a result, an acceler-
ated program of development was initiated and emergency
funds were made available to support an expanded re-
search and development effort. Also, FY 1960 ship con-
struction funds were allocated for the design and building
of the PCH-1, a 110-ton hydrofoil patrol boat. Later, in
FY 1962, funds were allocated for the design and con-
struction of the AGEH-1, a 320-ton experimental ASW
hydrofoil ship. Finally, in early 1966, contracts were
let for the construction of two Patrol Gunboat Hydrofoils
(PGH), one by the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corpo-
ration and the other by the Boeing Company. The char-
acteristics of each of these craft and their status are
discussed in detail in a later section.
During the period from 1960 to the present there has
been a continuing program of supporting research and
development directed toward solution of problems and the
generation of criteria for the design of hydrofoil craft
subsystems including hull, struts and foils, propulsion,
ship control, and auxiliary machinery. The results of
much of this work have been incorporated in the design
of present craft; however, much remains to be done
toward the achievement of higher performance and In-
creased reliability. Excellent summaries of the state-
of-the-art in Navy hydrofoil craft design were presented
by Oakley3 in 1962 and Lacey4 in 1964. These papers
provide the foundation for the review and up-dating of
today's technology which follows.
 CRAFT SUBSYSTEM TECHNOLOGY some penalty in added cost, and perhaps less reliability.
For large hydrofoil craft, required to operate in heavy
Struts & Foils seas, the percentage of total cost represented by the
control system does not constitute a major consideration.
Before proceeding with a more detailed discussion For smaller craft, constrained to operate in relatively
of strut/foil technology, it is appropriate to first re- light seas, the cost and added sophistication of an auto-
view the major differences in foil system configuration. matic control system does not appear justifiable. How-
One major difference is that between "fully-submerged" ever, because of the size and sea state requirements
and "surface-piercing" foil systems shown in Figure 2. associated with envisaged Naval mission applications,
The fuLly-submerged system places the lifting surface the U.S. Navy has elected to employ fully-submerged
completely below the air-water interface by means of foils with automatic control systems. The advantages
strut supports. In such a case, some type of automatic inherent in this configuration are graphically illustrated
control is generally required to maintain flying height, in Figure 3, taken from Reference 3.
at least for operation in significant waves. There is a
pronounced stabilizing effect which results from close
proximity of the fully-wetted foil to the free surface. For
relatively calm water conditions this free-surface effect
may be sufficient to permit foilborne operation with rela-
tively simple control measures such as that of varying
craft trim. In the surface-piercing foil system the
lifting surfaces themselves penetrate the air-water in-
terface. Such systems are inherently stable in that lift
varies in relation to the flying height or depth of foil
submergence. As a result, at most, only simple stabil-
ity augmentation is required, even for operation in a
seaway. The selection of one system over the othelyis Figure 2. Typical (a) Surface-Piercing and
made principally upon considerations of cost, reliabilitY,.: (b) Fully-Submerged Foil Systems
and simplicity, in light of the resulting foilborne motion
characteristics achievable in negotiating the specified A second major difference in basic hydrofoil configu-
sea conditions. The fuLly-submerged, automatica rations is in the distribution of lifting surface area along
controlled system clearly provides smoother opera9dn the hull, as shown in Figure 4. In the "canard" config-
and greater flexibility of control in heavy seas but at uration, the major portion of the load is borne on large

30 97%

25 7

1,000T.

90% 6

80%
75% 5a
67%
4
55%
40°/0 3
RC\IsIG
LLH. S. DENISON
PT 50 SUPRAMAR 2
PT 20 SUPRAMAR
1

o 50 100 150 200 250 300

HYDROFOIL SHIP LENGTH - FEET

Figure 3. Significant Wave Height for Unrestricted Operation of Hydrofoil Craft

2
 LONGITUDINAL CONFIGURATION
NONSPLIT
CONVENTIONAL 0< x <0.35
-a
CANARD 0.65< xL <1.0
TANDEM 0.35< xL < 0 65
Figure 4. Definition of Foil Area Distribution
foils located aft of the midship section. A smaller
lightly-loaded foil is placed forward. The canard dis-
tribution is arbitrarily defined as one in which 65% or
more of the load is concentrated on the aft foil assembly.
The opposite arrangement is referred to as the "airplane"
or "conventional" foil configuration. Here the major
portion of the load is supported by foils located forward
of the midship section. Intermediate between these two
types is the "tandem" foil arrangement where the load is
borne equally by the forward and aft foil assembly.
GeneraLly spealcing, satisfactory overall arrangements
and craft performance can be achieved with either a
canard or airplane configuration, and, thus far, there is
no clear indication that one arrangement has a major
inherent advantage over the other. Selection of foil area
distribution is, therefore, dictated primarily by such
considerations as location of major component weights in
the hull, requirements for towing, and the ease of pro-
viding retraction, if desired. There does remain an
important question regarding the effect of lateral area
distribution on the lateral stability of the craft in con-
junction with strut unwetting during passage through
waves. This question should be resolved by comparison
of PCH-1, a canard arrangement, with AGEH-1, which
is of conventional or airplane design.
A third major distinction to be made relates to the
maximum speed. The major obstacle to achievement of
high sustained speeds in water is the occurrence of cavi-
tation. High velocity fLow around struts, foils, and other
appendages is attendant with a reduction in local pressure.
3
LATERAL CONFIGURATION
SPLIT
.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
When the total pressure at a point in the liquid drops
below vapor pressure, cavities form and collapse with
resulting radical alterations to the flow characteristics.
This phenomenon also produces high noise levels and
causes severe erosion of many materials otherwise suit-
able for construction. Above this critical speed regime,
a radically different approach must be talcen in designing
the foil system. A distinction must be made, therefore,
between "subcavitating" and "supercavitating
configurations.
The hydrodynamic characteristics of subcavitating
hydrofoils are very similar to subsonic aerodynamic
characteristics of aircraft wings Thus it has been pos-
sible to adopt much of airfoil theory and techniques in
their design. For hydrofoils which are to operate in the
subcavitating regime, the problem is to develop foil con-
figurations having sufficient strength, minimum weight,
and maximum lift to drag ratio, while at the same time
extending the critical cavitation speed as high as practi-
cal. The achievement of high cavitation inception speeds
is made more difficult by flow interactions at foil, strut,
a_nd pod intersections; effects of craft motion in a seaway;
surface roughness and discontinuities; and the orbital.
velocities present in surface waves. In addition, severe
problems are encountered due to the effects of air venting
from the free surface. This is a particularly critical
problem in the design of surface piercing struts where
the struts are subject to angles of attack such as those
associated with high speed turns. Ventilation of sub-
merged foils can also occur through internal air passages
in the struts or even through tip vortex tubes that on
occasion vent to the free surface. At present, there is
a notable lack of knowledge concerning the mechanisms
of ventilation and the laws governing scale effects. Of
particular concern is the characteristic sudden occur-
rence and the hysteresis associated with formation and
disappearance of ventilation cavities.
To date, ventilation problems have been dealt with
primarily by the use of "fences" to block the passage of
air from the free surface to regions of low pressure in
the fluid. Fortunately, this type of engineering fix is
usually adequate in preventing the occurrence of unwanted
ventilation. Forward sweep and dihedral of surface-
piercing struts also are beneficial in reducing the ten-
dency to ventilate.
Thus far, most foil and strut section shapes have been
those selected from the NACA design literature such as
the 16 or 63 series. These sections have characteris-
tically flat pressure distributions and provide maximum
lift within limits of cavitation inception. From this
standpoint, bearing in mind the 800 to one ratio of water
and air densities, it appears that under ideal conditions
a foil loading of about 2000 PSF is about the maximum
attainable without cavitation. In practice, considerably
lower loadings of the order of 1200 to 1400 PSF must be
employed if cavitation is, in fact, to be avoided. Further-
more, it appears that speeds much above 40 to 45 knots
will always be associated with some cavitation unless ex-
treme care is taken in the design and fabrication of the
foil system.. In the speed regime between about 45 and
60 knots one can consider the possibilities of living with
cavitation, at least for short periods of time. One pos-
sibility that is under investigation is the introduction of
air at points of cavity formation either by natural venti-
lation or forced air injection. Such techniques reduce
or eliminate cavitation damage to materials, and also
give promise of significant decrease in noise production.
They do, however, increase the complexity of system
design and also may result in some penalty in lift-to-
drag ratio.
Another technique ander investigation is designed to
eliminate or ameliorate the radical changes in flow char-
acteristics when cavitation occurs. By proper design of
fully-submerged foils, cavitation can be caused to occur
first at the tips of the foils. As speed increases the
cavitating area enlarges smoothly toward the wing root.
This design is referred to as a "transit" foil. Although
this type of transition should be achievable, successful
designs have not yet been demonstrated.
At speeds above about 60 knots we enter a design area
which can no longer be classed as state-of-the-art even
though a significant fund of knowledge has been accumu-
lated toward the solution of hydrodynamic problems. At
present, there are two basic approaches to high-speed
foil design. One involves the use of so-called "super-
cavitating" sections and the other the use of fully-wetted,
base-vented sections. Typical designs are shown in
Figures 5a & b. In the supercavitating foil design, the
sharp leading edge causes the formation of a fully-
developed cavitation cavity over the entire upper surface
of the foil. Cavity collapse occurs well aft of the trailing
edge and problems of buffeting and erosion are thus
4
SUBCAVITATING FOIL
CAVITY
BASE -VENTILATED FOIL
7ANNEX
CAVITY
SL1PERCAVITATING FOIL
Figure 5(a). Comparison of Typical Foil Sections
STRUT CAVIT,;(7
WATER SURFACE
BASE VENTED
STRUT
UNIFORM PRESSURE OVER
UPPER SURFACE P, IYDROFOIL CAVITY
Pc Po
CAMBERED PARABOLA
Figure 5(b). Base-Vented Strut/Foil Configuration
avoided. There are a number of difficulties with super-
cavitating foil design yet to be satisfactorily resolved.
Among these are the high angles of attack needed to re-
liably generate the cavity, the effects of proximity to the
free surface, structural strength of the thin leading edge,
the problem of generating high lift at low speeds asso-
ciated with takeoff, and difficulties in achieving reliable
and effective control of lift. In general, it appears that
true supercavitating foils offer the greatest promise at
speeds above about 80 knots. At speeds below 80 knots it
presently is felt that fully-wetted base-vented designs
may be more practical. The success of such base-vented
foils depends to a large degree on the development of
sections with decreased cavitation and ventilation sensi-
tivity to angle of attack and results of research in this
area shows promise. Generally superior lift-to-drag
ratios can be expected of supercavitating sections in the
80 to 100-knot range but fully-wetted base-vented sec-
tions will be competitive at lower speeds. FuLly-wetted,
base-vented foils and struts have been evaluate(' on ihe
BuShips test craft FRESH-I at speeds up to 80 knots and
the results show considerable promise. It is clear, how-
ever, that much additional work, both experimental and
theoretical, must be performed to develop an adequate
capability for high-speed foil system design.
 One of the most critical problem areas in the design
of foil systems is that of materials. The selection of
suitable materials having high strength, low weight,
resistance to sea-water corrosion and cavitation erosion,
and having acceptable fatigue properties, while at the
same time not imposing unacceptable penalties in cost
and difficulty of fabrication, presents-a.major challenge
to the designer. To date, a considerable effort has been
expended in the development of suitable materials, much
of which has not been directly aimed at the hydrofoil
problem even though the information on material proper-
ties thus obtained has been of great value to the foil de-
signer. At the present time, a number of candidate foil
materials have been identified, each of which calls for
one compromise or aiaother in comparison to ideal mate-
rial properties. PCH-1 struts and foils are constructed
of HY-80 steel which must be coated to resist seawater
corrosion and cavitation erosion damage. During oper-
ations, to date, a variety of coating materials have been
tried with varying degrees of success. In the most re-
cent foilborne operations an elastomeric coating of neo-
prene has shown considerable promise and raised the
level of confidence in future use of HY-130 and HY-140
steels. Active consideration is also being given to the
use of alloys which require no coating. Of these, Inconel
718, 17-4PH, and 6-2-1 titanium with 0. 8% molybdenum
are the most promising candidates. In each case, how-
ever, there remain unresolved questions regarding ma-
terial suitability for the large sizes, complex construc-
tions, and severe environment associated with the large
hydrofoil application. Furthermore, it is presently dif-
ficult to obtain the new developmental materials from
suppliers in the desired billet sizes and with the required
guaranteed properties.
In the area of strut and foil structure, one of the
major considerations is the avoidance of hydroelastic
problems. "Hydroelasticity" is concerned with phenom-
ena involving mutual interactions among inertial, hydro-
dynamic, and elastic forces. Although the over-all per-
formance of a hydrofoil craft involves each of these
forces, hydroelastic considerations involve all three
simultaneously and are most significant for foil systems.
Among hydroelastic phenomena it may be concluded that
the dynamic instability known as "flutter" is the most
complex of all hydroelastic problems of concern in hy-
drofoil craft design. Whereas the problem of torsional
divergence involves only the hydrodynamic and elastic
forces, flutter involves- also the inertial forces of both
the foil system and the fluid medium. Flutter analysis
requires a knowledge of vibration characteristics, mode
shapes, and over-all damping and it may be stated with
some confidence that flutter is currently the least trac-
table of hydrofoil hydroelastic problems. Since flutter
can cause a catastrophic failure of the foil system with
possible damage to the main hull structure, a careful
consideration of this problem area is essential.
In subcavitating foil designs, theoretical and experi-
mental developments, based largely on aeroelastic ex-
perience, have apparently been used successfully in the
prediction of static hydroelastic effects such as diver-
gence. Reasonable success has been achieved in also
predicting the vibration characteristics of foil structures
with zero forward motion. This is true even though free
surface effects have no analogy in the aeroelastic case
and are not completely accounted for in the present state
of the art. However, the extension of incompressible un-
steady airfoil theory has been shown to be highly unre-
liable in predicting hydrofoil flutter. It has been demon-
strated that foil flutter can occur in regions where direct
application of unsteady airfoil theory would predict a
completely flutter-free condition. At present, it appears
that dependable predictions of flutter can only be made
with dynamically-scaled models and experimentally-
measured damping values. In spite of this unsatisfactory
state of our knowledge of hydrofoil flutter, there is some
reason to believe that subcavitating desig,ns which are
adequate to prevent divergence are not likely to flutter.
This is borne out by present experience with operational
craft. However, with the advent of lighter-weight struc-
tures and more sophisticated composite designs, our
margin of confidence is likely to decrease unless contin-
ued efforts are made to extend the knowledge in this area.
Certainly, in the case of high-speed supercavitating con-
figurations, there is a notable lack of confidence in our
ability to predict the occurrence of hydroelastic insta-
bilities. This is particularly true in the case of leading-
edge flutter of supercavitating foil configurations. Other
types of hydroelastic instabilities involving stall and
coupling between foils and control flaps also present
serious design questions on which present knowledge is
considered inadequate.
Hull
The major reason for the employment of hydrofoils is,
of course, the desire to lift the hull from the water and
thus circumvent the constraints on high speed due to
wavemaking and frictional resistance and intolerable
craft motions in a seaway. Total drag just prior to take-
off is a significant factor in establishbag the power re-
quirement and careful attention must be paid to the hull
design to minimize this effect. Figure 6 shows a typical
smooth water drag curve for a hydrofoil craft with its
significant "hump" prior to takeoff. Comparison is also
made with a typical planing craft to illustrate the high-
speed advantage of the hydrofoil even in smooth water.
In order to allow for additional takeoff drag which results
from significant waves, a power margin as much as 40
or 50% over smooth-water takeoff requirements is
usually provided. This large margin is somewhat indica-
tive of our current lack of knowledge regarding the true
magnitude of the added seaway effect.
Actually, there are currently no good design criteria
specifically for hydrofoil hull shapes and there are as
many different configurations as there are hydrofoil
craft. Hull configurations are generally based on pre-
vious experience with seaplane and planing craft and
much more work is required to establish an adequate
design foundation particularly applicable to hydrofoils.
Further standard series model work is necessary and
investigation must be made of the possible advantages of
stepped hulls in achieving lower take-off drag.
Another major consideration in hull design is the re-
quirement for good sea-keeping characteristics in a
heavy sea. If hydrofoil craft are to operate unrestricted
in the open ocean, they must be capable of surviving
5
 THRUST-DRAG COMPARISON
HULL
BARE PLANING
HYDROFOIL CRAFT
TAKE-OFF SPEED MA XIMUM
SPEED
Figure 6. Typical Calm-Water Thrust-Drag Curves
storm seas in the hullborne condition. Furthermore, in
operations such as ASW, it may be expected that the hy-
drofoil will spend the major portion of its operating life-
time in the hullborne mode. Thus, it is essential that
close attention be given to the hull seakeeping character-
istics. With the foils extended during hullborne operation
there is a significant effect on craft motion, particularly
in the roll mode which is normally not heavily damped.
This is shown in Figure 7 (Reference 5) obtained from
model tests on AGEH-1. It is expected that the foil sys-
tem will give hydrofoil craft hullborne motion character-
istics of ships having much larger displacements. There
remains, however, a question regarding the possibility
that foil damping may detract from the ability of the craft
to weather large breaking waves. Although model studies
have provided considerable insight into this area, more
actual operational experience is required to fully assess
potential problems.
0 FOILS UP, WAVES FROM STARBOARD
FOILS UP, WAVES FROM PORT
FOILS DOWN,WAVES FROM STARBOARD
FOILS DOWN, WAVES FROM PORT
ZERO SPEED
HULLBORNE
10°
O
HEAD BOW BEAM QUARTER
HEAMNG
Figure 7. Predicted Hullborne Roll of AGEH-1 in State
7 Sea Based on 5-Foot Model Tests (Reference 5)
With respect to the capability of hydrofoil hull struc-
tures to survive very high sea states when hullborne,
impact loads in negotiating high seas when foilborne, and
situations causing sudden "set-down" in waves; there are
few real data upon which judgment can be made except for
recent rough water trials of PCH-1. Current designs
must therefore still be guided, in the main, by present
knowledge of displacement ships, seaplanes, and planing
craft. With hull weight-fraction being critical in the de-
sign, hydrofoil hull structure much more resembles that
of aircraft than conventional displacement craft. Weld-
ability and resistance to seawater corrosion are signifi-
cant factors in the selection of lightweight hull materials.
At present, only the 5000 series aluminum alloys satisfy
f these criteria. Of these, 5456 is most frequently used.
SPEED
5456 is weldable and has a yield strength of 26,000 PSI
for plate. It is the material used for both the PCH and
AGEH hulls.
In utilizing aluminum alloys for the hull material,
provision should generally be made for some form of
cathodic protection. This may be avoided in future de-
signs with developments in utilization of titanium or per-
haps high-strength fibre glass reinforced plastics.
In summary, it may be stated that availability of
suitable hull materials does not appear to constitute a
major design restriction. Problems in adequate strength
of foilborne hull structures have not yet arisen, but this
may be due to lack of adequate experience in very rough
sea operations. Certainly, it is essential that adequate
provision be made for acquiring extensive data on the
structural characteristics of new hydrofoil craft during
their operations in a seaway.
Propulsion
The three major components of the propulsion system
are the prime mover, transmission, and thrust producer.
For small craft, a single system may be adequate; how-
ever, the conflicting requirements for hullborne and foil-
borne operation of Navy hydrofoils generally dictate a
separate system for each mode.
Because of their lower first cost, higher efficiency,
and flexibility of operation, diesel engines are generally
employed for hullborne propulsion. Lightweight diesels
in sizes up to about 4000 HP are available with specific
weight as low as 4 or 5 lbs per HP, specific volume
around 0.2 Cu. ft. per HP, and specific fuel consumption
around 0.4 lb. per HP hr.
Foilborne propulsion of large, high-speed Navy hydro-
foil craft has been made possible only through the devel-
opment of the marinized gas turbine engine. Existing
aircraft jet engines have been slightly modified as gas
producers and coupled with newly designed free power
turbines to permit conversion of jet power to mechanical
power. These engines are available in sizes ranging up
FOLLOW
to 30,000 HP with specific weights of around 0.5 lb per
HP and specific volumes of less than 0.1 cu. ft. per HP.
Fuel consumption, at most economical power levels,
ranges from 0.6 to 0.8 lb/HP hr; it rises considerably
above this at low percentage of full power. Improvements
in this area may, however, be expected as a result of
current development programs. Higher turbine inlet
temperatures give significantly increased efficiency;
however, temperatures are currently limited by effects
6
of the marine enviroiament. When the turbine inlet tem-
perature exceeds about 1550°F, "sulfidation" occurs with
disastrous effects on the metal parts, in particular the
turbine blading Sulfidation is the formation of a glass-
like deposit which results from combination of salt in the
inlet air with sulfur in the fuel. Removal of this coating
can be effected by passing a charge of ground walnut
shells through the engine; however, progressive deteri-
oration of the metal parts still occurs. In addition to the
sulfidation problem, the ingestion of salt laden air causes
salt buildup on the blades of the compressor. This leads
to a progressive loss in power which, under adverse con-
ditions, can be as much as several per cent per hour.
This deposit of salt can be removed with fresh water
washing; however, the most effective technique to elimi-
nate these problems is to remove the salt from the air
before it is introduced into the turbine. This requires
the use of separators along with careful design and posi-
tioning of the inlet. Separators, until recently, have
presented a problem due to the added system weight;
however, improvements in the development of lighter-
weight units show great promise.
Since gas turbines have many other marine applica-
tions than that of the hydrofoil craft, there is an exten-
sive development program underway in the Navy. This
broader program may be expected to provide, in the main,
the technology required for the hydrofoil application.
There are, however, certain aspects of the hydrofoil de-
sign which are not common to other applications and
these must be covered in the hydrofoil development pro-
gram.. In particular, special attention must be paid to
the unusual load requirem.ents and duty cycle of the hy-
drofoil. Each start of a gas turbine produces high ther-
mal gradients and resulting high stress levels in the
metal parts. To meet the envisaged duty cycles, such as
will be associated with the ASW application, further de-
velopment of materials and possibly blade cooling tech-
niques is needed.
The selection of a thrust producer for hydrofoil craft
is complicated by a number of unique design factors. Re-
quirements for high-power at low speed associated with
the takeoff condition conflict with requirements for high
power at high speed during foilborne operation. Further-
more, although the current maximum speed range of
interest is high by comparison to displacement ships, it
is not high enough to make attractive the use of such
devices as gas jets or air propellers due to their low
efficiency. Effort is being applied to explore the possi-
bilities of increasing the efficiency of gas jets since this
means of generating thrust offers a number of significant
advantages. Thus far, however, efficiencies that are
attainable are not acceptable for current applications.
The high-speed test craft FRESH-I does employ a turbo-
fan engine for propulsion but this selection was made to
avoid interference with test foil systems. As for the air
propeller, the large diameters required for the hydrofoil
application preclude their use. This leaves water pro-
pellers and water jets as the two principle candidates for
hydrofoil propulsion.
For speeds up to about 40 knots, the subcavitating
water propeller is, by far, the most efficient device for
producing thrust with propulsive efficiencies as high as
0.8 being attainable. At speeds much above 35 or 40
knots, however, it is virtually impossible to avoid the
inception of cavitation with attendant loss in efficiency,
erosion of blade material, and high radiated noise. A
nominal increase in cavitation inception speed can be
achieved by very careful design using thin blade sections
of high-strength material; however, the problems of de-
sign are made more difficult by the adverse effects of
strut/foil/pod interaction and the orbital wave velocities
near the free surface. This has led to the development
of techniques for injecting air into minimum pressure
regions on the blades and to the design of supercavitating
blade sections. Several families of supercavitating pro-
pellers have been developed and, although further devel-
opment is necessary, some designs have already been
applied in practice. A 3-bladed supercavitating propeller
of titanium has proved successful on the DENISON and
4-bladed supercavitating propellers of titanium have been
installed on the AGEH-1.
Problems which have been encountered with water
propellers and anticipated future difficulties which are
likely to occur with increasing sizes of gear transmis-
sions have led to interest in the development of water jet
propulsion systems. Such systems typically consist of
an inlet water duct, a pump, and an above-surface water
jet exhaust. Heavily loaded gears and long transmission
shafts are thus eliminated and the number of moving
parts is substantially reduced. Feasibility studies and
tests of experimental systems indicate that this type of
propulsion can be used at moderately high speeds with
efficiency competitive to the water propeller. With re-
spect to propulsive efficiency, it must be emphasized
that this parameter alone is not adequate in making a
true comparison of candidate propulsion systems. This
has been clearly demonstrated in detailed parametric
studies of waterjet systems. One must examine all of
the trade-offs which are offered in making a design se-
lection. On this basis, considering weight, fuel con-
sumption, power, system losses, and other relevant
variables, the system selected as optimum for a partic-
ular operational requirement may, in fact, have a lower
propulsive efficiency than is actually attainable within the
state-of-the-art. Further development is required to
demonstrate the capability of waterjet systems for hy-
drofoil craft. Major problems appear to be the occur-
rence of cavitation in pumps and ducting, the loss of
efficiency at low speeds, and the friction losses in the
duct system. The Boeing PGH-2, currently being con-
structed, will be waterjet-propelled using a pump de-
veloped by Byron-Jackson and vvill provide the first
opportunity to evaluate the merit of this form of hydro-
foil propulsion under actual operating conditions. Also,
Navy sponsored static tests are currently being con-
ducted by Pratt-Whitney on a different type of 3000 hp
water-jet pump system using an FT-12 gas turbine drive.
Results, thus far, using small test craft such as the
Boeing LITTLE SQUIRT, appear quite promising'and
offer future improvement in system reliability as well as
significant reduction in radiated noise compared to the
conventional propeller systems.
In order to utilize the water propeller as a foilborne
thrust device, it is necessary to provide a transmission
system to span the long distance between the prime
7
mover and the propeller. The problem is formidable in
that it involves transmitting 20,000 to 30,000 HP, re-
duction of rotational speed from 5000 RPM at the gas
turbine to 1200 to 1500 RPM at the propeller, and provi-
sion for complete watertight integrity throughout the sub-
merged portion of the system. The problem is further
complicated by the desire to provide the capability for
retracting the foil system.
The U.S. Navy has examined various types of trans-
mission systems with the conclusion that the right-angle
bevel gear drive represents the best choice at the cur-
rent stage of development. This type of "zee" drive was
employed in the MARAD hydrofoil craft DENISON and
successfully demonstrated the capability of handling
10,000 HP through a single shaft and single-mesh bevel
gear. A similar system is employed in the PCH where
3000 HP is transmitted through a single shaft and a split
bevel arrangement in the pods to distribute power to the
fore and aft propellers. The AGEH will be the highest
power application of the zee-drive transmission with
more than 15,000 HP being transmitted through two drive
shafts down each main strut to single propellers on the
aft end of each pod. This system has been qualified in
factory tests and has been installed on the ship Devel-
opments of even larger systems are in progress and
some promise has been shown by a new planetary gear
system, under development by Curtiss-Wright, which
offers the possibility of significant reduction in pod size.
PLATFORMING CRAFT LARGE COMPARED WITH WAVES
CONTOURING CRAFT SMALL COMPARED WITH WAVES
.11
INTERMEDIATE RESPONSE
Figure 8. Comparison of Platforming & Contouring Modes
8
Ship Control
The ship control system comprises those components
necessary for steering, dynamic stabilization, and con-
trol of craft speed and attitude in flight. In fLight there
are, in principle, two modes in which the craft can oper-
ate in rough water as shown in Figure 8. If the hydrofoil
is relatively large compared with the waves and its flying
height is sufficient to permit the hull to travel in straight
and level flight clear of the waves, the craft is said to
"platform" with zero response. In the other extreme,
if the hydrofoil is small compared to the waves, it is
constrained to follow the surface. This is known as
"contouring" and, ideally, a 100% response is required.
Any practical craft control system must, to some extent,
compromise between these extremes and seek to provide
minimum foil broach and maximum hull clearance without
exceeding the desired limits of craft motion. The limits
on motion are primarily those prescribed by the maxi-
mum accelerations which are, in turn, important in their
influence on structure, mission equipment, and the
human occupants.
In looking at the more detailed technical aspects of the
guidance and control system, we may consider it com-
prised of the sensors, computers, actuators, and lift
control devices. This last component area obviously ties
into much of the previous discussion on struts and foils.
It is included for the sake of completeness in covering
the problems of system design.
PATH OF C. G. (ZERO RESPONSE)
PATH OF C. G. (PARTIAL RESPONSE)
 Hydrofoil craft having only surface piercing foils, in
general, do not employ an autopilot system with its as-
sociated sensors. The foils themselves act both as
sensors and control devices by virtue of the change in
forces and moments with depth of foil submergence. As
already noted, this provides the persuasive advantage of
extreme simplicity and high reliability. In some cases,
simple control augrnentation may be added to surface-
piercing systems in order to counter special stability
problems that may occur due to particular mission re-
quirements. This is the case in the design of the Cana-
dian FHE-400 where controllable anhedral foil tips will
be employed to give added stability in the takeoff and
low foilborne speed range. This addition was made due
to the wide range of speeds desired, which is consider-
ably greater than the usual design practice where the
takeoff speed is about one-half the maximum flying.
speed. This posed a special problem in providing ade-
quate stability at low foilborne speeds.
Other systems employ a surface-piercing main foil
and a smaller fully-submerged control foil in an attempt
to buy some of the advantages of both configurations.
The DENISON is an example. In this craft, provision is
made for manual and automatic control of trailing flaps
on the surface piercing foils and an all-movable sub-
merged tail foil.
In general, it is the conviction of the U.S. Navy
that large ocean-going hydrofoil craft require fully-
automatic control of submerged foils in order to
provide acceptable craft motions. As a result, the
main effort in this area is directed toward such de-
signs. The validity of this philosophy should be dis-
proved or verified, as the case may be, by future
operational experience. In any event, this discussion
will be primarily constrained to the technical aspects of
submerged foil craft having some form of automatic
control.
The simplest forms of automatic control systems
employ combined mechanical sensors and actuators di-
rectly linked to lift control devices. These include
forward arms with skids that plane on the free surface
and sprung flaps attached to the struts at the air-water
interface. Both types of mechanical "sensors" control
trailing-edge flaps on the submerged foils in proportion
to the flying height. These devices, in particular the
strut-flap type, do provide a smoother ride in significant
waves, but there is serious question as to their suitabil-
ity for hydrofoils above a size of 50 to 100 tons. Since,
however, there are a number of Navy applications for
the smaller size craft, the simplicity and low cost of
these systems merit attention in future designs.
A second and somewhat more sophisticated approach
to foil control is the use of pneumatic systems. In such
systems air is introduced through orifices in fixed foils
and this produces large changes in lift at acceptable high
response rates. This technique, now under development,
shows considerable promise for application to craft in
the 50- to 100-ton range up to moderately high sea
states. Thus far, however, it has not been demonstrated
that such systems are capable of providing the degree of
9
control response required of large hydrofoil craft which
must operate in high sea states.
In the more sophisticated electronic control system
described in more detail in Reference 6, inputs to the
autopilot are provided by electronic height sensors, ac-
celerometers, position gyros, and rate gyros. For the
hydrofoil applications thus far considered, the state-of-
the-art in autopilot design is generally satisfactory and
developments have kept pace with requirements for oper-
ational systems. This is due in major part to the signifi-
cant advances in technology stimulated by aircraft re-
quirements. Aircraft-type accelerometers and gyros are
available off the shelf with 2000-hour life ratings and
these are generally suitable for hydrofoil control systems.
Electronic control systems, to date, have all been of
the analog type wherein craft-motion sensor outputs are
processed by the control computer and continuous pro-
portional commands sent to the control surface actuators.
Present operating experience with large craft, although
limited, seems to indicate such systems may not be com-
pletely adequate for optimum control at high speeds in
high sea states, and future experience may dictate the
need for self-adaptive systems. By self-adaptive is
meant the process of automatically changing loop gain
with changes in environment such as speed, wave condi-
tions, temperature, etc. Self-adaptive systenis can also
employ gain-changing using the difference between actual
performance of the vehicle and desired performance ob-
tained with an electronic model of the craft incorporated
in the autopilot. This leads to the need for consideration
of digital systems rather than analogs. By judicious de-
sign of switching circuits, digital computers could pro-
vide duty cycles which would extend the life of actuators
and provide increased system reliability.
Sensing of the local height of the hydrofoil above the
water has been done with some degree of success with
ultra-sonic devices mounted at the bow and with resis-
tance-type probes installed down the leading edge of
struts. Because of susceptibility to damage by debris,
the resistance-type probe is considered much less de-
sirable and the ultra-sonic sensor is presently favored
due to its simplicity and proven reliability under actual
operating conditions. This type of sensor was developed
to a major extent on SEALEGS and is in current use on
PCH-1. Ultra-sonic sensors for and aft will also be
used on AGEH-1. Developments have also been carried
out on radar-type sensors; however, recent results have
proved disappointing and it appears that the necessary
close proximity to the water surface precludes achieve-
ment of acceptable operating characteristics with these
devices.
The efficiency of energy transfer, the low compres-
sibility of the power transfer medium, and the high
power to weight ratio of hydraulic actuation devices
makes the hydraulic system generally more attractive
than pneumatic or electric actuation systems. The ready
availability of suitable hydraulic servo valves and, in
most instances, actuation motors places the state-of-the-
art in foil actuation in a reasonably satisfactory position.
Since, however, the foil actuation components are
frequently the most costly part of the control system and
since they also contribute a significant weight fraction,
further engineering refinement is considered necessary.
Furthermore, additional effort must be made in providing
increased reliability under the severe conditions imposed
by the marine environment.
Actual control of submerged foil lift is effected in two
principal ways. One is by use of trailing edge flaps
coupled to the actuation system. The other is by varia-
tion in the angle of attack of the entire foil. This latter
method is referred to as "incidence" control. In addition,
control of lift on the main foils can be accomplished by
varying the trim of the entire craft. The selection of a
foil control system is influenced by a large number of
design considerations, with particular emphasis on opti-
mization of lift/drag characteristics throughout the range
of desired operational modes. The PCH uses flap control
alone and the AGEH will have only incidence control of
the main foils and tail foil. Accurate comparisons of
these different approaches will only be possible through
actual operating experience. It may be noted, however,
that there is a growing conviction that both incidence and
flap control might ultimately be required to achieve the
best performance from large ocean-going hydrofoils.
This is due to early indications that flaps are more effec-
tively used for takeoff, whereas incidence control is
more effective at foilborne cruise.
As previously noted in the section on struts and foils,
the most critical problem in lift control is cavitation and
ventilation and present knowledge regarding such effects
on the static and dynamic stability characteristics of hy-
drofoil craft is not yet adequate. Most control system
designers seem to feel that hydrofoil control technology
is primarily deficient only in the need for more precise
information regarding the nature and magnitude of the
hydrodynamic inputs to the control system.
Auxiliary Machinery
This more or less miscellaneous area includes various
auxiliary systems such as electrical generators, pumps,
air conditioning, etc. Although there do not presently
appear to be any major technical problems in this area,
these systems do contribute a substantial portion of the
total craft weight. As a result, there is strong reason to
devote continued attention to means for reducing the
weight of auxiliary system components. As an example,
in a recent study it was concluded that major weight re-
duction and improved effectiveness could be achieved
within the present state of the art by utilization of 400-
cycle gas turbine generator electrical systems. Con-
sidering the close parallel between aircraft and hydro-
foils, there are undoubtedly many other such possibilities
for adopting modified aircraft practice in the design and
specification of auxiliary systems.
Another aspect which merits further study is that of
reliability. Considering the projected mission applica-
tions for hydrofoils, the small crew sizes, and lack of
spares capacity, it is clearly essential to provide high
reliability and ease of maintenance in all critical systems. flaps on the forward foil by comparison between the sig-
U.S. NAVY HYDROFOIL CRAFT
Although a substantial part of the foundation for design
of operational craft can be, and has been, established by
development of theory, analyses, model tests, and ex-
periments with small vehicles, there must ultimately be
verification by construction and test of full-scale proto-
types. At present there are three experimental craft
encompassed by the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil Development
Program. These are the FRESH I (a high-speed platform
for tests of new high-speed foil systems), the HIGHPOINT
(PCH-1) and the PLAINVIEW (AGEH-1). In addition,
there are two hydrofoil gunboats, PGH-1 and PGH-2,
wider construction at Grumman and Boeing, respectively.
These two craft, being of smaller size and within the
state-of-the-art, are not considered developmental and,
upon completion of final acceptance tests, they are sched-
uled to be delivered to an operational unit of the fleet.
Data will be obtained during their test and operation,
however, and these will be of great value in the develop-
ment of firm criteria for the design of future craft.
Before proceeding to a detailed discussion of the char-
acteristics and status of each of the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil
craft, it is important to make note of the special provisions
that havebeen made to conduct an extensive special trials
program. For some time the Navy has recognized the need
for a special facility to conduct technical trials of advanced
surface craft. The first step toward provision of such a
capability was taken in November 1966. At that time, the
Taylor Model Basin, upon request of the Naval Ship Systems
Command, established a Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit at
Bremerton, Washington. This Unit will function as a tenant
activity of the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and will be staff-
ed with both civilian and military personnel. The Officer-
in-Charge will be responsible to the Commanding Officer
and Director of the Model Basin and the Technical Director
of the Hydrofoil Development Project Office for the conduct
of all special trials of assigned craft. Effective in Decem-
ber 1966, technical control of PCH-1 was transferred to
the Model Basin with operational control to be provided by
the Commandant of the 13th Naval District. AGEH-1 willbe
similarly assigned upon delivery to the Navy.
HIGHPOINT (PCH-1)
General
The guidance design of the PCH-1 was performed by
the Bureau of Ships and a contract for detailed design and
construction was awarded to the Boeing Company in June
of 1960. The keel was laid at J. M. Martinac Shipyard in
February 1961 and the hull was launched in August 1962.
Construction was completed and the craft began operations
in September 1963.
The principal characteristics of PCH-1 are given in
Table I and are graphically illustrated in Figures 9
through 15. As shown, the craft is a canard configuration
similar to SEALEGS with 70% of the load being borne on
the after inverted "n" foil. Foil lift is controlled through
trailing edge flaps. The flying height is controlled by the
nal from two bow-mounted ultra-sonic height sensors and
10
Figure 9. PCH-1 Suspended on Crane

Figure 10. PCH-1 Foilborne

11
 DISPLACEMENT'
LIGHT SHIP - 93T
FULL LOAD - I20T
DRAFT
FOILBORNE - 7'- 6"
HULLBORNE
FOILS RETRACTED - 6' -6"
FOILS EXTENDED- 17'

115-9 L.O.A. 33f- 4"

BEAM OVER
FOIL GUARDS -
32 BEAM
OVER HULL

Pt1-2] 2.-10"
-- FULL LOAD DISPL W L BASELINE
FR 0 j 5 -0"
F LYTIV-G W. L ,6 3r 6
O." L 20'

Figure 11. PCH-1 Principal Dimensions

a manually positioned altitude-set device. Pitch is con- Operational Experience

trolled by the two flaps on the aft center foil span and roll
is controlled by differential operation of the flaps on the Before proceeding to a discussion of operational ex-
aft outboard foil sections. Foilborne steering is accom- perience with PCH-1 it is important to establish the
plished by means of a small strut-flap above the forward proper context in which to evaluate this experience.
foil and a spade rudder, on t.he same shaft, positioned
below the forward foil. Hullborne steering is accomplished PCH-1 was originally conceived as a state-of-the-art
by rotation of the hullborne propulsion unit about a vertical
craft and, therefore, upon delivery and completion of
axis. This unit can also be rotated upward 87° about a special performance trials it was planned that it be as-
longitudinal axis to eliminate its drag during foilborne signed to an operational fleet unit. As a result, only
operation. Further information on the control system and limited provisions were made for installation of instru-
its evaluation is given in Reference 7. mentation with which to make detailed assessment of sub-
system operation and craft performance and acquire the
Foilborne propulsion consists of two 3100 HP Bristol more extensive data needed to correct design deficiencies.
Proteus gas turbines, each driving two propellers, one This reflected the traditional view that conventional new
on each end of pods at the aft strut/foil intersection. ships usually incorporate only modest evolutionary
Power is transmitted through an upper gear box and a changes in design and, thus, do not require an extensive
single vertical shaft in each strut which terminates in a period of testing and major modification in order to
single bevel gear in the pod. The pod itself comprises achieve the desired performance and reliability. Hydro-
the watertight lower transmission housing. foil craft such as PCH-1, however, represent a revolu-
tionary change in design concept and, in contrast to con-
Provision is made for vertical "wet" retraction of both ventional displacement ships are more akin to aircraft.
the forward and aft struts in order to reduce navigational In retrospect, therefore, the difficulties which have been
draft during hullborne operation. The aft struts retract experienced with PCH-1 should have not come as a sur-
into the trunks seen on the afterdeck and these also house prise and should not reflect adversely on the potential of
the air intakes for the gas turbines. such craft for considerably enhancing Naval capabilities.

12
 ACTUATOR

/9,

PACKARD
ENGINE
STRUT
VERTICAL
DRIVE v\_ RETRACTED POSITION
iSERVO
/ VALVES

PLAN VIEW
HYDRAULIC
TUBING ;

1 I AILERON
NACELLE
LOWER
TRANSMISSION I
ak ACTUATOR FWD
FLAPS

ACTUATOR, SS;
SHIP'S HULL

/ AILERON
NORMAL POSITION
(AHEAD DIRECTION)
SIDE VIEW

Figure 12. PCH-1 Main Aft Foil Assembly Figure 14. PCH-1 Hullborne Steerable Propulsion Unit
The operational problems which have been encountered
stem, in great part, from failure of conventional hard-
ware components. The other major problem areas stem
from the not unexpected difficulties of operating at cavi-
tation inception speeds. In the latter case, the step from
commercial surface-piercing hydrofoils to the PCH-1
might be compared to that of advancing from the DC-3 to
LEAD SCREW near-sonic aircraft such as the DC-8 and 707. Viewed
in this context, and considering that PCH-1 represents
the first and only craft of its kind, the performance which
has been achieved is considered remarkable.
PCH-1 was delivered to the U.S. Navy on 15 August
ACTUATORS;.
1963 and was manned by a Navy crew. Support for the
craft was provided by three large mobile shore vans con-
taining spare parts, hydraulic and electronic test and re-
pair equipment, and a small administrative office.

During the period from delivery until September 1964

the craft operated foilborne for a total of 53 hours and 41
minutes of which about two hours was in rough water of
sea state 4. Numerous problems were encountered in-
cluding erratic steering, cavitation damage and failure
of coatings applied to the HY-80 struts and foils, and
saltwater contamination of the lube oil in the transmis-
sion. This period of operation is described in detail in
ç ,v, ELEVATORS Reference 8, and results thereof led to a decision, in
September 1964, to completely refurbish and repair the
craft. It remained out of the water until June 1966 and
underwent a complete overhaul of the strut/foil and trans-
mission systems. Modifications were made to the auto-
Figure 13. PCH-1 Forward Foil Assembly matic control system, a larger spade rudder was installed,

13
 VERT
GYRO
Ts +
PITCH HEAVE CHANNEL

HEIGHT
TRIM
VALVE SERVO
AMP VALVE ACTUATOR
I

HEIGHT
SENSOR I ELEVATORS
Ts + I

LINEAR FEEDBACK POTENTIOMETER

ACCEL.

PITCH PITCH CHANNEL

VERT
GYRO

PITCH
TRIM
---7
PITCH
RATE FLAPS

LINEAR
ACCE L.
Ts
Ts+ I

ROLL CHANNELS
VERT ROLL
GYRO

ROLL
RATE

AILERONS
ROL L
TRIM

BANK FL AT

YAW
RATE >Th-s+1
SYNCROS

HEL M
RUDDERS

Figure 15. PCH-1 Control System Funcuonal Diagram

14
and several different types of elastomeric coatings and
test patches were applied to the struts and foils. Addi-
tional instrumentation and recording equipment was also
installed, including 63 bonded strain gages in the struts
and foils, and adaptation was made to the height-sensor
output to permit recording of actual wave heights during
rough water operations.
Operational testing in calm water was resumed on 22
June 1966 and, with the exception of a short drydocking
period to replace one of the experimental coatings which
proved defective in bonding, continued until the middle of
October. During this period, 26 hours of foilborne calm-
water operations were carried out successfully and exten-
sive data were obtained. On 19 October, the craft made
a foilborne transit from Bremerton, Washington to Neah
Bay, a distance of more than 100 miles, in an elapsed
time of three hours and 19 minutes. During this transit,
weather conditions were severe and swells were encoun-
tered which averaged six feet with the highest being as
much as 10 feet in amplitude. Subsequently, further
rough water operations were conducted in the Neah Bay
area for a total of 11 hours of foilborne time. During
this period, the craft was operated at speeds up to 40
knots in seas in excess of sea state 4. Forward foil
broaching was periodically experienced primarily due to
shorter length of the forward strut. This was attendant
with some hull slamming which produced occasional bow
accelerations as much as 2g. However, foilborne oper-
ation was maintained without difficulty and RMS vertical
accelerations at the steering station did not exceed 0.2g.
Furthermore, no difficulty was experienced in rough
water takeoff at any heading even in winds up to 30 knots.
The only significant mechanical failure occurred at the
beginning of the return transit to Bremerton after comple-
tion of the trials Immediately after takeoff both trans-
mission disconnect couplings failed and necessitated
making the return trip in the hullborne condition. Al-
though this was a disappointing conclusion to an otherwise
successful operation, it did serve to demonstrate the sig-
nificant benefits of foilborne operation from the standpoint
of human factors. Foilborne comfort was reflected in the
relative absence of seasickness when operating on the
foils. Only four cases of mild foilborne seasickness were
acknowledged during the entire trials period. In con-
trast, after the transit up to Neah Bay, only three min-
utes elapsed before the first hullborne seasickness oc-
curred, and on the return hullborne transit, a large per-
centage of the crew and trials personnel were sick.
Although PCH-1 has now demonstrated that the achieve-
ment of the original design goals is entirely feasible,
there remain a number of design problems still to be re-
solved. Experience with the present coatings described
in detail in Reference 9 shows considerable promise in
that no significant deterioration was found after nearly
40 hours of foilborne operation. Speeds during these
trials were, however, restricted to a maximum of 40
knots which considerably alleviated cavitation effects.
More data at higher sustained speeds must be obtained
before a complete evaluation of coatings can be made.
Previous difficulties with saltwater leakage into the
transmission lube oil appear to have been corrected by
internal pressurization of the system. It is clear, however,
that future designs should provide for containment of the
lower gear box in a completely separate watertight hous-
ing within the pod.
Although the three-bladed forward propellers have not
shown evidence of cavitation damage, their wake seriously
affects flow conditions over the pod and strut/foil juncture.
The increased velocity in the wake and the cavitating tip
vortices which are generated, considerably degrade the
cavitation characteristics of the pod assembly and a
change to eliminate the forward propellers is indicated.
As for the after propellers, they have proved completely
inadequate in their resistance to cavitation damage. The
present bronze aft propellers are seriously eroded by
cavitation on both faces of each blade and require replace-
ment or repair after about 40 hours of foilborne operation
at cruise speeds. A three-blade configuration is partic-
ularly poor due to the harmonic content of the wake and a
wake-adapted design is required to alleviate the problem.
Even so, it is not likely that aft propeller cavitation can
be avoided at the desired speeds and other design tech-
niques must be employed. These include recourse to
partially cavitating or supercavitating designs, or pro-
vision for forced air injection.
The transmission disconnect couplings which are re-
quired for strut retraction have proven to be a continual
source of trouble. The primary problem occurs in the
difficulty of maintaining alignment with three essentiaLly
independent structural support points. Ultimate solution
can be effected only by a complete redesign and this is
currently underway.
Future Plans
Operational experience with PCH-1 has demonstrated
that a second iteration in the design of the strut/foil/
propulsion system is required in order to achieve an ac-
ceptable level of performance and reliability. As a re-
sult, a contract was awarded to the Boeing Company in
May 1966 to make a detailed study of candidate strut/foil/
propulsion systems reflecting current advances in tech-
nology and incorporating changes necessary to overcome
deficiencies in the present PCH-1 design configuration.
In this study, a detailed comparison was made between
improved propeller propulsion concepts and waterjet
propulsion systems. This design study was completed in
September 1966 and results were reported in Reference
10. After extensive consideration and review by the Navy,
the following conclusions were reached regarding the
configuration of PCH Mod-I:
Steering will be provided by a rotatable forward
strut in lieu of the present strut flap and spade rudder.
Propeller propulsion will be retained; however,
the Mod-I configuration will consist of two pusher pro-
pellers, of new design, mounted on the aft end of the pods.
Provision will be made for future addition of air injection
to the propeller blades.
Watertight housings will be provided for the lower
gear boxes, separate from the pods.
Wet retraction of the struts will be retained to
minimize navigational draft.
15
 Struts and foils will be constructed of higher- design was completed by Grumman in May 1963. A con-
strength material (minimum 130,000 PSI yield). This will tract for detailed design and construction was awarded to
permit utilization of sections of smaller thiclutess, thus Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company in June
improving cavitation inception characteristics. Inconel 1963 and the hull was launched in June 1965. As of this
718, 17-4 PH steel, and HY-130 steel will be considered writing, construction is nearly complete; however, due to
as candidate materials. problems which have arisen in the design of the hydraulic
system and other construction delays, delivery to the
Flap control will be retained; however, consider- Navy is not expected before the middle of 1967.
ation will be given to the use of an elevon system on the
main foils so that all flaps will provide both roll and pitch The major characteristics of AGEH-1 are given in
control. (In the present Mod-0 system the center-span Table I and further illustrated in Figures 16 through 19.
flaps provide only pitch control and the outboard flaps It is the largest hydrofoil ship in the world and will offer
provide only roll control.) the first opportunity to evaluate the potential of such craft
for full ocean-going Naval service. In addition to its
Based on these conclusions, the contractor is currently large size, it is substantially different in design concept
proceeding with the detailed design of the PCH Mod-I from PCH-1. Foil lift variation is effected by change in
configuration. Upon completion of the detailed design in incidence angle of both the main foils and tail foil which
early 1967, construction will be initiated and the new are arranged in an airplane or conventional configuration
strut/foil/propulsion system is scheduled to be completed rather than a canard. Ultra-sonic height sensors are
and ready for installation in the summer of 1968. At that mounted both at the bow and at the stern. Foilborne pro-
time, the PCH will enter drydock and undergo conVersion pulsion is by two 62-inch-diameter, four-bladed, super-
which is expected to be completed by the beginning of 1969. cavitating propellers, one on the end of each gear pod.
The hydrodynamic design of these propellers was per-
During the approximately 1 and 1/2 years before the formed by Hydronautics, Inc. They were built by Hamilton
Mod-I strut/foil/propulsion system will be ready for in- Standard and are made of titanium alloy with blades bolted
stallation, the PCH will continue to undergo extensive test to the hubs. The initially installed power plant consists
and evaluation by the Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit. of two General Electric LM-1500 gas turbines, each
During the first half of 1967, preliminary investigations driving, one propeller through a right-angle bevel-gear
will be made of the interfaces between the craft and po- transmission. Provision has been made, however, for
tential mission equipment such as weapons; and detection, adding two more engines to ultimately achieve much
navigation, and communication equipment. Here, it is higher speeds using a ventilated or supercavitating foil
not the intent to develop new mission equipment, but system. The hull, which is constructed of welded 5456
rather to explore the potential for utilization of existing aluminum, has been designed to meet the structural load
hardware with this new high-speed platform. From such requirements of higher speed operation.
tests, requirements and specifications will be developed
for mission equipment tailored to realize maximum bene- Future Plans
fit from the advanced performance capabilities of hydro-
foil craft. Upon delivery to the Navy, AGEH-1 will be assigned to
the Hydrofoil Special Trials Unit and will undergo exten-
This period of mission interface testing will afford an sive evaluation for a period of several years. This will
opportunity to acquire limited additional craft performance undoubtedly include at least one major modification to
data and permit more thorough analyses of extensive data correct design deficiencies and enhance performance
which have already been acquired. During this period, capabilities.
also, a more complete documentation will be made of the
existing craft system and subsystem configuration. Based Since this ship was conceived and built as an experi-
on this a na I y s is and documentation, performance areas mental tool for acquiring data to establish a firm founda-
requiring further definition will be delineated. Then, in tion for design of large submerged-foil craft, it is being
the latter half of 1967, additional calm water and rough outfitted with an extensive instrumentation suit. More
water performance trials will be carried out to establish than two hundred strain gages have been installed and
fully the performance envelope of the Mod-0 configuration. calibrated in the struts and foils. Additional strain gages
are being installed throughout the hull structure along with
During the first half of 1968, emphasis in the trials hull pressure sensors. Velocity transducers, accelerom-
program will shift again to more detailed investigation of eters, and other measuring equipment are also located
mission capabilities. Experimental towing equipment, throughout the ship and provision is made for accurate
simulating a high-speed towed sonar system, will be in- measure.ment of thrust and torque. To facilitate analysis
stalled and towing capabilities of the craft will be evalu-
of data obtained from the many sensors, provision has
ated. Upon conclusion of this phase of the planned trials
also been made for continuous and simultaneous recording
program, the craft will be drydocked for installation of of the more than two hundred data channels on a single
the Mod-1 strut/foil/propulsion system. magnetic tape.
PLArNVIEW (AGEH-1)
Based on experience with PCH-1, it is to be expected
that early operations with the AGEH-1 will be character-
General ized by a host of minor and major problems which will
Funds for construction of the AGEH-1 were authorized severely restrict its availability for test. Furthermore,
in view of its unique nature and aspects of safety,
in the FY 1962 ship construction program and the guidance

16
 Figure 16. AGEH-1 Afloat

Figure 17. AGEH-1 Stern Figure 18. AGEH-1 Main Propulsion Pod

17
 82.628'

/HULL BORNE4MAX. /4NRETRACTION

'145 ANGLE
15.
25' D.W.L.

25' 10'
156
C.W.L.
FOIL BORNE 4 MAX.
90'
45'
70' CV .6

206'
115' 3.5 "(JIG

158'
RETR.ANGLE
13.4!
RETR. AXIS

841( REF.)

Figure 19. AGEH-1 Principal Dimensions

advancement to full rough water operation must proceed three struts which can be attached in either a canard or
in careful steps. This process will involve detailed anal- an airplane arrangement. Provision is also made for use
ysis of data as they are acquired and continual refinement of a fourth strut to permit tests of a tandem arrangement.
of analog computer predictions of performance to be ex- The demonstration foils are of equal area with base-vented
pected. The planned special trials program is tailored cambered parabolic sections. The struts are also blunt,
to this situation and will permit the acquisition of full- base-vented, with parabolic section.
scale data necessary to correct deficiencies in design and
establish firm criteria for design of future operational Propulsion is provided by a large turbo-fan engine
craft . which, although inefficient, permits investigations of foils
and foil control systems without interference. The cata-
FRESH-I maran hull also permits considerable flexibility in strut/
foil arrangement.
General
As previously noted, the attainment of foilborne speeds
considerably greater than 50 knots requires recourse to
ventilated or supercavitating foils. Limitations on maxi-
mum speeds of available model test facilities seriously
limit the acquisition of data needed for the design of such
systems. Furthermore, scale effects associated with
two-phase flow phenomena significantly affect the accu-
racy of predictions of full-scale behavior based on model
studies. As a result, the need for a flexible, large-scale,
high-speed foil test craft was recognized early in the
Navy Hydrofoil Program. A competition for design and
construction of a 100-knot, fully-instrumented test ve-
hicle, designated FRESH-I, was held by the Bureau of
Ships in early 1961. On the basis of this competition, a
contract was awarded to the Boeing Company in June 1961.

FRESH-I was launched in February 1963 and began its

performance trials in the spring of that year. The char-
acteristics of the craft are listed in Table I and illus-
trated in Figures 20 and 21. The initial foil configuration,
referred to as the demonstration foil system, consists of Figure 20. FRESH-1 Foilborne

18
 DISPLACEMENT:
LIGHT SHIP 12.4T
FULL LOAD 16. 5 T

571- 4" L.O.A. 22-6" BEAM

53'- 2"

04A
1P
I -I-

4'- 8 3/4" r

FRESH - I TYP-3 FOILS

Figure 21. FRESH-1 Principal Dimensions

Operational Experience of cavities in the flow permitted a gradual increase in

flying height during the run and this was not detected un-
Experiences and data acquired in operating the FRESH- til the foils were in the near-broach condition. At the
I are reported in detail in References 11 and 12 and will very shallow foil submergence the craft lacked both
be summarized only briefLy here. lateral stability and rudder effectiveness and went into a
divergent yaw to starboard. Ultimately, the port foil
Extensive hullborne and foilborne trials were conducted completely overloaded and stalled with a resulting rapid
by the builder during the first half of 1963. During most roll to port causing the craft to capsize.
of this "shakedown" period, the demonstration foil system
was arranged in a canard configuration. A change was FoLlowing the accident, the FRESH-I was completely
made to an airplane configuration and the craft first flew refurnished and changes were made to prevent a recur-
with this arrangement on 6 June 1963. No significant rence of a loss of directional stability. A water brake
problems were encountered during these tests and demon- system was also added and the JT-3D fan jet engine was
strations at speeds up to 80 knots were conducted for a replaced with a reconditioned YTF-33 jet engine acquired
Navy Trials Board on 10 July 1963. During the following from the Air Force. Upon completion of the refurbish-
week, a change was made back to the canard arrangement ment, additional trials were successfully conducted by
and demonstrations for the Trials Board were resumed on the builder. Delivery of FRESH-I was accepted by the
18 July. During this series of xuns the craft went out of Navy in July 1964 and after completion of final tests of
control at a speed of 70 knots and completely turned over. the demonstration foil system in December 1964 the craft
Fortunately, the two-man crew and a member of the was placed in storage at the Boeing Company in Seattle.
Trials Board, who were on the craft at that time, sus-
tained only minor injuries. Damage to the craft was also Future Plans
light except for considerable deformation of the first-
stage blading in the jet engine and later extensive corro- At the present time there are no specific plans for
sion of other metal parts of the engine. further tests with FRESH-I. A "transit" foil system has
been designed and constructed by Grumman for installa-
Analysis of data tapes, which were recovered un- tion on FRESH-I; however, plans for test of this system
damaged, made possible a complete reconstruction and have been temporarily shelved. This results from a re-
analysis of the series of events leading up to the accident. appraisal of program goals which was made in early 1965
In brief, a loss of flap effectiveness due to the formation in light of difficulties incurred in operations of PCH-1.

19
At that time, it was decided to concentrate efforts and
limited funding on resolution of current design problems
as evidenced in PCH-1 and as expected in AGEH-1. Upon
successful demonstration of the performance capabilities
of these large submerged-foil craft in the intermediate
speed range, attention will again turn to the development
of higher speed systems., In the interim, fundamental
design studies and model tests of ventilated and super-
cavitating foils are being continued in the Navy's Ex-
ploratory Development Program. A study is also cur-
rently underway at Boeing to determine the feasibility of
conversion of the FRESH-I as a platform for test of
waterjet propulsion systems.
PGH
In response to a requirement for a high-speed hydro-
foil gunboat, established by CNO in 1963, two PGH's were
authorized in the FY 1966 shipbuilding program. Based
on design data generated by the Hydrofoil Development
Program and further feasibility studies, conducted by the
Ship Concept Design Division of the Naval Ship Engineer-
ing Center, final characteristics for the craft were ap-
proved in early 1965. In July 1965, a request for propo-
sals was sent to a selected list of contractors known to
have interest and experience in the design and construc-
tion of hydrofoil craft. Of the seven contractors solicited,
only two responded. These were the Grumman Aircraft
Engineering Corporation and the Boeing Company. Both
proposals, although presenting substantially different
design concepts, were considered technically sound and
offered configurations adequate to meet the requirements.
As a result, it was decided to procure one boat from each
firm and, accordingly, contracts were awarded in April
1966. Builder's trials are expected to be conducted in
the latter part of 1967 and delivery is planned for early
1968.
Principle characteristics of the two PGH's are listed
in Table I and shown in Figures 22 through 25. The
Grumman PGH-1 has a conventional foil configuration
similar to AGEH-1 with a 70/30 load distribution and in-
cidence control. Foilborne propulsion is provided by a
single supercavitating propeller located on the aft end of
a pod at the juncture of the tail strut and foil. The prime
mover is a Rolls-Royce Tyne gas turbine which drives
through a right-angle bevel-gear transmission. Hull-
borne propulsion consists of two Buehler waterjets each
powered by a General Motors diesel engine. The foils
are of subcavitating design and will be made of solid cast
aluminum.
The Boeing PGH-2 is a canard configuration with a
31/69 load distribution and flap control system. The
foils are of subcavitating design and the main foils are
arranged in an anhedral configuration to reduce their
tendency to ventilate in banked turns. Foilborne propul-
sion will be provided by a waterjet system consisting of
a Byron-Jackson pump driven by a Bristol-Proteus gas
turbine. Water inlets are located at the juncture of each
main strut and foil. Hullborne propulsion consists of a
single Buehler waterjet driven by a General Motors
diesel engine.
20
Figure 22. PGH-1 (Grumman) Artist Concept
As previously noted, these craft are considered within
the state-of-the-art and are not a part of the RDT & E
program. They will, however, undergo extensive trials
before they are delivered to the fleet, and the data ob-
tained from these tests and future operations will be of
considerable value and importance in the design and de-
velopment of present and future hydrofoils.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
By its nature, this type of summary paper does not
represent an original contribution. Rather, it represents
a review and summarization of the work of many who have
contributed to achievement of the goals of the U. S. Navy
Hydrofoil Development Program. It is, of course, not
possible here to recognize each of the many significant
contributions. However, it is considered appropriate to
acknowledge a few of these which are felt to be particu-
larly noteworthy.
Certainly, the principle early impetus to the develop-
ment of hydrofoils in the U.S. came from the Office of
Naval Research. Additional progress toward demonstra-
tion of full-scale craft came about through the efforts of
the Maritime Administration. Pull realization of the po-
tential of hydrofoils for Naval service was generated by
the former Bureau of Ships and there, the efforts of
Mr. Owen Oakley and Mr. Ralph Lacey and their staff in
the Preliminary Design Division as well as the other
technical and design divisions of the bureau merit special
acknowledgement. They were supported in much of the
fundamental work in developing design criteria by the
David Taylor Model Basin and many other government
and private laboratories.
Among the many industrial contractors who have
played a significant role in this development, the con-
tributions of Gibbs & Cox, M.I.T., Boeing, Grumman,
Lockheed, Hydronautics, Pratt & Whitney, and General
Electric have been of great importance.
Finally, the author wishes to pay special tribute to
Lt. Steve McGanka and the crew of the PCH-1. Their
 1 r
1

I :,--4'
"
1.1.
11,
=121 OS

e ,/
Itaalibarld.111111E111010111r"
MS..... C.t C12.161MCia wail= aw.. ../
,

Figure 23. PGH-1 Configuration

"

Figure 24. PGH-2 (Boeing) Artist Concept

enthusiasm, wining cooperation, and understanding of continue to be, of vital importance in achieving the ulti-
the nature of the development process has been, and will mate goals of this program.

21
 Figure 25. PGH-2 Configuration
REFERENCES
Crew, P.R. , "The Hydrofoil Boat; Its History and
Future Prospects," Quarterly Transactions, The
Institution of Naval Architects, Vol. 100, No. 4,
Oct. 1958.
Hayward, L., "The History of Hydrofoils," Series
of Articles published in Hovering Craft & Hydrofoils
(Kalerghi Publications, London, England) Vol. 5,1966.
Oakley, 0.H. , "Hydrofoils - A State of the Art Sum-
mary," Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, Proceed-
ings, National Meeting on Hydrofoils R.L.Air Cushion
Vehicles, 17-18 Sept. 1962.
Lacey, R. E. , "A Progress Report on Hydrofoil
Ships," Quarterly Transactions, The Institution of
Naval Architects, Vol. 107, No. 1, Jan. 1965.
Chey, Yoang, "Motions and Accelerations of AGEH
When Hove-To in Extreme Sea States," Stevens
Institute of Technology, Davidson Laboratory Report
977, Aug. 1963.
Jamieson, J.J. , "Controls Technology in Hydrofoil
Ship Design," Proceedings, Ship Control Systems
Symposium, USN Marine Engineering Laboratory,
Nov. 1966.
22
McGanka, S.W. , Lt. , USN, "Service Evaluation of
the Control System Installed Onboard the Hydrofoil
Ship HIGH POINT (PCH-1), " Proceedings, Ship Con-
trol Systems Symposium, USN Marine Engineering
Laboratory, Nov. 1966.
Petrie, D. M., "Operational and Developmental Ex-
perience on the U.S. Navy Hydrofoil, HIGH POINT,"
Paper presented to AIAA/USN Marine Systems and
ASW Conference, 10 March 65.
Watson, F. B. , "Protective Coatings-Foil System,
PCH-1 HIGH POINT," Boeing Co. Report No.
D2-133600-1, July 1966.
"PCH-1 Mod I Design Study, Phase A Technical
Report," Boeing Co. Confidential Report No.
D2-133601-1, August 1966.
Stevens, D. L., Jr. , "The Bureau of Ships Hydrofoil
Craft, FRESH-I," Paper presented to the Chesapeake
Section, Society of Naval Architects & Marine Engi-
neers, Washington, D.C. , 26 Feb. 1964.
"FRESH-I Phase II Summary Report," Boeing
Confidential Report No. D2-82512-1, June 1965.
Stevens, D. L., Jr. , "Design and Procurement of the
Hydrofoil Gunboat, PGH," Naval Engineers Journal,
December 1966.
 TABLE I
CRAFT CHARACTERLSTICS

Characteristics PCII-1 (Mod-0) AGE H-1 FRESH-I* PGH-1 PGH-2

Configuration Canard Airplane .Various Airplane Canard

Length Overall-Feet 115. 7 212 53. 1 74. 5 71. 8
Beam, Extreme, Foils down - Feet 33.3 70.8 22.5 21.5 19.5
Full Load Hullborne Draft - Foils up - Feet 6.5 6.4 ---- 4.2 4.5
Full Load Hullborne Draft - Foils down - Feet 17 25 10. 4 13. 5 13. 9
Full Load Displacement - Long Tons 120 320 16. 7 57 58
Hul'borne Propulsion
Engine (1) (2) (2) (1)
Packard Diesel GM Diesels GM Diesels GM Diesel
Shaft Horsepower 600 1200 320 160
Thrust Producer (1) (2) Waterjet Waterjet
3-bladed 5-bladed
Subcav. Prop Subc ay. Props
Foilborne Propulsion
Engine (2) (2) (1) (1) (1)
Bristol Proteus GM LM-1500 P&W JT-3D Rolls-Royce Tyne Bristol Proteus
G. T. G. T, Fan Jet G. T. G. T.
Shaft Horsepower (continuous) 6200 28,000 ** 3150 3100
Thrust Producer (4) (2) Turbo Fan (1) Waterjet
3-bladed 4-bladed Supcav. Prop
Subcav. Props Supcav. Props
Max. Hullborne Speed, Knots 12 15 4. 5 7+ 7+
Calm Water Takeoff Speed, Knots 27 33 45
Max. Foilborne Speed, Knots 40+ 45+ 80-100 40+ 40+
HY80
Foil Ei Strut Material HY 80 Steel HY 80/100 Steel 17-4PH Cast Alum/4130 17-4 PII
Hull Material 5456 Al 5456 Al 5456/2014A1 5456 Al 5456 Al
Type of Control Flaps Incidence Flaps Incidence Flaps

*Demonstration Foil Configuration

**18, 000 lbs Static Thrust
No. 61-352

ON THE PREDICTION OF THE SEAKEEPING CHARACTERISTICS

OF HYDROFOIL SHIPS
by

I. A. HIRSCH
The Boeing Company
Seattle, Washington

Paper No.
67-352

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
3.07, 7.07
 ON THE PREDICTION OF THE SEAKEEPING CI-LkRACTERISTICS
OF HYDROFOIL SHIPS
I. A. Hirsch
The Boeing Company
Seattle, Washington
Abstract
Three analytical methods for predicting the foil-
borne seakeeping characteristics of fully sub-
merged-foil hydrofoil ships are presented. Each
of these methods uses a comprehensive electronic
analog computer simulation of the hydrofoil ship
and of the sea-state environment. The simplest
method of prediction, applicable only to regular
waves, uses a sinusoidal representation of the
sea. By recording the computed ship responses
to the simulated sea, a prediction of the seakeep-
ing characteristics of the ship is obtained for
regular waves. A second method for simulating
the sea is based on a statistical description of
the wave height and the associated orbital particle
velocity. Random signals proportional to these
tw6 quantities are generated and act on the hydro-
foil-ship simulation to produce time histories of
the ship's response to the sea state. These re-
sponse data can be processed by statistical analy-
sis equipment to provide predictions of seakeep-
ing characteristics in the form of spectral density
functions and probability distribution functions.
A third method uses a linear superposition tech-
nique based on the measurement of the ship's
response to selected sinusoidal waves. These
measurements are used to operate on the spectral
density function of wave height for a given sea
state to yield a prediction of the hydrofoil's
seakeeping characteristies, Representative sam-
ples of seakeeping predictions obtained by each of
the three methods are presented.
Introduction
High-speed operation with good seakeeping charac-
teristics forms the basic justification for the sub-
merged-foil hydrofoil ship. The ability to pre-
dict the behavior of the hydrofoil ship in a given
sea state is an important element in the design
of the ship, and specifically in the design and
evaluation of the ship's automatic control system.
The purpose of this paper is to describe three
analytical techniques that can be used in predicting
the foilborne seakeeping characteristics of sub-
merged-foil hydrofoil ships.
Each of the methods presented uses a comprehen-
sive electronic analog computer simulation of the
hydrofoil ship and of the sea-state environment.
In the simulation, the wave height and wave orbi-
tal particLe velocity are represented. Both of
1
these wave properties act as disturbances on the simu-
lated ship. A simulated 70-ton preliminary-design
hydrofoil ship is used in this paper as a basis for the
presentation of computer predictions.
Computer Model
Attempts to predict the seakeeping characteris-
tics of large hydrofoil ships based on the performance
of smaller craft or models have been relatively un-
successful due to the difficulties of adequately repre-
senting the inertial properties and dynamic character-
istics of the active control system of full-scale ships.
The use of the analog computer as the mathematical
model permits adequate representation of the inertial
properties and the control system of a full-scale ship.
The computer model that has been used for the ex-
ample of this paper has six degrees of freedom (that
is, pitch, heave, surge, roll, yaw, and sway) with
continuously variable speed and hull height above the
water. For predicting behavior in rough seas, the
simulation of a hydrofoil ship must realistically re-
flect the properties of the actual ship in all essential
details. That is, accurate values must be known for
ship weight, moments of inertia, and pertinent dimen-
sions. The hydrodynamic characteristics of the foil-
strut assemblies must be based on thorough model
tests with results adjusted to include full-scale effects
where appropriate. The lift, drag, and side forces
developed by the foil-strut assemblies must be prop-
erly represented in response to changes in foil sub-
mergence, craft forward speed, foil angle of attack,
strut angle of attack, and control surface deflections.
The dynamic properties of the automatic control sys-
tem must be represented in detail, including the
characteristics of the control electronics, electrohy-
draulic servo actuators, and sensors. Typical sen-
sors on a hydrofoil ship include a vertical gyroscope,
a yaw-rate gyroscope, one or more accelerometers,
and a height sensor mounted at the bow of the ship.
Inherent control system limits, such as exist for con-
trol surface rate and position, must also be included.
Sea-state effects act on the simulated ship as
disturbance functions. For the foilborne ship con-
sidered here, the disturbances act at each foil-strut
location and at the height sensor. The sea profile at
the height sensor generates an error signal in the
control system electronics that represents a depar-
ture from the desired foil depth. This error signal
is processed by the automatic control system that, in
turn, delivers a command to change the position of
the control surfaces.
 One effect of the sea on the foil-strut assemblies ponent. By choosing the direction of wave travel as
is to generate a change in submergence at each as- negative , the horizontal component lags the vertical
sembly. This change in submergence affects the lift, component by a phase angle of 90 degrees. This is
drag, and side forces. In addition, the simulated expressed as:
water orbital particle velocity affects the effective u= uo sin (ce (4)
angle of attack of the foils and local sideslip angle of
the struts. This change in angle of attack and side- Saunders has also shown that the tangential orbital
slip angle in turn affects the lift, drag, and side velocity decays exponentially with depth and can be
forces. expressed by:

Sinusoidal Sea
u, = u0 exp ( -217S ) (5)
decay
where: exp = "e to the exponent." The exponent
The simplest method of representing a seaway on
the analog computer is to assume that the wave pro- here is ( -2 17S )
file can be described by a long-crested sinusoidal
wave having a specified wave height and length. While S = Distance below the surface.
this technique of representing the sea is the least
realistic method to be discussed, very useful infor- A sinusoidal water surface is depicted in Figure
mation is obtained nevertheless. The instantaneous la. The Earth coordinate axes are XE, YE, and
wave height for the sinusoidal or regular wave can be ZE and are shown to establish a reference system.
expressed as: The orbital particle velocity characteristics of a
sinusoidal wave are shown in Figure lb. Note the
h= sin (w t) (1) exponential decay of the orbital velocity with depth.
2

where: h = Instantaneous wave height above the

mean water level.

H = Distance from trough to crest of a

wave.
t = Time.
= Wave frequency in radians/second.

has discussed some basic wave as-

Saunders(1)

sumptions that can be made for regular waves. He

has shown that the velocity of wave propag,ation, more
commonly called wave celerity, can be calculated
from the following relationship:
FIGURE IA: SINUSOIDAL WATER SURFACE
(2)
igX
2Ir

where: X = Wave length.

g = Acceleration due to gravity. wAvE CLERITT, C

C = Wave celerity. ORIGIN OF

EARTH AXES RE FE RE NC E
AT = C SMOOTH WATER SURFACE
IT = Numeric constant (3.1416...).
Saunders has also shown that the vertical compo-
nent, w, of the tangential orbital velocity, u0, is the
time derivative of the wave height. This can be ex-
PATA OF A WATER
pressed as: PARTICLE LOCATED
AT POINT AT
TIRE, O

ExpoNENTIAL DECAY
dh co H u, cos (co t) (3) OF GRRITAL vELOCITT
w= = cos (cc t) = WITH DEPTH
dt 2

The particle orbit is usually elliptical in nature.

However, if the water depth is large compared to the
wave length, the orbit can be assumed to be circular. FIGURE 1B: ORBITAL PARTICLE VELOCITY
A circular particle motion is assumed here. The CHARACTERISTICS
horizontal orbital particle velocity component, u, has
a phase-quadrature relationship with the vertical com-

2
 The equations developed thus far represent the and
sea at a fixed point with respect to the Earth. These
equations must be modified to account for craft speed, 27 r + vo t + L. cos 6
7 L(c
WEWi = uo cos /
craft heading, and spatially separated foil locations.
From an observation point moving with a forward (- 27 Si)
velocity, Uo' the water surface appears as: - f . sin td 1 exp (10)
Yi. X

H . [x27(C + VE) t where: UEwi = Component of water orbital parti-

Z EW = 27 sin (6) cle velocity of Earth X axis at the
ith foil.
where: Z Ew = Distance from the coordinate sys- W EWi = Component of water orbital part-
tem origin to the water surface cle velocity of Earth Z axis at the
(Figure la). jth foil.
VE = Craft velocity relative to the sea. Si = Submerg,ed distance of the ith foil.

The instantaneous wave heights described in Equations

For most operations it can be assumed:
VE = U0 cos 6
where: U0 = Craft forward equilibrium speed.
4 = Craft heading angle. (4 = 0 degree
corresponds to a head-sea condition.
4 = 180 degrees corresponds to a
following sea.)
The water surface is observed from the height
sensor and foil locations that are fixed relative to
one another but are moving relative to the Earth axes
coordinate system. It is necessary to introduce
phase lags that describe the height of the water sur-
6 and 8 and the instantaneous orbital particle velocity
components described in Equations 9 and 10 are sima-
(7) lated on the analog computer. These equations are
then resolved into the craft coordinate system.
To properly evaluate a hydrofoil ship in regular
waves it is necessary to operate the ship in waves of
various heights and lengths. Time-history responses
of the vertical acceleration at the steering station to
a variety of wave heights and lengths are shown in
Figure 2. These responses were ta.ken for a pre-
ACCPIEEMAT/CN
NTECRING

face at these points. The phase lags are determined 0 I

rriszc.
by craft geometry and heading angle. When these
phase lags are included, the equations for water sur- WAVE IENOTH 90 PT WAVE HEIGHT 6 n
face heights, as seen from a craft maneuvering on a
sine sea, can be expressed as: ACCELERATIC

27
STATIM
o_
Ewi sin + VE) t + fx cos 4 PT/202
X 10
DC1,01 I

VASO HEIGHT 6 IT

- lyi sin d1 (8) ACCLIZNAl2l

NTENR1110
=Anal
where: Z Ewi = Instantaneous wave height at the Tr/ --- Ad\v ,
ith foil measured in Earth axes VASO MOM -60 PT WAVE FEIGNS , PT

from the reference mean water DOM

TIM

surface. 10
ACCEIERATICN

Distance from the height sensor mown

Xi sun-
along the X axis to the ith foil. ,r.r2 °
WAVE LENGTH 80 PT WA. MIGHT - 4 FT
1
Yi = Distance from the craft centerline
DOM

along the Y axis to the ith foil UP

(starboard is positive). ACCELERATION
STEIN=
3TATICII

In a manner similar to that used in determining

5 n
the wave height at each foil, the orbital particle veloc- DOM WAVI =ACTH 100 PS WAVE HEIGHT

ity in Earth axes can be expressed as: IO- or

ACCEPERATION
CM-81NR

{27 t fxi cos

STATION

UEwi = u0 sin [(C

PT/SLe

(- 27 Si) WAVE IZNOTH 160 PT WAVE HEIGHT 8 Pr

_ fYi sin td exp
X
(9)

FIGURE 2: ACCELERATION TIME RESPONSES IN

SINUSOIDAL WAVES

3
liminary-design 70-ton hydrofoil ship operating at 40
knots in a following sea. From the figure it is noted
that the nonlinearities in the force characteristics of
the hydrofoil ship are evidenced by the distorted
sinusoidal response. However, it can be seen that
the responses are approximately linear in the lower
sea states, if the ratio of wave length-to-height is
large (greater than 20 to 1).
The major advantage of the sine-sea method for
predicting seakeeping over the other methods to be
discussed is the ability to represent a hydrofoil ship
performing a continuous 360-degree turn. An analog
computer time-history trace of various ship responses
for turning in regular waves with a fixed helm com-
mand is shown in Figure 3. The wave height is 5 feet
and the length is 75 feet. The forward-foil depth re-
sponse shows the craft to be maintaining a near-
platforming attitude in head and following seas where
the encountered frequencies are relatively high. How-
ever, the craft contours the lower-frequency waves
around the beam and quartering seas. The initial
starboard roll angle is due to the fact that the ship
turns in a banked-turn mode. The rudder angle
varies in a turn even though there is a fixed helm.
This is a result of the yaw-rate feedback signal to the
rudder. It has been found that some ship desig-ns have
considerable difficulty negotiating headings between a
beam and a quartering sea. A yaw-rate feedback sig-
nal to the rudder has eliminated most of this diffi-
culty. Note that for this particular sea state the
acceleration time response shows that the peak-to-
peak vertical acceleration is sig,nificantly less in a
following sea than in a head sea.
The major disadvantage of using the sinusoidal
sea is that it is not representative of the majority of
the sea states occurring in nature. However, it is a
very useful design tool and also provides a basis for
the more realistic random representation of the sea.
Random Sea
Observations readily verify that a seaway in
nature is composed of numerous wave heights and
lengths. Neumann(2) and others (3 8z 4) have formu-
lated analytic expressions for ocean waves based on
statistical concepts of continuous random events. A
Neumann wave spectrum for a fully-arisen long-
crested sea can be expressed as:
1
2]
[H ( co] 2 exp[2 )

10D-
(AO ISTS) where: [H (4.4 2 ,
Spectral density of wave height.
CRAFT
SPEED

FT/SEC C j = Empirically determined con-

FOIL
stant --- 51 .6 ft2/sec5.
OEPIN
FWD
5- U,, = Wind velocity.
exp = "e to the exponent." The ex-
2
P I TEN
ANGLE

DEG
ponent here is -2 ( g )

ROLL
Equation 11 provides a basis for simulating the wave
ANGLE
DEC
height properties of a random sea.
STDO

25
0

.VE
HEADING
ON 'Es Also required in the simulation are the spectra
DEG
for the components of orbital velocity. In a sinus-
FOLLOW
180

10
oidal sea the vertical component of orbital particle
RUDOER
ANGLE
LEFT velocity is the time derivative of the wave height. It
DES
RIG1T
is assumed that a statistical sea is an infinite sum-
/0 matio-n of sinusoids with a gaussian distribution.
ACCELERAT ION ie
Therefore, it can be assumed that the vertical orbital
STEERING
'IR4iflgqq" particle velocity is the time derivative of the wave
Atik
STATION
e
FT/SEC1.

10
;
height for the statistical sea. From random process
10
theory(5), it is known that if two functions are related
TURNING
FLAT(
PORT by a time derivative, such as is the case with the
OEG/SEC
STS0
vertical orbital velocity and wave height, then their
10 spectra are related by:
[w (w)]2 [H (12)

where: (ce)] 2 Spectral density of the verti-

FIGURE 3: A HYDROFOIL SHIP TURNING IN cal component of orbital
SINUSOIDAL WAVES
velocity.
 Note that there is no explicit phase relationship
between the individual frequency components of verti-
cal orbital velocity. However, each vertical orbital
particle component at a particular frequency has a
definite phase relationship (90-degree lead) with the
component of wave height at that frequency. This
phase relationship must be preserved in the simu-
lation.
The horizontal component of orbital particle
velocity [U (co)j2 has the same spectral density
characteristics as the vertical component of orbital
velocity. However, each frequency component of
[U (cc)]2 lags the corresponding component of
[Vti (w)] 2 by 90 degrees at each frequency. This re-
lationship must also be observed in the simulation.
The generated spectra are only valid for a sta-
tionary point in space. These spectra must be trans-
formed to account for craft speed and heading. To
preserve the energy of the spectra in a transforma-
tion, it can be shown that the transformed spectral
density curves can be expressed as:
[H (ce)]2
[H (oe)]2 - (13)
2U0
1+ cos
and
= W2 [H (we)] 2
[W (wj 2= Eu (we)] (14)
where: [H (we)] 2 = Transformed spectral density
of wave height.
( we)] 2 = Transformed spectral density
of vertical component of or-
bital velocity.
( wed 2 = Transformed spectral density
of horizontal component of or-
bital velocity.
The procedure that has been selected to generate
a statistical sea on the analog computer is based on
"shaping" a continuous white gaussian noise signal
with electronic filters and obtaining a continuous
spectrum. This method is considered superior to
using a line spectrum in which a finit,e sum of sinus-
oids is assumed. It is possible to inadvertently omit
resonant frequencies of the craft when a line spectrum
is assumed. To help understand the basis for gen-
erating a continuous spectrum, consider Diagram I:
[G (j a2) I , Sy (w)
Diagram I
In the diagram:
Sx (w) = Input spectral density.
Sy (cc) = Output spectral density.
G (j Le) = Transfer function of a linear filter.
Because G (j co) is a linear transfer function, the
following is true;
5
Sy (w) = 1G (j (012 Sx (w) (15)
By making Sx (w) white gaussian noise with a noise
level of 1.0 feet2/radian/second, Sy (w) will be
numerically equal to 1G (j 4.012. This implies that
the output spectral density at each frequency will be
equal to the square of the magnitude of the filter trans-
fer function at that frequency. The converse of this
is used in designing filters. That is, the filter trans-
fer function is simply the square root of the desired
output spectrum at each frequency.
A digital computer program based on an
extremum-seeking technique has been developed to
design the necessary filters. The digital computer
program is capable of determining the necessary
transfer functions with the proper amplitude and
phase relationships. Separate filter transfer functions
are needed for the wave height at the height sensor
and at each foil. Filters are also required for the
components of orbital particle velocity at each foil.
A total of ten filters is required theoretically to
represent the sea.
To reduce the required number of filters, an
approximation is made. It is assumed that the sea
is a position-stationary process relative to the height
sensor and the foils. As a result of this approxi-
mation, the foils "see" the same sea as the height
sensor, suitably displaced in time. The time delay
is simply a function of craft speed, craft heading,
wave celerity, and foil distance from the height
sensors. This relationship is approximately:
- f cos rk + sin
X. Y.
t. - U cos 11) C
(16)
o
Predicted hydrofoil-ship responses are obtained
by "flying" the hydrofoil ship in the realistic sea.
Time histories of craft responses in a random sea are
shown in Figure 4. These responses were taken for
the 70-ton hydrofoil ship operating in a head sea,
traveling at 40 knots in Sea State 4. Observe that in
no case do the peak accelerations at the steering
station exceed 0. 25 g.
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/16.1
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FIGURE 4: HYDROFOIL-SHIP TIME RESPONSES IN
A RANDOM SEA
 One of the more useful methods of presenting An electronically measured craft pitch angle
statistical data is in the form of spectral density spectrum is shown in Figure 7. The rms value
plots. The procedure for obtaining this type of pre- pitch angle is 1.04 degrees and the spectrum is
diction involves the recording of a time-history centered about 0.25 cps. Again, note that peaking
sample of the desired response on magnetic tape and occurs at various frequencies.
then processing of the tape through an electronic 104)
1.04 RMS DEGREES

spectrum-analysis machine. SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:

1 VOLT2/CPS = 25 DEG2/CPS

An electronically measured spectral density plot 5.0 DEG2/CPS

of a simulated Neumann wave height spectrum is
shown in Figure 5. The simulated spectrum is that 10db

of upper Sea State 4 for craft traveling 40 knots in a

head sea. The predicted acceleration response spec- 0.5 DEG2/CPS

trum for the craft operating in this sea state is

shown in Figure 6. The root mean square (rms)
acceleration is 3.54 ft/sec2 centered about 0.4
cycle per second (cps). Note that the predicted
acceleration spectrum peaks at certain frequencies. 10-3
If a line wave height spectrum were used rather than
the continuous spectrum, these peaks could have
been undetected.
I 1 1

.01 .1 1.0 10.0

10-0
FREQUENCY, CPS

6.76 FT 2/CPS FIGURE 7: CRAFT PITCH ANGLE SPECTRUM

10-1 10 db
Linear Superposition Technique

.676 FT 2/CPS
R. P. Bernicker (6 & 7)has shown that hydro-
foil craft motions can be predicted in a random sea
10-2 from knowledge of hydrofoil-craft responses in a
regular sea. Bernicker conducted his study in a
water tow tank with a model of a surface-piercing
hydrofoil craft. He showed that the technique was
10-3 1.71 RMS FT valid for a nonventilated foil system and for a fully-
ventilated foil system. The same technique can be
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR
shown to be applicable to a fully-submerged-foil
1 VOLT2/CPS = 25 FT 2/CPS
hydrofoil for which the analog computer acts as the
-4 model.
1O
.01 .1 1.0 10.0
The technique that is used to predict craft
FREQUENCY, CPS
response in a random sea is a linear analysis tech-
FIGURE 5: WAVE HEIGHT SPECTRUM nique for which a closed loop dynamic transfer func-
tion must be determined between the wave height and
3.54 RMS FT/SEC2 the ship responses. On the basis of the theory of
10-0
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR: linear superposition, the output response spectrum
1 VOLT2/C PS = 15.6 {FTA SEC )212/C PS is the product of the value of the wave height spec-
3.59 (FT/SEC2) 2/CPS tral density at each discrete frequency and the
square of the absolute value of the transfer function
10db at the corresponding frequency. The successful
application of this method depends on nonlinear
0.359 (FT/SEC2) 2/CPS effects being minor.
10-2 Figure 8 shows the measured response spectrum
of after vertical acceleration for an alternate hydro-
foil-ship design. This continuous spectrum was
obtained in response to shaped white noise as pre-
viously discussed. Also shown are predicted
response spectrum points that were calculated by
this linear superposition technique. Predicted
points at frequencies of below 1.0 cps show excep-
10-4
.01 .1 I .0 10.0 tionally good cor'relation. The confidence of pre-
FREQUE NCY , CPS
dicted points greater than 1.0 cps may be question-
able because this would represent steep waves which
FIGURE 6: VERTICAL ACCELERATION SPECTRUM AT produce nonlinear operations. However, because all
THE STEERING STATION predicted points fall within +.3.0 db of actual data, the
correlation is considered to be good.

6
 10
4.48 RMS FT/SEC2 0.361 RMS DEG
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 7.92 (DEGREES)2/CPS
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 625 Pf/(SEC1 2/CPS

10-1
0.792 (DEG)2/CPS

12.5[FT/(SEC) 2 /CPS 10 db

10 db 0.0792 (DEG)2/CPS

2/CPS
1.25 [FT/(SECM

o PREDICTED RESPONSE SPECTRUM

10-4 o PREDICTED RESPONSE SPECTRUM

0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 1
10-4
FREQUENCY, CPS 0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0

FIGURE 8: AFT VERTICAL ACCELERATION SPECTRUM FREQUENCY, CPS

FIGURE 10: PITCH ANGLE SPECTRUM

5.25 RMS FT/SEC2
SCALE CONVERSION FACTOR:
1.0 (VOLT)2/CPS = 625[FT/(SEC)22 /CPS
ever, a technique limitation can be observed from
0_1
the figure. The actual spectrum peaks sharply
between 0.3 and 0.5 cps. No predicted point was
chosen in this band. Because the method is only
valid at discrete frequencies, there would be no way
of knowing that peaking' would occur in this band
unless a point had been chosen in it.

10-3

o PREDICTED RESPONSE SPECTRUM

Concluding Remarks
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0

FREQUENCY, CPS
FIGURE 9: FORWARD VERTICAL ACCELERATION
SPECTRUivt
Éigure 9 shows the response spectrum of for-
ward vertical acceleration for the same craft and
sea. The time history of the forward vertical
acceleration in the simulated random sea showed
that the forward foil broached on occasion.
Broaching induces highly nonlinear effects and the
linear analysis must be used with caution. Foil
broaching would appear as narrow-band square-wave
pulses to the spectrum analysis equipment and the
spectral density plot of square pulses appears as
very low-frequency power. Forward foil broaching
will affect all craft responses under investigation.
However, it is reasonable to assume that the for-
ward vertical acceleration will be affected signifi-
cantly more than the other responses. The lowest
prediction point in Figure 9 is 14 db in error due
to foil broaching. All other predicted points are
within ±3.0 db of actual data.
Figure 10 shows a continuous spectrum of craft
pitch angle compared with points on the spectrum
predicted by superposition. All predicted points
show good correlation with continuous data. How-
The first prediction method that was discussed
was based on the sinusoidal sea. While this tech-
nique was the least realistic method, valuable con-
trol system design information can be obtained from
it. The hydrofoil ship can be evaluated oyer a full
range of wave heights and wave lengths. Craft
performance can be obtained in the sinusoidal sea by
either "flying" the ship at a fixed heading or by
performing turns.
The second method discussed was based on the
random sea. This technique makes use of filters to
"shape" a continuous white gaussian noise signal.
By the proper choice of filters the wave height
spectrum and particle velocity spectra are obtained.
Spectral density plots were used to present craft
performance data.
The final method was a linear superposition
technique in which a transfer function was obtained.
The transfer function was then combined with the
spectral density function of the wave height to give
a prediction of the hydrofoil's seakeeping character-
istics.

7
 Symbols XE Earth X axis
cps Cycles per second YE
Earth Y axis
Wave celerity ZE Earth Z axis
Cl Numeric Constant = 51.6 feet2/sec5 ZEw The distance from the origin of the
coordinate system to the water surface
exp "e to the exponent"
Wave frequency
Acceleration due to gravity
Encounter wave frequency
G(j w) Transfer function of linear filter
Wave length
Instantaneous wave height above
the mean waterline TT Numeric constant = 3.1416...
Distance from trough to crest of a wave EL Craft heading angle
Spectral density of wave height
Transformed spectral density of wave
height
Distance from the height sensor along
the X axis to the ith foil
Distance from the craft centerline
along the Y axis to the ith foil
Acknowledgement
TMS Root mean square
S Submerged distance The author wishes to thank Dr. J. D. Burroughs,
Submerged distance of the ith foil Mr. J. J. Jamieson, and Mr. R. M. Hubbard for
Si their helpful comments in preparing this paper.
Sx(W) Input spectral density
Sy(w) Output spectral density
References
Time
ti Time lag to the ith foil Saunders, H. E., Hydrodynamics in Ship
u Horizontal component of orbital DesignVol. I, New York, The Society of
Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1957.
particle velocity
Neumann, Gerhard, On Ocean Wave Spectra
U, Wind speed
and a New Method of Forecasting Wind-
[U(w)]2 Spectral density of the horizontal Generated Seas, Technical Memorandum No.
component of orbital particle velocity 43, Beach Erosion Board, Corps of Engineers,
Transformed spectral density of the 1953.
[U(we)]2
horizontal component of orbital Pierson, W. J., Jr., and St. Denis, M., "On
particle velocity the Motions of Ships in Confused Seas,
Component of water particle velocity in Transactions, The Society of Naval Architects
UEwi and Marine Engineers, Vol. 61, New York,
direction of Earth X axis at the ith foil
1953.
u0 Tangential orbital velocity
Bunting, D. C., Wave Hindcast Project North
U0 Forward craft speed Atlantic Ocean, U. S. Naval Oceanographic
Office, Washington, D.C., January 1966.
V Volts
Craft velocity relative to the sea Davenport, Wilbur B. Jr., and Root, William
VE L., An Introduction to the Theory of Random
Vertical component of orbital Signals and Noise, New York, McGraw-Hill,
particle velocity 1958.
[w(wd2 Spectral density of the vertical Bernicker, R. P., Hydrofoil Motions in
component of orbital particle velocity Irregular Seas, Davidson Laboratory Report
Transformed spectral density of the 909, November 1962.
[w(WA2 vertical component of orbital particle Bernicker, R. P., Heaving and Pitching Motions
velocity of Superventilated Hydrofoil Craft in Irregular
Component of water particle velocity of Seas, Davidson Laboratory Report 958, June
wEWi Earth Z axis at the ith foil 1963.

8
No. 61353

DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOPILOT FOR THE DOLPHIN HYDROFOIL

by

H. D. RANZENHOFER
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, New York

Paper No.
67-353

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

imams meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-81.50)

3.07, 7.07, 8.08

 DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOPILOT
FOR THE DOLPHIN HYDROFOIL*
H. D. Ranzenhofer
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, New York
Abstract open ocean operation in Sea State 3. (1) Incidence-
controlled foils, rather than trailing edge flaps, provide
The Dolphin Autopilot is the result of conceptual optimum lift-to-drag ratios. The first Dolphin was
and hardware studies that were conducted on a number constructed to Grumnian specifications by Blohm and
of hydrofoil craft in an effort to achieve successful Voss in Hamburg, Germany.
open ocean performance. Such operation is character-
ized by the maintenance of low vertical accelerations The Dolphin Autopilot was built by the AiResearch
in small, high-frequency waves and the avoidance of Manufacturing Division of the Garrett Corporation, in
hull impact and foil broach in large ones. This has led accordance with a specification evolved from a series
to an autopilot design approach in which the hydrofoil of studies performed on the HS Denison, the XCH-6,
craft is treated basically as a vehicle whose response PC(H), AG(EH), and FRESH-1 hydrofoil craft. (2-6)
must be tailored, by a control system, to each element During these studies considerable data on the effects of
of a set of random disturbances occurring in an incom- speed, size, weight, and sea state upon craft stability
pressible medium. The paper presents a brief history and performance was amassed. The data was used to
of the analysis, design, construction, and test phases establish the functional designs for the autopilots of
of such an autopilot for the Dolphin hydrofoil boat. these vehicles. While differing in details, the designs
Also described is the development of an automatic gain- all had a basic similarity to those for aircraft, in that
setting procedure, based upon the 'integral of the abso- heave (vertical) acceleration, pitch, and roll para-
lute value of the error input to each autopilot control meters were employed to operate control surface hy-
channel. Employment of this technique has aided the draulic actuators through a control computer.
analytical work on the Dolphin Autopilot and shows
promise of being useful in the establishment of suitable A statement of the basic hydrofoil control problem
gains during initial sea trials of future hydrofoil craft. and a possible solution is given followed by a descrip-
tion of the analytical programs carried out and a discus-
I. Introduction sion of results of both the analytical programs and the
sea trials.
The Dolphin, designed and produced by Grumman,
is a 75-foot, 60-ton craft with conventionally-placed, Also presented is the technique of automatically set-
fully submerged hydrofoils. (See figure 1.) The craft ting autopilot gains for both analytical and sea trial
is capable of 50 knots in smooth water, carrying 88 purposes. This development was carried out as a sep-
passengers and a crew of four. It is also capable of arate, but complimentary, program to that for the
Dolphin autopilot.

)
Figure 1. Dolphin Hydrofoil
That portion of the development work described herein, performed by the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Cor-
poration, was carried out under the sponsorship of Advanced Development Projects. Recognition is given to Messrs.
R. Rose, of Grumman Aerodynamics, and R. Barcus of the Flight and Electronics Systems Section of AiResearch,
for their work in the analysis and testing of the Dolphin Autopilot.
1
 II. The Hydrofoil Control Problem and a Solution
In dealing with a design for which calm water in-
stability is predicted, an autopilot will certainly be re-
quired for stability augmentation. Moreover, our work
has shown that submerged foil craft, whether stable or
not in calm water with fixed foils, tend to exhibit
heave and pitch divergence in waves. Hydrofoil craft,
therefore, operating in a relatively incompressible
medium under severe constraints in allowable heave,
pitch and roll motions, require rapid continuous move-
ment of control surfaces. The purpose, then, is to
maintain flight, and, in addition, to provide satisfactory
performance. As far as passengers and crew are con-
cerned, performance is defined by one criterion: com-
fort, which implies maintenance of low vertical acceler-
ations in all parts fo the vessel and prevention of hull
impact and foil broach. Apropos of these requirements
are two modes of foilborne operation:
Platforming - maintenance of a flat trajectory
in waves of heights less than or equal to keel-
to-foil distance, satisfying flight condition
Contouring - heaving and pitching in phase with
higher waves, meeting the comfort criterion.
Submerged foils help here, in that they inherently
tend to slice through small, high-frequency waves, ex-
hibiting little or no response to wave inputs, and ex-
perience a resonance in low-frequency, high waves.
These properties are characteristics of low-pass filters.
The control problem then, is to design a control system
which enhances this filtering capability so that the re-
sultant vehicle-autopilot system satisfies the above
requirements.
The solution is an autopilot which employs in its
feedback loops high-pass parameters of craft motion for
platforming conditions and low-pass parameters for
contouring. High-pass parameters are those craft
motions minimized at the upper range of wave encounter
frequences, such as pitch, roll, heave, and their deriv-
atives. Conversely, a low-pass element would be the
height above the mean water level.
A basic autopilot is shown in figure 2. The types of
sensors required are prescribed by the parameters
discussed.
Basically, the control computer is required to pro-
cess sensor outputs so that, for platforming, the high-
pass signals are dominant, with a constant height main-
tained at any commanded level. In contouring, the high-
pass signals effects are reduced and the height signals
play a larger role as larger height errors are experienc-
ed.
Ideally, the autopilot should sense wave height and
length, and position the control surfaces for the response
desired. Practically, there are two objections to this
approach. First, treating the ocean as a random distur-
bance, the overall input function can be identified by an
autopilot; however individual elements (waves) cannot be
defined without resorting to sophisticated techniques at
relatively prohibitive cost. Secondly, even with a system
of this capability, by the time parameters of a particular
wave were sensed and defined, the craft would be through
it and the control surfaces positioned too late to be of
any use.
Consequently, parameters are used that can be
practicably sensed and identified by the autopilot, such
as pitch, roll, heave, acceleration, and keel-to-water-
surface distance, to provide performance most nearly
satisfying our requirements at a reasonable cost.
2
Disturbances
Height
Vehicle
Heave, Pitch,
r-
Roll
I
Sensors
Control
Control
Surface Computer
Actuators
-I
Height
Sensor -17
Autopilot
L._ J
Figure 2. Dolphin Control System Functional
Block Diagram
III. Discussion
Autopilot Analysis
The analytical portion of the autopilot development
program was carried out in two parts: a preliminary
design effort at Grumman intended for an autopilot per-
formance specification, followed by a more detailed
system design study at AiResearch.
A preliminary idea of dynamic stability is
gained by applying the theory -Of small perturbations to
the six vehicle equations of motion for an uncontrolled
(fixed foil) craft in calm water (7), and solving the re-
sultant longitudinal and lateral stability matrices.
For a craft equipped with surface-piercing foils,
such as the HS Denison, stability is provided by the
rather large changes in lifting surface area with varia-
tion in foil depth. The principal contributor to the
dynamic stability of submerged foil craft is a "depth
effect" which exists within about two foil chord lengths
of the water surface. This effect increases lift as the
foil depth increases and vice versa. It dies out when the
two-chord length limit is approached. The results of the
stability calculation indicated that the Dolphin would be a
stable craft, with reasonable damping (0.4 to 0.7) of the
oscillatory modes.
Grumman's analog computer study (8) was part of a
program to design and build an onboard autopilot simu-
lator using the Dolphin as the study vehicle. The pur-
pose of this device was to automatically calculate,
during sea trials, the autopilot loop gains required for
satisfactory foilborne performance. This subject is de-
tailed in a subsequent paragraph.
In the program, the vehicle was simulated with five
equations of motion solved for craft body axis accelera-
tions in heave, pitch, roll, yaw, and sway, or sideslip.
Foil and strut lift and drag coefficients, being nonlinear
functions of foil depth, were generated independently.
The craft was programmed for operation in sinusoidal
waves in head, following quartering, and beam seas,
with the equations for foil depth and wave-induced orbital
velocities implicit in this requirement.
The results of this computer study predicted quali-
tatively the performance that could be achieved by the
Dolphin. Accordingly, an autopilot procurement specifi-
cation was issued, requiring AiResearch to perform,
and/or supply, the following:
A computer study to determine nominal autopilot
gains and a method of programming craft pitch
during takeoff
Autopilot sensors, displays, controls, and self-
test provisions
A master checkout unit for autopilot onboard
checkout and maintenance
Fail-safety provisions.
The AiResearch computer study was two-fold: a
five-degree-of-freedom analog program (9), similar in
scope to the Grumman computer study, and a four-
degree-of-freedom digital program (1u) to determine
autopilot requirements for takeoff.
The primary objective of this work was to establish
performance requirements for the control computer and
sensors of a fixed gain autopilot with a degree of accu-
racy sufficient to ensure ultimate satisfactory operation
with a minimum of trial and error procedure during
hardware development and sea trials.
In the analysis, a mathematical model was devel-
oped for the hydrofoil craft, the autopilot, and the dis-
turbance inputs for a five-degree-of-freedom simulation.
The computer study encompassed a wide spectrum of
anticipated operating conditions and both longitudinal
and lateral craft motions with heave-pitch, heave-roll,
and yaw-sideslip coupling were considered. Craft per-
formance was investigated for smooth water turns and
straight runs in heading, quartering, beam and following
seas up to and including sea state 4. The stability of the
craft under changing foil load distributions due to shifts
in the craft cg was also investigated.
In the takeoff program surge acceleration was made
a variable, along with heave and pitch; hull lift, drag,
and pitching moment terms were also introduced. Thus,
by allowing all motions in the longitudinal plane, per-
formance in smooth and head seas was accurately simu-
Error
Signal
Absolute Switching
Value Logic
Figure 4. AGS Module Block Diagram (Height)
3
lated. To make a qualitative estimate of takeoff per-
formance in a quartering (45 degrees) sea, roll was in-
cluded as the fourth degree of freedom.
Automatic Gain Setting (AGS)
In the Grumman computer study, the autopilot equa-
tions expressed control surface motions as functions of
craft motion, rate, and accelerations, as is usually
done. However, in this case, the feedback gains were
treated as variables, each a function of the error in the
related channel. This serves to introduce the AGS con-
cept and its employment as an analytical tool.
During a number of autopilot analysis and design
studies, for hydrofoil craft, it became increasingly
evident that cost and time expended in both analysis and
flight testing could be substantially reduced by automa-
tically computing autopilot response characteristics.
This could be done with an onboard analog computer, or
autopilot simulator, tailored specifically to control of
hydrofoil vehicles. Accordingly, this concept was devel-
oped to where analog computer programs could be carried
out to evaluate the application of the concept to a hydro-
thetical vehicle and then to a specific hydrofoil craft.
It was also decided that AGS studies would culminate
in a set of modules incorporating the AGS function,
which were to be employed in hydrofoil craft sea trials.
Once gains were established they would be replaced by
modules whose gains would be fixed at values computed
by the AGS modules. (See figures 3 and 4.)
Error
Signal
IKE
To
l Modulator
-
Module Threshold
L
Figure 3. AGS Module Block Diagram (High Pass)
Module
Multiplier To
Modulator
S lope
Reset
4-7
Gain
Schedule Threshold
_J
 The AGS procedure is to increase gain from zero,
as a function of the integral of the absolute value of error
E until the particular error signal, on which the module
is operating, is reduced to a value near zero. Thus, when
the error is greater than a preset threshold value, the
gai-n increases at a rate proportional to the simultaneous
reduction in error. In other words, the effectiveness of
the resultant feedback signal (gain times error) is in-
creased at a decreasing rate until the desired vehicle
attitude is attained.
The two types of modules, high and low-pass, corres-
pond to the platforming and contouring operation of hydro-
foil craft. Most of the time, the craft will be required to
platform small high-frequency waves in which attitude
parameters (pitch, roll, and heave) and their derivatives
will be maintained as close to zero as possible.
With these requirements, the high-pass modules
were designed to operate as previously described.
Height control, however, should be more effective at
low (contouring) than high (platforming) frequencies.
Moreover, it was often found that best performance was
obtained with an adaptive height channel. Therefore,
the low-pass module's function is slightly different from
that of the high-pass units, in that, in addition to the
gain, a height channel gain schedule is computed as a
function of height error. To accomplish this, gain
limiting is based on a comparison of signals proportional
to gain height error. The gains resulting from craft
operation in a number of different sea states will result
in a height gain schedule. If these results yield little or
no variation in the height gains required, then, of course,
such a schedule will be unnecessary.
Concerning the use of AGS in sea trials, it is ex-
pected that varying sea conditions and the shakedown
nature of the trials will complicate the task of establishing
and maintaining operation in particular sea states and
numerous takeoffs and landings will no doubt occur.
Therefore, to facilitate the calculation of proper auto-
pilot gains, the AGS integrating circuits will be reset to
zero and the gain allowed to raise again if the craft is
landed or if a reduced sea state is encountered. Reset
in any case will be at operator's discretion.
E 1E1
Amplifier/ Counter
Multivibrator fUUL
:Input
Ref Pulses
Reset
Threshold
Adjust
K1
Switching
Mode Switching
2
1 - Operate
2 - Takeoff
L _
Figure 5. AGS Module Mechanization (High Pass)
4
Grumman's program resulted in the issuance of a
procurement specification to AiResearch for the AGS
modules in addition to that for the Dolphin autopilot.
A set of the following AGS modules was ordered:
Four high-pass modules, to be used in the pitch,
roll, heave acceleration, and lateral accelera-
tion channels, plus one spare
One low-pass height channel module, plus one
spare.
To provide stable and continuous computation of
gain throughout the rather wide range required, AiRe-
search has employed digital circuitry. (See figures 5
and 6.) Briefly, an error signal, E, is generated in the
form of five-volt pulses, whose frequency is proportion-
al to the magnitude of the error signal. The E pulses
are counted in binary fashion by a set of nine flip-flops.
Each of these networks pulses a relay driver, which, in
turn, actuates a two-position relay. This switching,
incorporated in a ladder network, results in a total of
29, or 512 possible states, or impedances, to which the
switching network can be set. Thus, for both types of
modules, the variable gain, Ki is increased in incre-
ments of 0.0196.
The gain value computed in each module is obtained
by summing the relay driver outputs and recording the
result. The summing amplifier output is an analog
signal corresponding to the gain switching network state.
The output signal of each AGS module represents the
product of variable gain Ki and the input error signal E.
The overall open loop channel gain K is the product of Ki
and the nominal gain Ko established in sensors and auto-
pilot circuits external to the AGS module. Thus, K is
increased in multiples of Ko.
There are three modes of module operation- operate,
takeoff, and gain shaping, the latter applyingto the height
module only. The AGS modules each consist of two
circuit boards, with an additional board required for the
height module gain schedule. The units are entirely
K1
piRelay
1-11 Summing
Drivers (9) Amplifier To
Recorder
Relays (9)
,mplifier
Output
1
E
Amplifier Absolute Multi- Counter 1-0 Relay
L Logic Amplifier
_
Input > Value vibrator Drivers To
Recorder
Pulses

II
1
9

/ Reset

Relays

Ck
Smdtching
Diff
Amplifier I
( 1E1 - CkKH ) Mode Switching
1
Operate
Takeoff
Gain Shaping
K4.1
KH 1EH
H1 Amplifier
Switching
Output

2'
Gain
Shaping

Figure 6. AGS Module Mechanization (Height)

solid-state, the flip-flops being Fairchild DT L950

Micrologic devices. The set of modules is contained in
a portable case with a single cable arranged to plug into
a matching receptacle on the autopilot control computer.
(See figure 7.)

IV. Results and Conclusions

Analysis
Automatic Gain Setting
The Grumman studies indicated that the design of
hydrofoil autopilots through use of an onboard simulator
was indeed feasible. This conclusion was supported by
the five-degree-of-freedom analog study consuming only
about half the time of previous simular programs. It
was also discovered that certain of the feedback channels
used would not be necessary, since the computed gains
for these channels were negligible. Thus, by performing
a gain-setting role, the modules help to configure the
autopilot by indicating the need for feeding back any of
the craft motion parameters.
To date, the AGS modules have not been tested in
hydrofoil sea trials, but it is intended to do so at the
earliest opportunity. Meanwhile, the results obtained
have engendered studies of the application of the tech-
nique in the area of aircraft autopilot development and
the expansion of the AGS concept to self-adaptive
systems for both hydrofoils and aircraft. Figure 7, AGS Module
5
Dolphin Foilborne Performance 1.50 Pitch
Dolphin performahce, with autopilot gains fixed at -o I Predicted
the values determined by the simulator, was a compro-
mise between ideal platforming and ideal contouring. _9 1.25 0, 0 Sea Trials
This was necessitated by the intention of keeping the 6.0

autopilot simple and the costs down. However, two Ráll

alternative methods of providing both platforming and
contouring were studied. One was the retention of the
automatic height gain adjustment used in the simulator. //Pitch
Roll
The other was a manual switching of height channel gain
for platforming and contouring. The latter method is 0.75
employed in the Dolphin system. The predicted heave
performance is given in figure 8 and pitch and roll mo-
tions in figure 9.
cl;

8
o epi Head Seas
0.50 Following Sea

ca'
Height Sensor Noise
To anticipate craft performance with height sensor 0.25
9S7
noise computer runs were made using a height signal to
noise ratio of three to one (10 db). This ratio is much lower
than that normally required (40 db) and imposed a severo
z Platform-in Contouring
task upon the control system. As a result, foilborne 2 4 6 8 10
operation was maintained although performance was
degraded to 0.36 g's of heave acceleration. (See figure Wave Height, ft
8.) No such noise effects were found during actual sea
trials. Figure 9, Dolphin Pitch and Roll Motions in Waves
0.7
Takeoff Performance
The chief control restraint imposed by takeoff condi-
Optimum tions is to limit the positive travel of the forward foils.
0.6 Predicted This must be done to prevent the foils being driven by
X Sea Trials the large height error to their maximum positions,
thereby increasing drag to the point where takeoff could
not -be achieved. Two limiting methods were used,
0.5 namely, pitch channel cross-coupling with the forward
foil control channels, and limiting foil actuator commands,
O in accordance with drag calculations, to 70 percent of
maximum. With pitch channel cross-coupling the for-
Platforming ontouring ward foils reached angles of only 40 percent of their
With Height IC maximum value. The 70 percen.t limit resulted in similar
Sensor Noise takeoff times. It was also found that takeoffs could be
achieved manually, if necessary.
t) 0.3 Best takeoff performance was attained by programming
pitch as a function of height error and retaining pitch
cross-coupling.
CS
Fail-Safety
0.2
It was determined that if hardover sensor and/or
circuit failure occurred, provision should be made to
automatically position the foils at suitable null positions.
Simultaneously, the helmsman, having been warned by
XX visual and aural devices, would throttle back the engine.
X
X
X Foil null positions are defined as the mean positions
about which the foils have been operating in the time
period prior to failure. The voltage source of these
4 6 10 null signals are independent of the control computer
Wave Height, ft circuitry which receives inputs from sensors.
Autopilot Mechanization
Figure 8, Dolphin Heave Acceleration in Waves Selection of sensors and the control computer
mechanization was carried out by AiResearch as a result
Height Sensor Location of the studies previously described.
In order to provide maximum anticipation of wave
encounter the height sensor should be motmted as far Control Computer
forward as possible, thus requiring a radar or sonic The control computer contains the circuitry re-
device. In view of high cost and unknown reliability of quired to trangorm the sensed parameters into command
radar and sonic height sensors, however, the possibility signals for the control surface actuators in accordance
of using the contact type of unit on the forward struts with the performance requirements previously discussed.
was investigated. With proper filtering, both locations (See figure 10.) Subsidiary functions, such as turn
yielded good platforming. However, the strut-mounted coordination, height and attitude train, a variety of
unit's contouring performance was. in adequate due to lack operating modes (standby, takeoff, and cruise), fail-
of anticipation afforded by the bow-mounted unit. safe monitoring, and self-test are also supplied. (For
6
 Sensors Control Computer

Controls & Signal Processing Servo &

Monitoring

Command Platform
Height
Control Actuator
Takeoff
Schedule Height
Channel Forward
Starboard
Heave Accel Channel Channel
Stbd
Accel - 1VIWP

i
Port (Master Warning Panel)
Accel

Trim Actuator
Lateral
Accel Roll
Channel Forward
Vert Port
Gyro Turn Channel
Coord I MWP
Rate
Gyro

Takeoff
Vert Pitch
Gyro Actuator
Cruise Channel
Rate
Gyro
Aft
Channel
Trim MWP

Figure 10, Dolphin Autopilot

clarity, the latter two mechanizations are not shown in should exist to an extent likely to affect sensor outputs.
figure 10). The inertial sensors are types that are readily available
for aircraft, with the following basic characteristics.
The computer is a functionally modular assembly
using solid-state circuitry throughout and interchange- Vertical Gyro (2-axis)
ability insofar as possible. (See figure 11.) It contains
a power supply which provides 400-cycle power to the Range ± 30 deg
sensors, as well as power used internally, by static Drift Rate 0.25 deg min
inversion of the ship's power. Repeatability to Vertical ± 0.25 deg
Sensors Rate Gyros (2)
The height sensor has received much consideration
because of its state-of-the-art status. After a survey of Range ± 10 deg/sec pitch,
manufacturers in this field and some field testing, it ± 30 deg/sec roll
was decided to use the pulsed sonic type, produced by
Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation Damping 0.5
For the height channel, a low-pass filter is employed,
whose chief function will be to negate the effects of small Undamped Natural Frequency 15 cps
surface chop. The heave acceleration channel also re-
quired a noise filter to avoid vibration effects. Two Accelerometers (3)
accelerometers are located in the hull at the forward
strut mounting areas. This places them at one of the Range ± 5.0 g vertical (2),
most likely nodal points of hull bending if such a mode ± O. 5 g lateral
7
 Linearity ± 0.5%
Damping 0.5
Undamped Natural Frequency 20 cps
Elapsed
Time
Indicators F,..
Figure 11. Autopilot Control Computer
Controls and Displays
All command and monitoring functions are brought
out to three panels: Helmsman's Control (figure 12),
8elf-test and Performance Monitoring, and Master
Warning. These panels provide manual fail-safe capa-
bility, as well as devices warning the helmsman of
autopilot malfunction.
Sea Trials Foilborne Performance
Sea trials took place in the Elbe River and in the
Baltic Sea, off Kiel. During bench and installation
checkouts no trouble of any significance was experienced
with the autopilot.
- Calm water trials confirmed the fixed-foil stability
predicted in the analytical studies. Transient responses
in heave and pitch were characterized by damping ratios
of approximately 0. 5.
For takeoffs, pitch commands programmed as a
function of height, as indicated by the AiResearch
studies proved successful. The smoothness of takeoffs
is illustrated by the fact that passengers were frequently
unaware of the transition from hullborne to foilborne
operation.
In the open sea, the Dolphin encountered waves up
to six feet high at all sea headings and was found to per-
form excellently. (See figures 8 and 9.) For compar-
ison of predicted with actual results, it should be point-
ed out that sinusoidal waves of average length, obtained
statistically (1), were used in the analog programs, and
that the Baltic Sea in winter is characterized chiefly by
waves whose Length-to-height ratios are among the small-
est to be found. Moreover, since heave accelerations
are a function of the square of wave encounter
frequency, it follows that one can expect acceleration
values higher than those predicted.
The connection between heave acceleration and com-
fort is intuitively rather obvious. What is not so obvious
is a definition of "comfort". There has been much work
8.
done along these lines, where, in addition to accelera-
tions, such things as frequency, and duration of occur-
rence are involved. In the final analysis, everyone on
board a vehicle has his own definition of comfort, depend-
ing a good deal upon intangibles. Suffice it to say that at
no time during the Dolphin trials was there an indication
of discomfort.
Figure 12. Helmsman's Control Panel
Conclusions
The conclusions are briefly summarized as
follows:
The Dolphin is inherently stable, with fixed
foils, at design cruising speed in calm water
Dolphin performance in the open ocean makes
the craft eminently suitable for comfortable,
rapid transport of large numbers of passengers
and/or cargo over selected routes in many
parts of the world.
V. Bibliography
W. Pierson, Jr., G. Neumann, and R. W. James,
"Practical Methods for Observing and Forecasting
Ocean Waves," U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office
Publication H. 0. 603, 1955.
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M23-
335. 1,Hydrofoil Research Ship AG(EH) Autopilot
Development Program - Five-Degree-of-Freedom
Analog Computer Simulation, July 1962.
W. C. Blaiklock, and E. W. Ferris, Grumman
Report MPD 47.135(R), Development and Testing
of Motion Measuring Instrumentation for the
XCH-6 Hydrofoil Craft, January 1963.
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M23-
335.2, Hydrofoil Research Ship AG(EH) Autopilot
Development Program - Preliminary Computer
Study Part 2, March 1963 (Confidential).
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M51-
200.1, Hydrofoil Ship FRESH-I Stability and
Control Study, April 1963.
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report DA M51-
200.2, Hydrofoil Ship FRESH-I Analog Computer
Study, May 1963.
P. Kaplan et al, Stevens Institute of Technology
ETT Report No. 691, Methods for Estimating the
9
Longitudinal and Lateral Dynamic Stability of
Hydrofoil Craft, 1958.
H. D. Ranzenhofer, Grumman Report ADR 06-11-
64.1, An On-Board Autopilot Simulator for Hydro-
foil Craft - Five-Degree-of-Freedom Analog
Computer Study, December 1964.
R. E. Vesque, AiResearch Manufacturing Division
Report 66-0440, Analog Computer Study - Dolphin
Hydrofoil Control System, June 1966.
R. E. Vesque, AiResearch Manufacturing Division
Report 66-0591 Digital Computer Study - Dolphin
Hydrofoil Takeoff Program, July 1966.
No. 61354

HIGH SPEED TOWED HYDROFOIL SLEDS

by

R. ALTMANN
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland

Paper No.
67-354

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Mernber Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 3.07, 10.11
 HIGH SPEED TOWED HYDROFOIL SLEDS
R. Altmann
Associate Research Scientist
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland
Abstract
The payload, range, and effectiveness of sonar-
carrying, picket helicopters, used in anti-submarine
warfare, are limited by the relatively low aerodynamic
efficiency and high noise level of the helicopter. To
improve this otherwise versatile weapons system, a design
study and model testing program wasdirected atdeveloping
a helicopter towed hydrofoil sled. Payload and fuel are
stored in the sled, and the deck of the sled is sufficiently
large to permit the helicopter to land upon it. A tandem
configuration of dihedral ladder hydrofoils was used to
obtain a passively stabilized system. As the range of sled
speeds and displacements was very large, each ladder foil
contained all three of the known types of hydrofoils, sub-
cavi toting , base-vented , and ful I y-venti lated . Tests of
a 1/8 scale model of one foil configuration showed the
cruise resistance to be adequately predicted by theory.
Pitch, heave, and surge stability of the sled were ex-
amined through a series of freely-towed tests of a 1/24
scale model . The sled proved to be exceptionally sea-
worthy, and lligh-speed operation through a State 3 sea
appears possible. In calm water the sonar picket mission
range will be doubled!
Introduction
One of the principal tools presently used in anti-
submarine warfare for both search and attack is the heli-
copter. The helicopter's ability to hover while listening
with "dunked" sonar, combined with its ability to proceed
at higher speeds than surface craft when in the attack
phase of a mission, makes it an effective and self-con-
tained anti-submarine weapons system. Unfortunately,
the aerodynamic efficiency of the helicopter is quite low,
and consequently it is a vehicle of moderate range and
payload. Furthermore, the noise signature of a helicopter
hovering above a dunked sonar sphe:e is sufficiently in-
tense to cause a decrease in the effective sensitivity of
this instrumentation. In fact, the water-transmitted vib-
rations of a low-hovering helicopter are strong enough to
serve as a homing beacon for acoustically-guided missiles
launched from the hunted submarine. These same vibra-
tions decrease the practical duration of helicopter sonar
picket missions by reducing crew effectiveness as flight
time progresses.
In 1961, Handler (Reference 1) proposed utilizing
rowed sea-pallets, or sleds, to improve the performance
of the helicopter picket craft. These sleds would house
both the sonar gear and a considerable amount of fuel,
permitting increases in the effective helicopter payload
and range. In addition, the sled deck would serve as a
landing platform for the helicopter, permitting noise-free
sonar listening and periods of crew recuperation during
the mission.
1
Under contract to the Bureau of Weapons, Depart-
ment of the Navy, the EDO Corporation at that time had
developed a towed sled vehicle for use in mine-counter-
measures programs. A 3800 pound version of the sled,
supported by four hydroskis located at the corners of a
catamaran hull, had been built and tested in 1960. The
EDO Corporation tests demonstrated that a water craft
supported by dynamic lifting surfaces could be stably
towed by a helicopter at high speeds. However, the in-
herently low efficiencies of the low aspect ratio hydroskis,
and their surface-contouring performance, made a simple,
geometrically-scaled, larger version of the hydroski craft
appear impractical for long-range, open water missions.
In an effort to improve the performance of this
promising craft, the Bureau of Weapons sponsored a re-
search program to investigate a helicopter towed vehicle
utilizing hydrofoils as the dynamic lifting surfaces. Hydro-
foils have the potential of producing lift-drag ratios 2 to
3 times greater than those produced by hydroskis, and can
be designed with substantially "softer'' response to seaway
conditions than can the surface-contouring skis.
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated performed feasi-
bility studies of hydrofoil supported sleds and completed
the hydrodynamic design of a particular configuration
under subcontract to the EDO Corporation. An extensive
testing program was then performed on models of the pro-
posed sled under direct contract to the Naval Air Systems
Command. This paper reviews highlights of each of the
above studies, which are described in detail in References
2, 3, and 4.
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated gratefully acknow-
ledges the support of the EDO Corporation and the Bureau
of Weapons, currently the Naval Air Systerns Command,
throughout these programs.
Feasibility Studies and Preliminary Design
The two critetia that most influenced foil design
were the requirement that the sled be passively stabilized,
and the need to achieve efficient foil-borne operation
over a large range of speeds and displacements. Some
form of dihedral , surface-piercing system was necessary
to satisfy the stability criterion, so initial studies of the
craft performance assumed the use of "V"-foil configura-
tions. Calm water lift-drag ratios of such systems were
calculated using the best available techniques at the
time, (1961), and are plotted in Figure 1. (The plotted
performance estimates for supercavitating foils shown in
this figure have since been found to be somewhat op-
timistic). Plots of foil drag versus speed were obtained
from this information, and were superimposed on the
thrust available versus speed characteristic of the Sikorski
SH-3A helicopter (Figure 2). These resistance estimates
were doubled to account for the increases in foil drag that
accompany operation in a seaway. It was then apparent
that only the lighter sled displacements could be towed at
reasonably high speeds by a picket helicopter. Sleds
larger than 50 tons were not practical.
Structural relations for vessels of this general size
were used to obtain estimates of the foil weights, hull
weights, and allowable fuel weight. Curves of the heli-
copter-towed sled range were then computed as functions
of average speed and sled displacement, and are shown
in Figure 3. It is seen that for rough water operation a
vessel displacement of nearly 20 tons and an average speed
of 65 knots produces a near optimum range of 740 miles.
This range is over twice that of the picket helicopter when
flying alone!
However, although "V"-foil configurations were
very desirable from the standpoint of ease in construction,
it became apparent that they could not satisfy all the per-
formance requirements of the sled. Figure 1 clearly shows
the relatively low efficiencies of supercavitating foils
(as compared with fully wetted foils) when operating at
low speeds, and the even lower efficiencies of fully wetted
foils (compared to supercavitating foils) when operating at
high speeds. Since the substantial increases in mission
range could only be achieved by operating with high foil
efficiencies throughout the entire range of sled displace-
ments and speeds, it was apparent that both fully-wetted
and supercavitating foils would be necessary, and a ladder
configuration was indicated to be required.
Analysis of "V"-foil response characteristics in a
seaway also led to the choice of a ladder configuration.
The high stiffness and low damping of simple "V"-foils re-
sulted in poor calculated seaway performance. An arrange-
ment in which the high speed lift of the craft was produced
by large, fully-submerged, low lift coefficient wings gen-
erating over one-half the lift of each configuration, with
smaller, surface-piercing wings mounted above them to
produce the remaining lift, was found to substantially im-
prove seaworthiness. The large, submerged foils contributed
significantly ta the damping of the system,while heave
stability was provided by the low-stiffness, surface-pierc-
ing wings. The relatively low lift coefficients of these
two sets of wings dictated that the fully-wetted wings re-
quired for efficient low-speed operation be placed above
them, and the three-rung ladder configuration shown sche-
matically in Figure 4, was thusly formed.
Section shapes for the three wings were also deter-
mined by the requirements of efficiency and seaworthiness.
Low lift coefficient and high-speed operation made a
ventilated, supercavitating section the natural choice for
the lowest of the three foils. The small surface-piercing
foil required a sufficiently high lift-drag ratio to com-
pensate for the drag of the strut immersed beneath it, but
had to operate in the speed ranges associated with cavita-
tion damage to high efficiency, fully-wetted sections.
Accordingly, a base-vented section was selected for this
wing. High aspect ratio panels with fully wetted sections
were required for the upper wings to develop the high lift
2
coefficients required for low speed take-offs while main-
taining a sufficiently high efficiency to compensate for
the drag of the fully-immersed strut. Diagonal trusses, in
the form of fully-wetted lifting panels, were fitted be-
tween these upper wings and the struts to permit the use
of large-span, thin-section wings. The cambered fully
wetted foils were designed with lift coefficients and
thicknesses such as to optimize their hydrodynamic ef-
ficiency consistent with constraints imposed by cavitation
and ventilation inception. The strut section itself was a
near-parabolic, low-drag form. It is significant that the
design requirements of this craft resulted in the use within
one configuration of each of the three basic types of
hydrofoil sections today available.
It seemed imperative that the sled trim not be al-
lowed to vary appreciably throughout the range of dis-
placements and speeds, in order to minimize the drag
generated by operation of the foils atan angle of attack.
The passive foil system most conducive to constant trim
operation is the tandem configuration. Furthermore, the
choice of four tandem hydrofoils permitted the use of
smaller, high-speed foils than did three-strut conventional
or canard arrangements. This, in turn, allowed a greater
proportion of the vertical area of each strut to be utilized
for support of the low-speed, fully wetted wings, and re-
duced take-off speed. Symmetrical, tandem foil con-
figurations also regained some of the simplicity in manu-
facture necessarily abandoned when the "V"-foil system
proved unseaworthy.
The individual foils described above, and the strut
on which they are mounted, are detailed in Figures 5
through 10.
Two types of hull forms were examined during the
design studies. Although catamaraet configurations were
favored for their stability characteristics, arrangement
difficulties were encountered in housing the large sonar
transducer within one hull, and hull structure, particu-
larly the deck structure required to prevent racking,
represented a greater percentage of the total craft weight
than in the conventional planing mono-hull . For these
reasons a mono-hull was chosen for the sled. Hull design
incorporated high forward deadrise to alleviate water
impact loads, but in all other respects utilized features
common to conventional , stepped, planing hulls.
Figure 11 is a photograph of a 1/24 scale model of
the sled in its designed form. Displacement is 40,000
pounds fully loaded. 13,000 pounds of fuel are transferred
from the sled to the helicopter during the course of the
mission. Sonar payload is 9600 pounds, and the remaining
weight is primarily hull and hydrofoil structure. Design
calm-water speed, corresponding to the thrust versus
speed characteristics of the SH-3A helicopter at normal
rated power, ranged from 72 knots fully loaded to 95 knots
when running with no fuel on board.
 Model Testing Program
As the operation of hydrofoil craft at speeds in
excess of 60 knots is still at the upper limits of state-of-
the-art engineering capabilities, Reference 3 outlined a
thorough test program to be carried out before implement-
ing the design with a prototype craft. This proposed test
program formed the basis for a detailed model study
initiated by HYDRONAUTICS in June, 1964.
Phase I of the model testing program required
the construction and testing of a 1/8 scale configuration
of one of the foils of the proposed system. These tests
were ta verify the predicted static performance of the
foils, and to indicate changes necessary to improve this
performance should it be found unsatisfactory. Tests were
conducted in the variable-pressure, free-surface, high-
speed water channel at HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated.
(A description of this facility and its use in hydrofoil
testing is given in Reference 5). Reference 6 describes
the testing program followed during this phase of the
work, and discusses the various changes made to the model
as the tests progressed. The final model configuration is
shown in Figures 12 and 13; at this condition 28 tests were
conducted on the foil, covering a range of seven water-
lines, five angles of attack, and cavitation numbers cor-
responding to speeds from 10 to 100 knots.
Results of these tests are summarized in Fig-
ures 14 and 15, in which the sled foil submergence and
resistance, based on foil performance uncoupled from the
hull, are plotted as functions of speed and displacement.
The very obvious resistance ''humps'' of Figure 15 were of
concern for three reasons. Not only was resistance con-
siderably higher than design during the critical take-off
speed range, but also, the rapid changes in drag at speeds
immediately above this ''hump" indicated the possible
occurrence of surge loadings on the towline at these
speeds. Furthermore, the speed range over which these
drag changes occur corresponds with a region of rapid
change in submergence with little change in speed, as
shown in Figure 14. It seemed possible that surge and
heave motions could couple to produce violent accelera-
tions at this speed.
Analysis of factors possibly contributing to the
high resistance "humps" indicated the crux of the problem
to lie in the low lift generated by foils ''b" and "c", and
increases in either the camber or angle of attack of these
foils appeared likely to improve the configuration per-
formance. However, it had been the intent of the design
to produce a hydrofoil with a soft response to waves, and
although this response was softer than predicted, as may
be seen in Figure 14, nonetheless it was the type of be-
havior believed conducive to good performance in a sea-
way. Changes of the foil configuration to improve re-
sistance at the possible expense of seakeeping ability
could not be evaluated without first obtaining some idea
of the behavior of the freely-towed model. Hence the
1/24 scale freely towed model was constructed to dupli-
cate the 1/8 scale configuration, and changes in the foil
mountings to improve resistance were postponed pending
tests on this towed model.
3
It had been realized from the beginning of the de-
sign studies that only through freely towed model tests
could dependable information on sled motions performance
be obtained, and the purpose of the 1/24 scale tests was
to examine sled motions. Many of the problems associated
with model tests of watercraft were not present, since the
model had no self-propulsion devices. None-the-less,
three scaling parameters had to be carefully examined
before commencing the model study.
The 2-foot width of the HYDRONAUTICS channel
led to the selection of a 1-foot maximum model beam,
which in turn established the 1/24 scale factor chosen for
the model . Froude scaling of dimensions, weights,
moments, and moments of inertia to such a small scale
proved to be just on the border of practicality; however,
a properly scaled model was achieved.
Similarily, vapor cavitation index could just be
scaled using the variable pressure capability of the
HYDRONAUTICS channel.
Reynolds number, however, could not be scaled,
and proved to lie in the center of the laminar-turbulent
transition region of flat-plate boundary layer flow. Suit-
able frictional contributions to the 1/24 scale model drag
could not be estimated, and the possibility of low speed
laminar stall was also present. Since drag had already
been measured on the 1/8 scale foil configuration, the
inability to accurately expand drag measurements made
on the smaller models was not considered a serious limita-
tion to the test program. Furthermore, as the foil system
was a ventilated configuration, it was expected that the
presence of laminar stall would be visibly exhibited
through air-filled cavities. Hence, the inability to scale
Reynolds number was not considered likely to influence
the important parameters of foil performance without pro-
ducing visible cavities defining the problem regions.
Plans to cope with such occurrences were postponed pend-
ing their actual occurrence, and tests subsequently failed
to indicate any of these postulated problems.
Each of the four 1/24 scale foils was tested
individually, and adjusiments to them were made to cause
their lift performance to closely duplicate that of the 1/8
scale configuration. These changes were necessitated by
the considerable effects slight misalignments had on the
performance of the very small foils. Following these
tests, the entire sled was towed freely in the channel,
using the arrangement schematically shown in Figure 16.
A detailed discussion of the test program is available from
Reference 4; only highlights of the test results are dis-
cussed in the following paragraphs.
Performance of the aft foils is considerably affected
by the wake shed from the forward foils. Upwash in this
wake allows both aft configurations to operate at 1.75°
less geometric angle than the front foils. However, the
aft foils must operate well outboard of the forward foils,
as the ventilated cavities behind the forward wings col-
lapse in the plane of the aft configurations, and severe
buffeting results if these cavities impinge on the aft foils.
 As indicated by the 1/8 scale tests, a calm-water
heave-surge coupling was found to exist at the 50 knot
speed range (27,000 pound displacement). Motions in-
duced by this coupling were essentially removed by in-
creasing the angle of attack of foil "b" 1-1/2°. This
change removed the heave instability shown in Figure 14.
Fifty three percent of the sled weight was carried
on the forward foils to aid directional stability. The com-
bination of this extra load on the forward foils, along
with the low dependence of high-speed lift on angle of
attack, produced a bow-down trim during high speed op-
eration. This trim, in turn, caused a reduction in yaw
stability. However, the addi tion of small skegs to the
bottoms of the aft foils will aid in regaining yaw stability,
and no other adverse effects of the bow-down trim were
observed during the tests.
The cruise waterline of the sled, designed to be
3.5feet below the keel , appeared to be near the maximum
allowable. Increases in this distance caused periodic
pitching and surging motions; the critical factor in these
motions was the height of the center of gravity of the sled
above the water.
Towline attitude and periodic oscillations at the
head of the towline did not materially affect sled per-
formance. Sled motions during acceleration, decelera-
tion, and in transient (gust) conditions were very mild.
An extensive series of tests was run in regular
waves. Twenty-four combinations of sea state and forward
velocity were examined, with motion picture records of
each condition preserved for later viewing and detailed
analysis. Typical extracts from the films of each test were
examined frame-by-frame, and the motions of the waves
and the boat were recorded. Data so obtained were ex-
panded ta full scale and plotted on an IBM 1130 computer;
a typical plot of wave motion data is shown in Figure 17.
These data were further examined on a cycle-by-cycle
basis, with each cycle being assumed sinusoidal in char-
acter. The time average maximum excursion and the time
average maximum acceleration were computed for each
motion examined, and from this analysis, non-dimensional
performance curves of boat response versus frequency of
encounter were constructed. Figure 1 8 shows the bow
heave response curves; responses in other modes and at
different parts of the vessel are similar to the results shown
in Figure 18. Using the seaway characteristics derived in
Reference 6, the non-dimensional data were replotted to
show full-scale response for various sea states and forward
speeds. Heave motion and acceleration at the bow are
shown for head seas operation in Figures 19 and 20.
Response of the vessel to waves is very mild. Fig-
ure 19 shows that the craft heave motion will typically be
less than one-half the exciting wave height for operation
through a State 3 sea at all speeds above take-off. (Take-
off can be achieved with significantly lower motions by
running with the seas, rather than into the waves). Verti-
cal accelerations are also reasonably low, for an unmanned
pallet, at all speeds up to 60 knots.
4
Conclusions
The general conclusions drawn from the tests per-
formed on the hydrofoil sled were that this craft has an ex-
ceptional degree of seaworthiness, and although resistance
is higher than anticipated, significant increases in the
helicopter mission range can still be obtained using the
towed sled concept.
Further development of towed pallets is very de-
sirable. Applications in naval programs are widespread.
The particular sled studied was intended for sonar picket
missions. Such craft might also be used to supply an
amphibious landing force from distant ships, or even serve
as a relatively inexpensive target for surface ship gunnery
practice. Small versions have already been shown suitable
for mine counter-measures use. Vessels of this type might
also serve as relatively inexpensive test media to advance
the design of high speed hydrofoil systems. Serious con-
sideration should be given to this form of high-speed
transportation wherever unmanned surface craft can be
used.
Acknowledgments
The author expresses his appreciation for the
guidance received from Mr. Virgil E. Johnson, Jr., Chief
Engineer of HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated, under whose
supervision the entire pro¡ect was carried out. Mr. Johnson
conducted the original design studies and evolved the basic
ladder configuration that permitted the sled to operate over
the large ranges of displacement and speed ta which it is
subjected.
The 1/8th scale model tests that form the basis of
the sled resistance information were conducted by Mr.
Tsuying Hsieh of HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated.
The author also expresses his sincere appreciation
for the continued personal interest and many helpful sug-
gestions of Mr. Eugene Handler of the Naval Air Systems
Command.
References
Handler, E., The Helicopter-Towed Hydrofoil Sea
Pallet," Journal of the American Helicopter Society,
Vol. 6, No. 3, July 1961.
Johnson, V. E., Jr., Martin, M., and Turpin, F.J.,
The Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Towed Hydro-
foil Sleds," HYDRONAUT1CS, Incorporated Technical
Report 009-1, March 1961.
Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Martin M., The Hydro-
dynamic Design of a Twenty-Ton Towed Hydrofoil
Sled," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Report 009-2, July 1 961.
Al tmann , R . , "Model Tests of a Twenty-Ton Hydrofoil
Sled," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Report 498-1, November 1966.
Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Goodman, A., "The
HYDRONAUTI CS Variable-Pressure , Free-Surface ,
High-Speed Channel ," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
T. R. 229-1, January 1 964.
6. "Model Tests of a Twenty-Ton Hydrofoil Sled,"
Report of Progress for the Period December 1, 1 964-
April 30, 1965, HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Progress Report 498-2.
7. Martin, M., and Turpin, F., The Effect of Surface
Waves on Some Design Parameters of a Hydrofoil
Boat," HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Report 001-3, January 1 961.

28
1
1

24

20
SUB-CAV1 TATIN G
HYDROFOILS
---..
11 - 11
----CWL
0°

16

SUPERCAVI TATING
12 HYDROFOIL S

4
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPEED -KNOTS

FIGURE 1 - SMOOTH WATER LIFT-DRAG RATIOS OBTAINABLE WITH SURFACE

PIERCING V HYDROFOILS

5
 17

GROSS WEIGHT
16 TONS
100

15 95

90
14 TOW THRUST AVAILABLE
HSS-2 HELICOPTER 85
GROSS WEIGHT --- 1 4000 LBS
13
80

75
12
70

11 65

SUPERCAVI TA TI N G 6
10

551
TOW THRUST
O
REOUIRED \ 50
¡o
8
20
45

O7 100/
18
`±' [ /SMOOTH WATER

O
6
///
//
75

16
25
SUB -CAVI TA TI NG

50
Iv 12 80 70
KNOTS
60 50

15 14

//
12 /..
10 --

20 40 60 80 100 10
SPEED-KNOTS

FIGURE 2 - HYDROFOIL SLED TOW THRUST REQUIRED 2

AND SH-3A HELICOPTER TOW THRUST
AVAILABLE
u
<o
RESISTANCE =1.5 x SMOOTH WATER
O RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE = 2 x SMOOTH WATER

RESISTANCE

o
10 20 30 40 50 60
SLED GROSS WEIGHT - TONS

FIGURE 3- HYDROFOIL SLED RANGE TOWED BY SH-3A

HELICOPTER USING SOLID STEEL
SUPERCAVI TATI NG HYDROFOILS

6
 PITCH ANGLE

DIHEDRAL ANGLE

STRUT RAKE ANGLE

FLOW

FIGURE 4 - HYDROFOIL SLED FOIL CONFIGURATION, SCHEMATIC

'LEADING EDGE
,QUARTER-CHORD LINE HYDROFOIL "a" ORDINATES
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM
1
0.0 0.0
TRAILING EDGE 0.00322 -.00171
0.01
0.02 0.00497 -.00225
0.03 0.00646 -.00259
-- '0.516'71
0.04
0.05
0.00780
0.00904
-.00282
-.00299
0.10 0.01 447 -.00331
0.20 0.02356 -.00297
o 0.30 0.03156 -.00251
0.40 0.03894 -.00253
0.50 0.04588 -.00339
0.60 0.05246 -.00536
0.70 0.05874 -.00869
0.386' 0.80 0.06475 -.01 361
0.90 0.06860 -.02031
1.00 0.07241 -.02900
1.00 0.07393 -.01372
Y 1.20 0.07470 -.01067
FOIL REFERENCE 1.30 0.07470 -.00762
C X LINE (HORIZONTAL)
1.40 0.07470 -.00381
1.50 0.07470 -.00000
SECTION AT
CENTERLINE

Y 1.750 HORIZONTAL LINE NOTE: Linearly varying twist

from root to tips; center
of twist along foil
quarter-chord line
SECTION FOIL REFERENCE
AT TIPS LINE

FIGURE 5 - FOIL "a" PLAN FORM AND SECTIONS

7
 I .333'
HYDROFOIL "b" ORDINATES
0.266' Y/C Y/C
THESE. SURFACES TO BE X/C
FLUSH WITH SIDES OF STRUT TOP BOTTOM
0.0 0.0 -.0
0.0125 0.00578 -.00316
2. STRUT 0.050 0.01 301 -.00487
0.075 0.01 650 -.00540
0.10 0.01951 -.00579
4.0' 0.15 0.02459 -.00639
0.20 0.02881 -.00697
2 0' 0.30 0.03549 -.00833
0.40 0.04040 -.01 020
LEADING EDGE
0.50 0.04388 -.01268
UPPER SURFACE" 0.60 0.04608 -.01588
0.70 0.04704 -.01 988
0.80 0.04670 -.02486
0.90 0.04481 -.031 09
X-F*- C
FOIL REFERENCE
LINE
0.95
1.00
0.04306
0.04000
-.03492
-.04000
SECTION OF WING
EXTENDED TO STRUT
CENTERLINE

FIGURE 6 - FOIL "b" PLANFORM AND SECTION

THIS SURFACE SHAPED

TO BE FLUSH WITH FOIL "d" HYDROFOIL "c" ORDINATES

2.0' STRUT Y/C Y/C

X/C
0.376' TOP BOTTOM

0.0 0.0 -.0

0.0125 0.00568 -.00294
2 0' LEADING
0.05 0.01258 -.00416
EDGE 0.075 0.01585 -.00437
UPPER
0.10 0.01 861 -.00445
SURFACE
0.15 0.02316 -.00440
0.20 0.02677 -.00433
0.500' --- 0.30 0.03199 -.00413
0.40 0.03500 -.00402
0.50 0.03599 -.00401
X FOIL REFERENCE 0.60 0.03494 -.00396
LINE 0.70 0.03150 -.00364
0.80 0.02521 -.00277
SECTION OF WING 0.90 0.01547 -.00131
EXTENDED TO STRUT
0.95 0.00892 -.00050
CENTERLI NE
1.00 0.00040 -.00040

FIGURE 7 - FOIL "c" PLANFORM AND SECTION

2.0' --\
HYDROFOIL "d" ORDINATES
LEADING EDGE
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM

0.0 0.0 -.0

4.600' 0.0125 0.00682 -.001 79
0.050 0.01 629 -.00044
0.075 0.021 00 -.00078
0.10 0.02506 -.00200
0.15 0.03186 -.00430
SUR FACE 0.20 0.03736 -.00626
0.30 0.04537 -.00925
0.40 0.04999 -.01097
STRUT 0.50 0.05152 -.01152
1 .21 5'
0.60 0.04993 -.01103
11-IIS SURFACE SHAPED TO 0.70 0.04488 -.00974
BE FLUSH WITH STRUT 0.80 0.03580 -.00782
Y 0.90 0.02192 -.00514
0.95 0.01264 -.00321
Nor-
FOIL REFERENCE 1.00 0.00040 -.00040
LI NE
C

SECTION d-d

FIGURE 8 - FOIL "d" PLAN FORM AND SECTION

8
 2.0'---\ THIS SURFACE SHAPED
TO BE FLUSH WITH STRUT
HYDROFOIL "e" ORDINATES
Y/C Y/C
X/C
TOP BOTTOM
e
I 58°
0.0 0.0
0.0125 0.00682 -.00179
6.040' 0.050 0.01629 -.00044
LEADING AT MID-CHORD 0.075 0.02100 -.00078
EDGE 0.10 0.02506 -.00200
0.15 0.03186 -.00430
0.20 0.03736 -.00626
UPPER
0.30 0.04537 -.00925
0.40 0.04999 -.01097
SURFACE 0.50 0.05152 -.01152
32°
0.60 0.04993 -.01103
0.70 0.04488 -.00974
0.80 0.03580 -.00782
0.880' 0.90 0.02192 -.00514
THIS SURFACE TO BE
FLUSH WITH STRUT 0.95 0.01264 -.00321
Y
1.00 0.00040 -.00040
FOIL REFERENCE
X
C
LINE

SECTION e-e

FIGURE 9 - FOIL "e" PLANFORM AND SECTION

LEADING EDGE CHINE OF SLED HULL

FOIL "e" AT TRAILING EDGE STRUT ORDINATES

X IN. Y IN.
0.0 0.101
0.278 0.194
0.557 0.260
FOILS "c", "d" AND "e" LEADING 0.835 0.309
EDGE AT STRUT TO COINCIDE WITH 1.111 0.350
STRUT LEADING EDGE 1.392 0.385
1.670 0.417
1.945 0.445
TRANSITION TO BEGIN 2.227 0.470
LEADING EDGES BELOW FOIL "d" AND END ABOVE 2.506 0.494
FOIL "c" AND "d" FOIL "b" 2.784 0.516
FOIL "b" TRAILING EDGE TO 3.897 0.588
COINCIDE WITH STRUT 5.011 0.644
1{CURVED
TRAILING EDGE 6.125 0.688
LEADING EDGE
7.238 0.722
FOIL "b"
NOTCHED SECTION ABOVE 8.352 0.749
SUPERCAVITATING FOIL "a" 9.465 0.770
FOR AID IN VENTILATION. 1 0.5 79 0.784
THICKNESS OF NOTCHED PORTION 11.693 0.794
LEADING EDGE TO BE 0.70" AT STRUT TRAILING 12.806 0.799
FOIL "a" EDGE, TAPERING LINEARLY TO 13.920 0.800
1.00" AT MID-CHORD AND REMAINING TO
- I AT THIS THICKNESS FORWARD OF THE 27.84 0.800
STRUT MID-CHORD.
FLOW Y SECTION
y A-A

X
0 rs B-B
Y
X
y SECTION C-C

FIGURE 10- STRUT PLANFORM AND SECTION

9
 0 1 2 3
ill !IIII j
4 5 6 7 8 9
II
10 11 12
INCHES

FIGURE 11 - 1/24 SCALE MODEL OF HYDROFOIL SLED

PORT ELEVATION STARBOARD ELEVATION

5°

3.23°

2.00°

FLOW
T <=1
ANGLES MEASURED FROM HORIZONTAL TO NOSE-TAIL LINE 4.66°

FIGURE 12- ATTACHMENT ANGLES OF 1/8 SLALE FOIL CONFIGURATION, AS TESTED

FOILS WATERLINE

A
a

FIGURE 13- HYDROFOIL SLED WATERLINE AND FOIL IDENTIFICATION

lo
6

\r7=
5 \\\\L DISPLACEMENT:
---- 27,000 POUNDS
\\\
\
40,000 POUNDS

\ \\i-\
E

DESIGN PREDICTION
\\
\lb

o A
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
BOAT SPEED-KNOTS
FIGURE 14 - FOIL SUBMERGENCE VERSUS SPEED - 1/8 SCALE TESTS
8000

6000 -_--L' 40 , 000 LB DISPLACEMENT

/
/ ' o
-- -- --,--2.:-.
DESIGN PREDICTION
/ e OF REFERENCE (2)

4000 i e I I
0 27,000 LB DISPLACEMENT

i//
//,-N
- --- .-------DESIGN PREDICTIÓN
OF REFERENCE (2)
//
2000
//
//
//

i 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1 60

BOAT SPEED , KNOTS
FIGURE 15 - SLED FOIL-BORNE RESISTANCE VERSUS SPEED, 1/8 SCALE TESTS

PLANAR MOTION MECHANISM

VARIABLE AMPLITUDE
VARIABLE FREOUENCY

VARIABLE
R

DRAG FORCEELUCTANCE

TRANSDUCER
---
SPRING WAVEMAKER
- -----
FLEXURE (REMOVABLE) 96" LONG TOWLINE

FIGURE 16- TOWLINE MOUNTING OF SLED IN CHANNEL

11
 4
2

o ** I ` "r
2
4
o 2 4 6 8 o 12 14 16
8
6
4
O
2
LÈ?'

-4
o 2 6 10 12 14 16
3

O BOW
0 STERN
CG
0 WAVE

VEL CPS

4400EL II 61 2.35
PRO TO 33.66 0.48
4
o 6 8 10 12 14 16
TIME -SECONDS

FIGURE 17 - TYPICAL WAVE DATA

4.0
SPEED-KNOTS
025 I PARTIALLY
0 34 ( HULL-BORNE
042
3.0 A50
V60
068
O
1

2.0 VERTICAL BOW ACCELERATIONS

\
\
1.0 \
41\ ,...
.......... V
--",-**-- A
'----- '' Air-
o

4 .0

VERTICAL BOW MOTIONS

3.0
%

O \
\
5 2.0
\
\\
\
1.0 \\
1"-

...._
"" 1-14*
V ,.. .___
A
0
0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
FREQUENCY OF ENCOUNTER, CPS
FIGURE 18- NON-DIMENSIONAL VERTICAL RESPONSE AT BOW OF SLED IN WAVES

12
14

BOAT SPEED (KNOTS)

25 1 PARTIALLY
0 34 1 HULL-BORNE
12 O42
A50
60
12 68

10

CHARACTERISTIC WAVE HEIGHT

(1/10 HIGHEST WAVES)

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320

CHARACTERISTIC WAVE LENGTH, FEET
1.+ 1.6.1 I

SEA STATE 1 SEA STATE 2 SEA STATE 3 SEA STATE 4

FIGURE 19 - HEAVE OF BOW IN HEAD SEAS

SPEED (KNOTS)
25 I PARTIALLY
ID 34 J HULL-BORNE
4 42
L\ 50
7 60
68

o
O
o
40 80 120 160 200 240 280
CHARACTERISTIC WAVE LENGTH, FEET

SEA STATE 1 SEA STATE 2 SEA STATE 3 SEA STATE 4

FIGURE 20 - ACCELERATIONS AT BOW IN HEAD SEAS

1 7,
No. 61355

ADEQUATE STRENGTH FOR SMALL HIGH SPEED VESSELS

by

PHILIP J. DANAHY
U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-355

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-61.50)

6.14
 ADEQUATE STRENGTH FOR SMALL HIGH SPEED VESSELS
by LCDR Philip J. Danahy, USCG
Merchant Marine Technical Division
U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Washington, D. C.
Abstract
This paper presents a method for the determination
of the critical minimum scantlings for small high
speed vessels. Particular attention is given to the
shell plating strength for hydrodynamic impact loads.
The suggested method uses an integrated approach
involving assumed loads, suggested safety factors,
and preferred stress analysis method. The stress
analysis uses plastic theory based partly on the
works of J. Clarkson and Thein Wah. Included in the
paper is a comparison of the relative structural
strength of several commercial, military, and experi-
mental hydrofoil vessels along with a few planing
boats and a seaplane hull. This shows the variation
of existing vessel structures and compares them to
the results obtained by the suggested method. Most
commercial, military and recreational vessels exceed
the minimum scantlings of the suggested method. The
most significant deviation is the hull of the sea-
plane.
I. Introduction
With the development of high speed marine vessels
for commercial use there has been an increased
quantity of engineering investiFation involved per
ship. High speed vessels tend to be weight critical
and strength can represent weight. It becomes
obvious that the designer of a high speed vessel
desires to engineer out all unnecessary strength.
As speeds increase some loads will likewise increase,
but there is a redeeming point in that the control-
linF desipn loads tend to become more apparent,. For
example, a hydrofoil supported vessel need not con-
sider wave supported hull bendinp since the control-
ling bending condition will occur while the vessel
is supported in the foilborne mode (much more severe
than the typical L/20 trochoidal wave support).
In the past the naval architect has had available
the scantlings of other vessels that had operated
successfully under nearly the same conditions
required for his prospective design. Such infor-
mation in organized form is either totally lacking
or at least quite rare for the designer of high
speed marine craft. As a result the designers of
commercial hiph speed vessels have relied upon a
variety of methods to arrive at the scantlings for
their design. With the increasing efforts to fill
the gap in the transportation spectrum which separ-
ates the aviation industry and the marine industry,
there are increasing requirements for merging the
knowledge, capabilities, and methods of both.
Conventional hull design does not generally con-
sider local strength a controlling condition. Deck
loads and slamming loads are investiFated and check-
ed, but these are secondary considerations. At high
speeds the local loads created by wave impact become
significant. In fact for vessels such as hydrofoils
one controlling strength condition has been wave
impact. The primary purpose of this paper is to
present a method for arriving at adequate scantlings
for a wide variety of high speed marine vessels, pay-
ing particular attention to hull bottom plating.
1
This method is detailed in part II. The method
includes three parts, impact loads, safety factor,
and stress analysis, and must be used together as
written rather than lifting any one part considered
favorable to the designer.
It has been interesting to observe the variety
of approaches used in arriving at shell plating
requirements. No two designs have used the same
values for safety factor or assumed loads, nor the
same method of stress analysis and yet the result-
ing shell strengths have frequently been comparable
as will be seen in the comparisons of part III.
One side observation is that where extensive calcu-
lations have been performed there is the application
of a very low safety factor. This is understandable
since a safety factor is generally an ignorance
factor and to a certain extent the designer is pro-
fessing greater knowledge by the application of a
lower safety factor.
The basic assumptions in this paper are that any
marine vehicle must be able to experience contact
with the water at full speed and survive, and that
this contact or impact will occur at the worst
possible orientation of the craft relative to water.
The complete nature of hydrodynamic impact is not
fully defined. Data is available on slow speed
impact caused by slamming, on space capsule impact,
and on seaplane impact. There are many papers
evaluating total forces, accelerations, and moments,
but relatively few with a detailed analysis of
pressures developed and actual local strains
experienced by the shell platinp and stiffeners.
Theoretical studies only consider the twn dimen-
sional problem. The abundant technical literature
covering such items as water impact loads allows
setting criteria over a fairly wide range of values
while basing such criteria on published information.
There will be disagreement with the suggestions
made in this paper and, hopefully, there will be
about as many who feel it to be too liberal as feel
it to be too conservative.
Some things can be said concerning hydrodynamic
impact. It produces an impulse type of load peak-
ing locally to very high pressure levels (several
times stagnation pressure), in a very short time
(in a matter of milliseconds) and possibly revers-
ing itself. This peak pressure may move outwards
from the initial impact point somewhat like a
pressure front decaying exponentially with time at
any particular point on the vessel. The highest
peak pressure may not occur at the point of initial
impact, but for 'V' shaped hulls it may actually
develop at the chine rather than the heel. If the
hull is concave between the keel and chine the max-
imum peak pressure will most likely occur at the
chine. When air is entrapped in the impact area,
such as with flat bottom slamming, the effect is to
reduce the peak pressure, but increase the duration
of pressure build up and decay. There is evidence
that during a single impact there can be several
significant load cycles alternating in direction
and decreasing in magnitude by an exponential HYDROFOIL VESSELS
function. This can be more complex for the plate
50
panel as it will have its own natural frequency out
of phase with the fluctuating impact pressures.
Another complicating factor is the carryover or 40
transfer, through the hull structure, of elastic
response at various and changing areas of impact 30
(i.e. strain waves within the structure).
20
The smaller we make the local component of
vessel structure, such as plate panel, the more
important becomes the magnitude of peak pressure O 10
and the determination of the impulse value. This
is to say that what can be approximated as a point 0
load on a 100" beam approaches a uniform load on a STERN MIDHIPS BOW
1" beam. There are arguments presented (19) for
ignoring peak pressures because of their short
duration and yet this impulse creates strain waves DESIGN PRESSURE LOADING
in the structure that must surely influence fatigue vs.
life. Gun manufacturers do not ignore peak pressures HULL STATION
although here too the duration is short. Similarly
shock waves caused by that pipefitters nightmare, FIGURE 1
waterhammer, may be sufficient to rupture pipes
despite the short duration of a strain wave travel-
ing at the speed of sound in the material. No
suggestions are offered on how to appropriately
account for peak pressures. If 100-150 knot
commercial marine vessels are to be constructed with Bottom Plating
safety and economy, peak pressures must surely be
considered and properly handled in the structural In arriving at suitable bottom plating the
analysis. expected or design pressure loads must first be
determined. Figure I may be used to determine the
design pressure load at the appropriate hull
station for the particular full speed condition.
II. Scantlings for High Speed Vessels This may also be calculated from the formula

Object P = KV2
100
The object is to present a quick and easy method
for determining hull scantlings on high speed where: P is in pounds per square inch
vessels which allows light weight construction and V is speed in knots -
adequate safety. This method is not applicable to K is selected from the appropriate curve in
vessels incapable of speeds over 30 knots. figure 2

'K' FACTORS vs. HULL STATIONS

FOR SELECTED VESSEL TYPES
P = 0.01 K V2

FICURE 2

HYDROFOIL VESSELS
2.0 PLANING BOATS
' A - Full speed less than 3X takeoff
B - Full speed less than 5X takeoff
but, greater than 3X takeoff

1.5

1.0

P. 3
0.5

STERN 6 2 BOW STERN 2i BOW

2
 YIELD STRENGTH c 50 60 70 THOUSANDS
15 20 25 30 35 45 55

6061 T6 Yy=35,000pst

Aluminum Alloys
(E= 10.3 X lOps)
20

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8090 IOD 120 40

\ I

PLATE SPAN TO THICKNESS RATIO b/li

FIGURE 3

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I I I I I I I I I I I I

.6

.5
13y115
4
P= I.735()
b E"

.3

u.1
a. .2

.1

Y FIGURE 4

3
Figure 3 may be used to determine the plate thickness required section modulus for longitudinals:
and stiffener spacing for any particular aluminum
alloy used for plating. P b 12
12 S
Figure 4 is the general case from which figure 3
has been calculated for all2ys with a modulus of where: Z = required section modulus
elasticity, E, of 10.3 x 10° psi. It is appreci- P = expected pressure load
ated that the actual value of E for aluminum alloys S = yield strength 4 1.5 safety factor, or
varies slightly above and below this, but other ultimate strength 4 2.0, whichever is
variations in material properties and workmanship less
will exceed any effect the variation in E will have. b = spacing of longitudinals
For other materials with appreciably different E 1 = spacing of frames, length of longitud-
values the designer should use the general case, inal
figure 4. The formula approximating this curve is:
The transverse frames may be treated similarly.

Hull Side Plating

1.735(1.7 y1.15
P
In determining the scantlings of the side plat-
.15
E ing the pressure load should be taken as 300 PSF at
the weather deck and this should be increased
linearly to the chine by the hydrostatic head. See
where: P = pressure
figure 5. If this results in a pressure load at
h = plating thickness
the chine less than 50% of the expected pressure
b = plate panel span, or stiffener spacing
load on the bottom a further adjustment is required.
Y = yield strength of plate
The pressure on the sideplating at the chine should
E = Young's modulus for plate
be taken at 50% of the bottom plating pressure and
reduced linearly to intersect the load curve in
This general curve is from the work of Clarkson
figure 5 at the displacement full load waterline,
(12,13) at initial yield condition of flat plate.
inclined 15°.
NOTE: Figures 1 and 3 must be used in conjunction
with each other. To use one and not the other is Miscellaneous loads
to take the method out of context.
Weather deck forward of midships 600 PSF
Weather deck aft of midships 300 PSF
Longitudinal Stiffeners and Transverse Frames Superstructure front 750 PSF
Superstructure sides 300 PSF
The strength of longitudinal stiffeners and Superstructure top 150 PSF
transverse frames can be handled with conventional
beam theory. The average expected pressure load Other considerations
operating on the longitudinal can be taken from
figure 1. Apply this load to the fixed ended beam In the realm of high speed vessel design there
formula using a safety factor of 1.5 on yield or is always some new arrangement that may require
2.0 on ultimate, whichever gives the lowest stress special consideration by the designer. Obviously
level. This results in the following formula for unusual designs presenting special problems require

Bottom pressure
2

DISTRIBUTION OF
HULL SECTION SIDE PRESSURE LOAD

FIGURE 5

4
special consideration. "W" shaped hulls are apt to
develop considerably higher hydrodynamic loads at
the midpoint of the "W", and yet air entrapment may
soften this. The cushioning effect of fan generated
cushion craft presents some advantage that can be
credited in arriving at the scantlings. In figure 2
a modifying Kc may be used to reduce the K when
solving for expected pressure loads on these vessels.
Considerations for such things as fatigue life
have not been mentioned. Fatigue is particularly
important in high speed planing hulls because of
the high frequency of high speed hydrodynamic
impact. Planing boats are well handled in the
paper by Heller and Jasper (2). The Kp for planing
boats in figure 2 is similar to that used by Heller
and Jasper, but in the development of K all values
have been doubled to allow simplifying the denomin-
ator in the equation for P.
There are obviously additional considerations in
arriving at suitable hull scantlings. The designer
must provide for hull penetrations such as sea
chests, internal foundations for machinery, external
foundations to support appendages to name a few
special design areas/ Selection of suitable mater-
ials, fastening systems and assembly methods will
require further decisions influencing strength.
Such items would be suitable for an extensive paper
dnthe practical considerations of vessel design
and Construction.
III. Background and Comparisons
In an effort to evaluate the possible influence
hull shape could have on impact it was necessary to
know the angle 6. This is the angle between the
vector normal to the shell plating and the longi-
tudinal axis of the vessel. Vessel velocity multi-
plied by cosine 6 then represents the component of
velocity perpendicular to the shell plating. Using
the two most readily determined shape parameters,
deadrise angle and buttocks angle, the following
formula yields the desired cosine 6:
cos 6 tan 8/Vtan48 + tan 2$ + I
where: e buttócks angle (angle between hori-
zontal and tangent to the buttocks
line)
$ = deadrise angle
6 = angle between vessel longitudinal
axis and vector normal to shell.
Figure 6 is a plot of cos 6 vs. $ for various
values of e . This points out the importance of 8
and the relative unimportance of a insofar as impact occurrence such as an operational casualty. There-
pressures are concerned. However, the value of a
will influence total impact forces. Although
increasing e will not appreciably reduce impact
pressures it will reduce the amount of area immedi-
ately involved and thereby reduce acceleration
forces and moments.
Using figure 6 and the e and e values from the
lines drawings of several hydrofoil vessels and plan- be noted that one significant possibility does not
ing hulls, a comparison was made with the view
toward developing a shape factor. This shape factor
would modify stagnation pressure and produce an
assumed hydrodynamic impact load. The comparison
included plotting cos 6 vs. hull station for several foil in 10° yaw there could be as much as a 25%
hulls. The result was surprisingly similar curves
.8
7
.6
o
.3
.2
.1
.0
100 20' 300 40°
Deadrise Angle $
Cosine 6 vs. B
for various buttocks angles e
FIGURE 6
for what seemed to be considerably varying hull
shapes. A further look at the hulls revealed that
the significant difference in their lines was
primarily due to different deadrise angles, $ . Since
figure 6 shows how little influence a has upon cos 6
it's easy to see why the results were so close for
many shapes.
Figure 7 represents a typical 'V' shaped hull and
shows the distribution of cos 6 along the length of
the vessel for a buttocks line near the centerline.
To cover the entire bottom plating completely there
should be a family of cos 6 curves representing all
buttocks lines. The cos 6 curve is naturally similar
The cos 6 curve is naturally similar in shape to the
buttocks line and when we consider the cos 6 curve
for the buttocks line near the chine the resultant
or effective cos 6 curve would be less concave and
the hollow would be filled somewhat by the effect of
the outboard hull shape being similar but further
aft. For clarity of illustration the family of cos
6 curves is not included.
Full speed hydrodynamic impact is unlikely to be
intentional, but rather the result of an unexpected
fore a pessimistic view is taken and it is assumed
that the vessel takes on the worst possible attitude
with respect to the water just prior to impact.
Table 1 is a listing of some possibilities and their
potential effect upon the apparent deadrise angle
and buttocks angle. If these are then used to adjust
the actual cos 6 the possible cos 6 becomes appreci-
ably larger. This is shown on figure 7. It should
show in table 1 and that is the effect of vessel yaw.
Although it was felt that this was minor and (8)
unnecessary to add to all else, the Edo Corp.
indicates that for model tests with a seaplane hydro-
increase in impact forces.
5
 POSSIBLE ADVERSE EFFECTS

ADVERSE EXPECTED NORmAL

ITEM ACTION MAGNITUDE

1. Vessel heel reduce up to 20°

2. Vessel trim increase e up to 6°

3. Wave slope decrease approx. 6°

4. Wave slope increase e approx. 6°

5. Vessel drop velocity decrease S approx. 5°

6. Vessel drop velocity increase e approx. 5°

7. Vessel drop velocity increase V approx. 5 F.P.S.

8. Wave Orbital Velocity increase e 15% of wave velocity

9. Wave Orbital Velocity decrease is 15% of wave velocity

10. Wave velocity increase 13.5 knots for 5' wave

velocity 10.5 knots for 3' wave

Potential reduction of B from #1 200 Potential increase of e from #2 6°

from #3 6° from #4 6°

from #5 5° from #6 5°

Potential total reduction of S 31° Potential total increase of 0 17°

TABLE 1

Cos 6 acts upon the velocity and the effect of
velocity is proportional to the square so co82 6 is
also plotted on figure 7. Remember that this cos2
6 curve is only one of a family of such curves with
the others tending to fill in the concave curve area
forward of midships. The K factors shown in figure
2 evolved primarily from this cos2 6 factor. The
formula for stagnation pressure is approximately:
P = V2
52
where: P = stagnation pressure, psi
V = velocity in knots
Table 2 is self explanatory and may be useful to
the designer who wishes to see what actually has
been used or proposed in the past. Because of the
uncertainties involved many of the vessels' speeds
sometime in the future while in other cases the
operating vessel did not obtain the expected speed.
The planing boats are not as weight critical as
hydrofoil vessels and the designers of racing plan-
ing boats are more concerned with maintaining bottom
shell rigidity than in conserving weight. Neverthe-
less planing boats are included for their comparative
value.

For simplicity it was decided to double any factor
acting on stagnation pressure to allow rounding off
the denominator to 100. Thus 2 cos2 6 at the forward
perpendicular becomes approximately 1.5 which was the
value finally accepted. However, 2 cos2 6 at the
after perpendicular is less than .2 and this would
mean such a large deviation from what was actually
being used in commercial designs that it could not be
accepted. There is considerable basis for not accept-
ing such a low value for the after bottom plating. A
check of possible bottom loads during takeoff and
during semifoilborne/planing operations at higher
speeds called for greater strength. Finally a com-
promise was reached in which an arbitrary straight
line K factor was arrived at which became modified
as the differential between full speed and takeoff
speed assured that full speed impact vas to be the
controlling condition throughout the hull bottom.
Figures 8 through 14 were drawn up to show at a
glance the relative strengths of the designs listed
in table 2. The curves in figures 8 - 14 were
arrived at by applying the plating span to thickness
ratio from table 2 to the figure 3 for the appropri-
ate alloy yield strength. Although other methods
would allow a comparison of the relative strengths
this approach also allows a ready comparison with
the criteria outlined in part II. The minimum
requirement of part II is plotted as a dashed line
in the graphs of figures 8 - 14. One factor that is
not reflected In figures 8 - 14 is theas welded"
strength of the shell plating. In several designs
the'as welded'strength actually controls and would
make the design appear much less conservative than
in the figures. Frequently the weld and the heat
affected zone can be located in a low stress region,
but that is another problem.

6
 100

40 KNCT HYDROFOILS

80

60

40

STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

20
Curve 'A' represents a typical cos 6 curve
at the 2' buttock

Curve 'B' is a typical possible cos 6 curve

(curve 'A' corrected to consider the effects
of table 1) STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Curve 'C' is the square of curve 'B' --- i.e. Relative Strength
cos2 .of Bottom Plating

Curve 'D' represents the basic K factor for FIGURE 8

shape

FIGURE 7

80 KNOT HYDROFOIL (+)

100 100

40 KNOT HYDROFOILS
E

80 80

60 60
'*/

40 0 /
40 ct,

STEP
X
_ _ /
20 20
wz - - 70 KNOT'
SEAPLANE

STERN MIDSHIPS BOW STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength Relative Strength

of Bottom Plating of Bottom Plating

FIGURE 9 FIGURE 10

7
 30

0 KNOT HYDROFOIL
180L 20

50 KNOT HYDROFOIL
30 KNOT HYDROFOIL
10

70 KNOT HYDROFOIL
60. O
STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength
40. of Bottom Plating

11(011' FIGURE 12
- - - --
4
-5°-
50 KNOT

TERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength
of Bottom Plating

FIGURE 11 120
Planing boats
50 (+) Knots

100
100

Planing boats
80
30 (+) knots

60
Q.

o 20 knt displacement ship

o

20 20

STERN MIDSHIPS 2i BOW STERN MIDSHIPS BOW

Relative Strength Pelative Strength

of Bottom Plating of Bottom Plating

FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14

8
 Shell Bottom Plating

Approx. Strength Thickness Span b

Design Vessel Speed Alloy Yield Ultimate h (inches) (inches)

A Hydrofoil 30 K 5086-H32 28000 40000 3/16 10

Hydrofoil 35 K 5083 ? 25000 40000 5/32 11-13/16

Hydrofoil 40 K 5086 ? 34000 44000 .138 Fwd 11-13/16

.197 Aft

Hydrofoil 40 K 5456-H321 33000 46000 3/16 8

E Hydrofoil 40 K 5086-H34 34000 44000 1/4 7

3/16

Hydrofoil 40 K(+) 5083-H113 31000 44000 3/16 Bow 6

24000 40000 5/32 Aft 3/4L 6

Hydrofoil 40 K 5456 ? 22000 .5 Bow 9-10

.313 Fwd 1/4L
.25 Aft 3/4L

Hydrofoil 40 K 5456-11311 25000 42000 .2 8

Hydrofoil 45 K 5083-1132 34000 45000 .09 Bow 3-3/4

Midships 4-1/2
Stern 7

Hydrofoil 50 K 7039-T6 55000 65000 1/4 Bow 6

8
Stern 10

Hydrofoil 50 K 5456-11343 41000 53000 1/4 20

Hydrofoil 70 K 5456-1134 41000 53000 .188 Bow 9

.156 6

N Hydrofoil 80 K 5456-11321 33000 46000 .313 7-1/2

.1
N Seaplane 70 K Alclad 57000 64000 .05 Bow 6-7 1/2
2014-T6 .03 6

0 Planing 30 K 5033-0 18000 40000 3/8 13

P Planing 30 K 5456-1132 36000 43000 1/4 7

Q Planing 50 K 5456-11321 33000 46000 3/16 Bow 11

1/4

Planing 60 K 5086-1132 28000 40000 1/4 8

S Planing 50 K 5456-11321 33000 46000 5/16 7

TABLE 2

In the paper by Beason and Buckle (11) a method

The most significant deviation from the minimum
requirements of part II is represented by design N,
a seaplane. It should be pointed out that the sea-
plane is designed to operate well away from the
hostile surface of the water and only a closely con-
trolled landing condition is anticipated. Part II
assumes an accidental landing or impact at full
speed in the most adverse attitude most reasonable
to develop. A high speed marine vessel is continu-
ally within immediate reach of the surface allowing
the operator insufficient time to take effective
corrective action.
is outlined for arriving at scantlings for hydrofoil
vessels up to 40 knots. Figure 15 compares their
results for shell bottom plating with the results
using part II of this paper. The hypothetical
vessel is assumed to have a full speed of 40 knots,
a take-off speed of 20 knots and the shell plating
is an aluminum alloy with a yield strength of 30,000
psi. The results show that the method of part II is
more conservative for the bow area and somewhat more
liberal throughout the remainder of the bottom plat-
ing. Despite this the two methods are in much closer
agreement than are actual designs.

9

80
60
40
20
STERN HULL STATIONS BOW
Comparison of Bottom
Platinp Requirements
FIGURE 15
The method in part II should be considered as
giving the minimum acceptable strength requirements
and other considerations may require additional
strength, i.e. areas around strut foundations,
machinery foundations, hull penetrations, etc.
BIBLICGRAPHY
Water Impact Loads
"On the Structural Design of Planing Craft" by
S. R. Heller, Jr. and N. H. Jasper, Transactions
RINA, 1960
"Hydrofoil Boat Hull - Wave Impact Loads" by
W. R. Jensen Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp.
Report GE-173 Also: AS ME Paper 60 -WA -326
"Structural Load Criteria for Hydrofoil Ships"
by Don L. Stevens, Jr., Joseph P. Banks, and
Eugene L. Aronne
"Hull Wave Impact Load on High Speed Marine
Craft" by Young H. Chey,May, 1965, DTMB Report
1072, AD 469 862
"Experimental Investigation of Rigid Flat
Bottom Body Slaming" by Shang - Lun - Chuang,
Sept 1965, DTMB Structural Mechanics Lab, R & D
Report 2041
"Water Impact of the Mercury Capsule. Corre-
lation of Analysis with NASA Tests" by J. D.
Rosenbaum and W. R. Jensen, Grumman Aircraft
Eng. Corp. Report ADN -02 -08-62.1
"Hydrofoil Ship Structural Design Criteria
Study", Martin Co., Baltimore, Md., Feb 1965,
NObs-4791
"The Design and Model Testing of A Small Single
Hydrofoil Installation for the HU-16 Airplane",
Edo Corp. Report 7016, 7 Feb. 1966, AD-478 997
"Sea Tests of the USCGC UNIMAK - Slaming
Pressures, Strains, Etc.", by Joshua E. Greenspon
DTMB Report 978, March 1956
10. "Two-Dimensional Experiments on the Effect of
Hull Form on Hydrodynamic Impact" by Margaret
Ochi and Frank M. Schwartz, DTMB Report 1994,
May 1966
11. "Hydrofoil Vessels", by C. Beason and A. K. Buckle
Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Paper #1, Session
1965-66
Plastic Theory & Experiments
12. "A New Approach to the Design of Plates to With-
stand Lateral Pressure" by J. Clarkson, Quarterly
Transactions INA, Oct. 1956
"The Strength of Approximately Flat Long Rectang-
ular Plates Under Lateral Pressure", by J. Clark-
son, Transactions, N. E. Coast Inst. of Eng. &
Shipbuilders, Vol. 74, Nov. 1957
"Investigation of Stiffened Steel Plates", by
Thein Wah Southwest Research Institute, 9 April
1966, AD 631 632
"Elastic-Plastic Evaluation for Rectangular
Aluminum Plates and Stiffened Steel Plates", by
Thein Wah, Southwest Research Institute, 17
January 1966, AD 481 189
"Small Scale Grillage Tests", by J. Clarkson
Naval Construction Research Establishment, Feb.
1966, AD 634 227
"Response of Rigid Viscoplastic Circular and
Square Plates to Dynamical Loading", by Tomasz
Wierzbicki, Stanford University Tech. Report
162, April 1966, AD 483 729
"Plasticity", by B. Venkatraman, Polytechnic
Inst. of Brooklyn Report PIBAL 916, April 1966,
AD 635 096
"Plastic Analysis of Structures", by Philip G.
Hodge, Jr., McGraw-Hill 1959
NOTE : For those readers familiar with the Defense
Documentation Center and the Clearinghouse for
Federal Scientific and Technical Information,
the AD numbers are listed where known.
ALS 0: There are numerous other pertinent references,
including many NACA Reports. These have been
omitted from this list since they are referred
to repeatedly within the above references, and
additional listing seemed redundant.
The views expressed in this paper are those of
the author and do not necessarily represent the
official view of the U. S. Coast Guard.
10
No. 61356

ADVANCED CONCEPTS IN OCEAN TRANSPORT CAPABILITY:

THE CONTAINER/BARGE QUANDARY
by

ROY R. MOFFETT
U. S. Maritime Administration
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-356

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

volumes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

1.08
 ADVANCED CONCEPTS IN OCEAN TRANSPORT CAPABILITY:
THE CONTAINER/BARGE QUANDARY

Roy R. Moffett
Division of Ship Design
Office of Ship Construction
U.S. Maritime Administration
The thoughts expressed herein are those of the Author, and do not necessarily
represent the views of Maritime Administration.

Abstract veloped to solve the difficult problems associated

Using a simulated voyage technique, two new sys-
tems concepts in ocean transportation are evaluated
and compared on their effectiveness in the handling
of a specific general cargo trade. Both the con-
tainership and barge carrying vessel are loaded
on paper with actual shiploads of cargo as carried
on recent voyages and the resulting problems dis-
cussed. To insure that a singular cargo booking
would not bias the analysis, six consecutive voyages
covering the time period between March 1965 and
May 1966 are evaluated. Difficulties associated
with port to port cargo imbalance, the shutting out
of cargo due to incompatibility with the unitized
concept and ship space utilization are investigated.
Advantages and disadvantages of the two systems
are developed in both present and future time
frames. Conclusions favor the barge concept
under present conditions but concede greater long
range potential for containerization.
Introduction
American steamship operators, concerned with
the necessity of replacing an aging merchant fleet,
must now make more difficult decisions than ever
before. They must decide whether to invest large
sums to develop new systems for handling unitized
cargo or to remain with the general cargo ship
utilizing existing facilities. It is true at this
writing that advanced concepts such as containeri-
zation have not yet been fully proven in foreign
trade, but if they are found to be successful, the
construction of a new fleet of break bulk ships, that
could quickly become obsolete, may lead to finan-
cial disaster. Experience has indicated that there
is no concensus among steamship operators as to
the design criteria that are optimum for handling
general cargo. Important considerations such as
size and number of hatches per hold, type of cargo
gear, speed, and cubic cannot be agreed upon even
among operators serving the same ports and carry-
ing similar cargoes. The major point is that cargo
handling is not a science, formulae cannot be de-
with cargo mix, marks, imbalance and the multi-
port itinerary; all of which makes the decision to
invest in new ship construction extremely compli-
cated.
Presuppose that due to the threat of competition,
a shipping company decides that its best interests
lie in building ships utilizing advanced concepts.
The following comparison of two advanced con-
cepts, the containership and the barge carrying
ship, will help to determine if one is superior, and,
if not, under what conditions would it be advisable
to employ either concept. The distinguishing fea-
ture of these two concepts when compared to tra-
ditional cargo handling is that the cargoes are loaded
and discharged in large units rather than piece-
meal. Containerships are designed to carry several
hundred units of a size that can be accommodated
by the trucking and rail industry whereas the barge
carrying vessel utilizes far fewer units but of much
greater size.
The following is divided into two major cate-
gories; The Concept Analysis and The Operations
Analysis.
Concept Analysis: A general discussion and
comparison of the relative advantages and disad-
vantages of the two systems.
Operations Analysis: A determination of the
suitability of each system to effectively cope with
the general cargo situation as it presently exists
on an essential United States foreign trade route,
Concept Analysis
The ordinary break bulk freight ship is a most
flexible vehicle for the carriage of general cargo
and the methods of handling this general cargo are
known and accepted everywhere. The advent of
advanced concepts such as the container and barge
systems adds a new dimension to the art of cargo
handling. Will these new systems be compatible!
with existing practices and facilities? Will they
be able to satisfy all the various elements and
vested interests that make up the shipping com-
.
munity? These and many other pertinent questions
must be answered before an operator can make a
final choice of the type of advanced system best
suited for his trade. This Concept Analysis will
compare the two concepts in terms of flexibility,
inland transport systems, barge/container in-
ventory, cargo imbalance, labor, terminal require-
ments, use as a military auxiliary, delays, trans-
shipments, cargo losses, capital investment and
tramp competition.
Flexibility
To be considered as flexible, a ship must have
the ability to effectively handle commodities of vari-
ous physical characteristics and cargo shipments
of varying lot sizes stowed within the ship with
suitable access to enable their direct discharge
without removal of overstowed cargo.
Physical Characteristics: General cargo can
consist of anything grown, mined br manufactured.
It is not unusual for a vessel to carry such diverse
commodities as sheet steel, canned goods, tractors
and glassware on the same voyage. The physical
characteristics of the cargo can lead to difficulties
for containerships and barge carriers as the follow-
ing example indicates.
An important export from the United States is
sheet steel which occupies approximately ten cubic
feet per ton. A standard twenty foot, twenty ton
container, would utilize only seventeen percent of
its cubic in carrying its maximum weight load,
while the barge is only slightly better at twenty
percent. The standard four foot deep, open-top
tray can be used, but in most instances it would
have to make the return trip to the United States
in an empty condition, as there are few import
commodities physically suited to be carried in this
type of container. Barges would be a great deal
more flexible if cargoes other than the steel were
also destined for the same foreign port. A mixture
of sheet steel and lighter general cargo could be
loaded into barges optimizing both cube and weight.
However, this happy circumstance does not often
take place in actual practice.
Barges enjoy the advantage that they can be loaded
in much the same fashion as the tween deck of a
general cargo ship. Because of their size, larger
pieces that could not physically fit into containers
can be carried and special racks have been fabri-
cated so that large shipments of autos can be han-
dled with a minimum of lost space. The disad-
vantage of the containership is that it is limited
to carrying only those commodities that can fit into
a container unless special roll-on/roll-off provi-
sions are designed into the vessel.
Lot Size: Individual cargo shipments vary in
size from a few cubic feet to whole box car and
barge loads, and the flexible vessel should be able
to accommodate shipments of these diverse di-
mensions. Experience is indicating that most
shipments will have to be consolidated at pierside.
A problem develops when there are certain small
shipments and left-over tonnage from large ship-
2
ments that must be carried to assure good custo-
mer relations. A container ship operator might
be able to afford the luxury of carrying one ton of
cargo in a container to satisfy a very important
shipper but the barge operator cannot possibly be
so generous as to utilize a whole barge to carry
that one ton. Because of their small size, the
container will have greater utilization for door-to-
door shipments, although there are obstacles pres-
ently impeding growth in full shipper to consignee
container movements.
Inland Transport System
An important consideration is the determination
of how the advanced concepts fit into the inland
transportation system, both in the United States and
abroad. It can be generalized that each of the two
modes has its own area of maximum efficiency; i.e.,
containers, carried on road or rail, in handling
door-to-door packaged freight and barges econom-
ically carrying huge quantities of bulk grain, ore
and oil.
Foreign inland transportation systems offer a di-
rect contrast to that on the domestic scene. Cargo
is transported to and from the ship by rail, small
trucks, oxcart, sampans, go-downs, junks, family
barges, long boats and on the heads and backs of
the local population. North Europe is the only area
that can presently handle containers inland in quan-
tity and even there, there are great problems due
to inadequate roads, low bridges, narrow streets,
etc., that are hindering container operations and
giving some Europeans second thoughts about the
future of containerization. Barges are a most
important mode of freight transport in North Europe
and would be more flexible and practical in almost
all other areas of the world. Containers would
almost have to be restricted to the port area in
most of the lesser developed countries whereas
barges can go anywhere that nine feet of water is
available. The importance of this is that a barge
system could consolidate cargo at one port from a
large geographical area that extended across bodies
of water such as the Mediterranean Sea, The con-
tainer system could not accomplish this as effi-
ciently and might require that the containership stop
at many more ports which would increase turn-
around time and decrease the overall economic
attractiveness.
Without minimizing the importance of the do-
mestic waterway system, which does a tremendous
volume in bulk cargoes, it must be conceded that
containerized shipments of packaged goods can be
transported by truck and rail in the United States
providing efficient and flexible door-to-door de-
livery giving this mode a virtual monopoly in this
area. Further, to fully utilize a barge system,
shippers may be forced to purchase additional ma-
terials handling equipment, build riverside docks
and add stevedoring personnel to their payrolls.
However, shippers and consignees located on or
near a river may find it extremely economical to
utilize barges, especially for bulk and lower reve-
nue cargoes such as chemicals, fertilizers and pe-
troleum products. Of great importance to the ship-
per is the fact that barges can act as floating ware-
houses, greatly reducing overhead and space re-
quirements. Also, it would be more economical
to towbarge several thousand tons of cargo dis-
charged at New Orleans destined for St. Louis,
for an example, than to truck it in containers.
It must be concluded, therefore, that barges and
containers have their most efficient application in
different segments of the trade. Although they may
be complementary in this respect, the determina-
tion must be made by the shipping company as to
which mode will perform most effectively in his
trade area.
Barge/Container Inventory
The proposed containerships of today are speci-
fying a capacity ranging between 800 and 1,200
containers while the two proposed barge ships are
carrying 38 and 61 barges prospectively. It can
be easily concluded that it would be much less dif-
ficult to keep abreast of the barge movements than
the hundreds of containers. Containers being an
integral part of the tractor trailer system could
conceivably end up almost anywhere at great dis-
tances from the major port whereas the much
larger barges are fairly limited in their movement
and are less likely to disappear. The container-
ship operator will need a larger staff couplad with
increased expenditures to provide for inventory
control and maintenance programs than will the
barge ship operator. One steamship company with
a going container operation found, upon an investi-
gation pertaining to containers that had mysterious-
ly disappeared in foreign ports, that some of the
local population had "midnight requisitioned" them,
and had converted them into fairly comfortable
places of abode.
Cargo Imbalance
There are three types of cargo imbalance as
follows:
Imbalance which occurs when cargo moves in. one
direction with little or no cargo moving in the
other direction. This requires that the addi-
tional expense of handling empty containers or
barges on the return voyage be borne by the
operator. The container operation may be a
little more costly in this instance due to the
greater number of empty units that have to be
handled.
Imbalance which occurs when containerizable
cargoes move in one direction with a full load
of noncontainerizable items moving in the op-
posite direction leaving no room to stow re-
turning empties. Containerships are at a great
disadvantage on a service where this situation
occurs and can only shut out cargo or stuff
containers with incompatible cargoes. The barge
ship is better suited to handle this trade, as the
size of the barges allow for stowage of a great
many commodities that are physically impossi-
ble to stow in a container.
3
3. Imbalance which occurs when containerizable
cargo moves in each direction, but the ports of
call are primarily for either loading or dis-
charging and rarely for both. Containerships can
handle this situation by "deadheading" empties
from port to port and "back-tracking" to pick
up full containers. This, of course, greatly
increases voyage time and expenses for termi-
nal storage of containers. Barge ships are not
much better off except that tugs could be em-
ployed to shift empties so that the ship would.
be relieved from that expensive nonproductive
task. Storage of empty barges would be less
expensive than storage of containers.
Labor
In the movement of packaged freight, through
shipments of containers would have maximum im-
pact in reducing man-hours of cargo handling
labor. The threat that this poses in loss of work
opportunity together with labor jurisdictional prob-
lems naturally create difficulties requiring far-
sighted consideration by management, labor and
government in their ultimate solution. From a
near term view less difficulty may be experienced
in establishing the barge system, as handling cargo
between ocean carrier and land transportation par-
allels present systems.
Operators of proposed containerships and barge
carriers generally concede that their cargo han-
dling costs will be high owing to stuffing and un-
stuffing operations before the major units are loaded
aboard the vessels; however, premium pay expenses
resulting from night, weekend and holiday work
should be greatly reduced.
Terminal Requirements
Very few ports have existing available facilities
where a large container system can be put into im-
mediate, effective operation. Compounding the
problem is the fact that most containers will have to
be stuffed and unstuffed at pierside due to the ex-
pected small number of door-to-door shipments.
Itis to be especially noted that in some foreign
ports it may be necessary to containerize and de-
containerize cargoes while the containers are still
onboard the ship for some time to come. For
efficient operation, then, the large scale container
system requires expansive marshalling space and
adequate uncongested access routes to and from
the pier area. The barge system, however, does
not have to contend, to the same degree, with the
problems associated with antiquated port facilities,
terminal congestion or inadequate rail and road
accesses. Barges can be stuffed and unstuffed at
present break bulk terminals using truck mounted
cranes, if necessary, and then be towed to a con-
venient marshalling area. As the barge ship can
load and discharge in the stream there are very
few lock, tide, or draft limitations that could cause.
difficulties or loss of time. It may also be possible
to reduce or eliminate expenses such as harbor
dues, towing and mooring services which may
offset the cost of towing the barges.
 Military Auxiliary very large loads of such commodities as coffee
and raw rubber which justifies transfer by lighter
Both the containership and barge carrier could sized vehicles. The rehandling of cargo is not only
serve as effective military auxiliaries if properly expensive because of stevedoring charges but de-
designed. There has been discussion within the lays often occur that prevent a ship from sailing
marine industry and among various elements of the on time. This process is made to order for the
military establishment as to which concept has the barge carrier whether receiving or discharging
greatest military potential. The containership transshipment cargo. A container operation would
could serve as an excellent supply ship to military be more costly unless there was direct transfer
bases that are connected to an adequate seaport between two containerships. Since transshipments
by a road capable of handling van container traffic. are almost always between ships of different ship-
The advantage of the container system over barges ping companies an effective pooling arrangement
in this instance is that the material gets out of the would have to be agreed upon for the interchange
port area and onto the military reservation with of containers.
a minimum of delay. Barges would necessarily be
confined to the harbor or river area and cargo Cargo Losses
would have to be discharged in break bulk fashion
and then transported to the military base. This, of A big selling point for containerization has been
course, increases the probability that the material that it would substantially reduce damage and pil-
may be lost, damaged, destroyed or stolen. The ferage of cargo resulting in greater utilization of
barge carrier would be excellent in primitive areas containers by shippers and decreased expenses in
where a beach head has been established or where insurance costs to the operators. Experience is
the only access through jungles to the base is by indicating that greater effort on the part of both
river. The barge carrier can discharge in the shipper and carrier is required before maximum
stream and barges could deliver materials any- benefits will be realized. It is almost certain that
where there was water access. A properly de- insurance claims resulting from damaged cargo can
signed containership for military use should carry be greatly reduced if special emphasis is placed
its own cargo gear, have a deep second deck and on the proper handling of containers, the proper
ramps to accommodate a large variety of military stowage of the cargo inside the containers and the
vehicles and weapons. The barge carrier should proper packaging of the cargo itself. Pilferage
also have its own cargo gear and preferably, a is automatically impeded as:
system of horizontal movement of barges rather The system can provide lar expedient move-
than cell stowage. This would enable the vessel ment of cargo to and from the terminal area;
to effectively handle the maximum number of mili- Cellular stowage prevents easy access to most
tary vehicles. containers;
High cargo handling rate reduces port time;
Delays and
Cargo is hidden in the container reducing
The maritime industry has always been harassed the opportunity for selective choosing of
by time consuming and therefore expensive port easily pilferable items.
delays caused by bad weather, strikes and harbor
congestion. A containership can load and discharge The barge offers less advantages in this respect
in bad weather as there is no chance of cargo be- unless it is completely shipper loaded. It is ap-
coming damaged. Harbor congestion will most parent, however, that barges for the most part,
certainly ,delay the containership as it is almost will be stuffed and unstuffed at pierside, so that
necessary to dock to load and discharge containers. pilferage and damage will continue at about the
If the containership has its own cargo gear it could same rate as the normal break bulk operation.
conceivably handle containers into lighters while
anchored in the stream. The barge carriers can Capital Investment
effectively avoid delays caused by both bad weather The useful life of the barges is estimated to be
and port congestion by working cargo in any pro- twenty-five years while ten years is the generally
tected roadstead. accepted standard for containers. This means, of
course, that two and one-half sets of containers
Transshipments will be needed for every set of barges over the
Transshipping, the process of transferring cargo twenty-five year life of the ship. Couple this with
from one vessel to another for further transport, the fact that containers are much more expensive
ordinarily is a very costly operation to the shipping than barges based on dollar cost per cubic foot of
company. The usual process involves, for example, cargo space and the capital investment differential
a load of cargo from South America or the Far becomes much greater in favor of barges. Large
East that arrives in a domestic port and is dis- expenditures of capital may also have to be made
charged into lighters and then reloaded into another for chassis and bogies, straddle trucks and real
vessel bound for North Europe or the Mediter- estate for marshalling areas to make the container
ranean area. Lighters are used because it is system work. If containerships do not carry their
cheaper to handle the cargo twice instead of four own cargo gear, shore cranes will have to be in-
times as would be the case if trucks were used. stalled at each port of call. The barge system
Further, the more important transshipments are will require that cranes be available to stuff and
4
unstuff the barges. However, existing break bulk
terminals may be adequate to handle the barges
and no further expenditures would be necessary
for additional land or equipment.
Tramp Competition
Tramp competition makes significant inroads in
marginal traffic which could well be handled by
liner fleets. As to United States liner carriers
there are two problems involved. First, there are
not enough American flag ships to handle the po-
tential business and second, there are many cargoes
that are presently economically impossible for
conventional liner operators to capture.
Both problems can be solved in part by investing
construction funds in more of the efficient advanced
concept types. For an equivalent number of dollars
there would be a tremendous differential in cargo
carrying capability when compared to the general
cargo ship. This is due, of course, to the great
reduction in turn-around time which results in many
more voyages per year. To rephrase it; a given
amount of money would buy a lesser number of
advanced ships than general cargo ships but due to
the more efficient utilization of the advanced ships,
American operators would be able to carry much
more cargo per year.
Another aspect of the problem involves small facilities geared for river load and discharge.
ports or industrial plants on rivers where there
are minimum tonnages of cargo available per trip.
Tramp carriers with lesser operating expenses and
smaller capital investment can afford to go after
this trade even though their port time is greatly
increased. A second consideration is the fact that very little experience with full containerships en-
a point may be reached where it becomes uneco- gaged in foreign trade and no experience whatever
nomical to load any more cargo into tight spaces with the barge carrier operation. Therefore, it
due to increased port time and operating expenses.
This point of diminishing returns occurs earlier
for liner ships than for tramps and this enables
the tramp operator to carry more cargo. This
second consideration is taken care of by the ad-
vanced concepts as all cargo is prestuffed in the
containers or barges before the ship arrives.
The barge carrying vessel has the potential flex-
ibility to compete with tramp operators for the
small port and industrial site trade. As an example
consider the Delaware Valley where some 8,000
industrial plants border the Delaware River along
its length from the Atlantic Ocean to Trenton, New
Jersey. The port of Delaware Valley is actually
a series of waterfront units stretching from Trenton
to Delaware City forming a single economic har-
bor. Trenton, at the head of the navigable portion
of the Delaware River, is served by the Trenton
Marine Terminal. South of Trenton, at Fairless
is the thousand foot dock of United States Steel.
Across the river, between Trenton and Burlington,
are the piers of Roebling and Florence, used mainly
for incoming raw materials. Farther south are
the industrial piers of the National Gypsum Com-
pany and other firms. Philadelphia, largest of the
ports in the Delaware Valley, measures the harbor
for twenty-three miles along the Delaware and eight
and one-half miles along the Schuylkill. Camden
and Gloucester have a number of modern industrial
piers as well as the busy Camden Marine Terminal.
Cased and drummed petroleum products generate at
Paulsboro, the largest New Jersey port on the
Delaware River in tonnage handled. The entire
Chester-Marcus Hook waterfront is lined with in-
dustry such as steel, chemicals, paper and auto-
motive parts which swell the basic tonnages pro-
duced by the petroleum industry. Wilmington, sev-
enty miles from the sea, is served by the Wilming-
ton Marine Terminal. Across the river are the
piers of Deepwater Point and Pennsgrove used
mostly for incoming raw materials and fuel.
Finally, at Delaware City, millions of tons of pe-
troleum products are handled annually.
This geographical area was described in some
detail to indicate the tremendous potential available
to the liner operator who can effectively compete
with the tramp lines who can afford to call at a
multitude of berths to pick up small shipments. It
should be quite apparent that the barge concept is
made to order for this type of an operation. The
barges would consolidate the cargo all along the
river and be delivered to a central point ready to
load when the barge carrier arrived. A container
system in the same operation would be much more
costly to both the shipper and the carrier and
would be much more difficult to justify because of
the nature of the cargoesinvolved and the existing
Operations Analysis
As of this writing the maritime industry has had
has not been established how effectively these new
concepts will be able to cope with the myriad prob-
lems associated with the carriage of general cargo
in a multi-port service. This Operations Analysis,
then, will endeavor to predict which of the two
concepts is best suited to handle the general cargo-
situation as it presently exists on one of the es-
sential United States foreign trade routes. To
accomplish this objective, the simulated voyage.
technique which has proven to be very effective
in evaluating the cargo handling capability of ships
designed for a particular service will be utilized.
Methodology
The simulated voyage technique is a method of
evaluating the effectiveness of a proposed vessel
of new design on a trade route that is presently
being serviced by the older ships that will be re-
placed by the new design. Using data obtained
from cargo stowage plans of selected voyages, the
proposed vessel is paper loaded and discharged with
the same cargo and follows the same itinerary as
the older design. Handling actual cargoes on a
port-by-port basis ascertains if the proposed vessel
can solve the intricate problems associated with
cargo distribution, overstow and the development
of long hatches. The advantage of this technique
is that the ships are evaluated under actual con-
5
ditions and not by broad statistical data which often data; port of origin, port of destination, commodity,
times can lead to erroneous conclusions. tonnage, packaging and number of pieces of each
The foreign trade route selected is one on which item. To effectively organize this data for sub-
shipping companies have formally proposed operat- sequent use, a tabulation, Figure 3 was devised.
ing both containerships and barge carriers. Cargo For each port of origin and destination, this table
stowage plans of actual voyages for the period lists every piece of cargo, its weight, stowage
between March 1965 and May 1966, have been ob- factor and volume. The calculation of volume was
tained. Figure 1 is a reproduction of a typical essential as revenue for most liner type cargo is
based on cubic rather than weight and experience
has indicated that containers are most often filled
volume-wise before the maximum weight load has
S.S.MARAD VICTORY been reached.
LEGEND:
CHARLESTON ALAMEDA EMI
SAVANNAH DUNDALK Eia
JACKSONVILLE I=1 PAUL SBORO
MOBILE ED SEATTLE MI
BARGE ¡CONTAINER STUDY
ANALYSIS OF CARGO 5T0,./AGE PLANS -SS. MARAD VICTORY

FR OM PORT OF MANILA TO PO RT OF SE ATT LE

111111 11111111111
Co." . N IT EMETEril CSITIMEWCIBMIVIIME
MEW.MIME=
Nersorlimmerammvurerm.
---
To FAA-. s
11111 111111111111111111
AL.,,..-
K ,,,,, s
MEMENIIMT
IIIMMIMMII 1111711MTEMI
11!!=1111M11.11I IIIIIMMTEM
W1..0 IMEMIIIIIIIMEN MITIIIIIMITIMI
PIXY `K S. 111111WMINIIIIIMITEIMMIERMTITIM I

tPC
.:, oC.411[13 TuSC
mirmumrammermomommzrze.
1=21211. 7 MIlriTIMI z 111=11
FROM PORT OF TORVO TO PORT OF SAN FRANCISCO
FIG 1
5000 14V P c T.. .. s F. Ct
t4 4a
.11TEMEMENIMINIMIEMII MIWINIMMIMPI3.111WITM
IIPMETVIREMININIIMMI I ITIMI1111711111ETTME
cargo stowage plan which is nothing more than a FROM PORT OF TORVO TOPO', OF SEATTLE
profile showing a plan view of the deck area in CON. mnoiTY N. PISCIS Tor. .../F,SCE 3F C VI:KC
each cargo space. An amplification of one cargo AKISuLAuc, 2 44130 4,2 AL*
S,
hold, Figure 2, enumerates the following relevant CARAy- ..L., T...,, I Z 4.50 '7-8

FRoM PORT OF TOKYO To P.ORT Or LOS ANGELS 3

CO 1./..1 op try No PNri3 Tows A/p1405 SF CU.,.

LIFT T1, c K t B RGO /SS 107,
FROM PoRT OF TOKYO TO POR-7 oF JACK SONVILLE
S. S. MARAD VICTORY CommoR.Ty N. V.,scws ',Ns ../Pmcis ' 5F CUBIC
Cow., Ms.,. 7570 S*4 i 01 51 IT 544
TOKYO/LOS ANGELES FRO., PORT OF 7.1,44W TO poRT
MANILA / SEATTLE OF SAVANNAH
2 LIFT TRUCKS BT

713 Pkg. 37T

CO m M oo tTY N. Ft.-. T-0.43 ../FIF. SF CU IC
AUTO PARTS AS. 1425
4900 Ctn. GLASSWARE 37;
TOKYO /SEATTLE
1 AMBULANCE 2'
INIScTI (tow.
NI ma tstCs NI Ac.
Co.n1yala (loon,
i I
7.3 I Z.
14.29
57
6 C.
70
dl
140
6 Pkg. HEATERS I21 S 77
4 VANS
7
4T.
1 CARRY-ALL TRK. 2' T,W1. I 30 I 7 200 220
FIG.2
35 Reels CABLE 30' TOKYO /SAN FRAN.
4 Pp. CRANE K. D. 56r.
lac, STEEL 52'
18 Pkg. PIPE 15' 2 Bx, MACH'Y, 13'
160 c/5 CONDENSER TUBE 47T- 91 Pkg BRAKES 81
BOMBAY/SAVANNAH
135 Drm. RESIN lar Flexibility
TOKYO / JACKSONVILLE
TAIWAN/SAVANNAH
To be considered as completely flexible, a ship
452 Drm, INSECT. 25' must have the capability to efficiently handle cargo
7630 BAGS - CORN MEAL 344T. 11 % MACH'Y. 13r
shipments of almost any size and weight with a wide
121 Ctn, CAN. GDS. 2' variety of physical characteristics. Table I lists
130 TIRES 1r the types of commodities booked for a typical voyage
as per the cargo stowage plans. There are two
major problems involving flexibility that must be
met by the operator handling unitized loads. The
BOMBAY / CHARLESTON first is that there are many commodities that can-
679 BALES - RAGS 217' not be unitized efficiently because;
They may be too large to fit into the container;
0r
They may be too difficult to load into the con-
tainer.
For this analysis, only the first of the above
limitations was considered to be controlling, as it
FIG.2
was assumed that the operator could find ways and

6
 Table I.CARGO CONSIST: TYPICAL VOYAGE' cargo was available to the extent that 25% of the
Crane, K.D., pcs. Glass tubing, skids
weight capacity or 50% of the volume capacity of
TV parts, pkgs. Oil sealing cement, drms. the unit was utilized. All cargoes that were physi-
Tread rubber, pkgs. Wax, ctns. cally unsuitable for unitization or were less than
Asbestos waste, ctns. General, pkgs. a unit load were assumed to be shut out.
Instruments, C/S Woodpulp, bags
Bottles, ctns. Conex, pcs. The enormity of the problem that confronts the
Leather splits, ctns. Filters, bxs. steamship operator who receives a high revenue
Skins, bales Soil test equipment, C/S shipment, parts of which are destined for several
Motors, skids Pipe fittings, C/S
Scrap rubber, palts Construction metal, pkg. different ports, can be appreciated by studying Fig-
Chemicals, drms. Air condition equipment, C/S ure 4 and Figure 5 which are statistical analyses
Washers, crts. Synthetic resin, bags of the data provided from Table II.
Synthetic rubber, bags Parts, pkg.
Animal feed, drms. Specials, pkg. Figure 4 is the percentage by voyage of the num-
Welding machinery, C/S Chemicals, pkg. ber of port combinations where cargo was availa-
Tires, pcs. Yarn, ctns. ble but no unit loads whatever could be made up.
Cylinders, pcs. Printing ink, pkgs.
Tubes, ctns. Tractor parts, pkgs. A port combination occurs when there is cargo
Corn, bags Steel sheet, skids available at any one port for any other port on the
IBM cards, ctns. Welding rods, C/S itinerary. For example, if there is cargo available
Fabric, ctns. POV, pcs.
Egg albumen, ctns. Meat meal, bags in Norfolk for Bremerhaveri, London, and Rotter-
Reinforcing bars, bdls. Glass, skids dam, this represents three port combinations.
Lift truck, pcs. Rags, bales
Slugs, plts. Vans, pcs. The barge carrier under these circumstances
Canned goods, plt. Heater, pcs. could not handle the cargo that was available for
Ambulances, pcs. Label cargo, pcs. 42.5% of the port combinations. This means, of
Press, C/S Tinplate, skids
course, that many shippers would have been made
Paste, drms. Steel plate, bdls.
Molybdenum, drms. Carbon, bdls. very unhappy and would be tempted to consider
Hides, bdls. Printing supplies, C/S another carrier. The containership would have
Asphalt, drms. Tile, plts.
Rubber scrap, slcids Propylisocyanate, drms. had to shut out cargo for only 28.9% of the port
Pipes, bdIs. Clothes dryer, crts. combinations. This is an improvement over the
Metal containers, pcs. Auto parts, C/S barge carrier because the container can efficiently
Copy, skid (paper) Electrical materials, pkgs.
Abrasive paper, C/S Projector screens, ctns. accommodate shipments that would be too small
Insulating metal, pit. Heavy lift, pcs. to be carried economically by barge.
Tanker parts, C/S Pickup trucks, pcs. The containership faltered, however, when an
Helicopter KD, C/S Leather dressing, drms.
Refrigerator pts., C/S Brake fluid, ctns. analysis, Figure 5, was made to determine the
Textile waste, bales Tin dross, drms. percentage of port combinations where some cargo
Chemicals, bags Lubricating oil, drms. had to be shut out. In 62.4% of the port combina-
Ethylchloroformate, drms. Ball bearings, C/S
Wine tanks, pcs. Textile machinery, C/S tions, there was cargo available that was either
Blue phosphor, C/S Coal tar dye, pkg. physically unsuitable for containerization or was
Abrasive metal, C/S Insecticide, drms. available in a quantity that would be uneconomical
Tape, C/S Drugs, drms.
Capsules MT., drms. Latex, drms. to carry via container. An example of a situation
Amaboid, drms. Lecithin, drms. that could quite easily have caused carrier/shipper
Aluminum anode, skids Oil, ctns. relations to deteriorate rapidly is readily available
from the cargo stowage plans. A major manu-
facturer of construction equipment desired trans-
means to overcome the second problem. Some of portation for a large shipment of small spare parts
these physically unsuitable items were boilers, for various types of expensive machinery. The
yachts, generators, heat exchangers, bulldozers, shipping company contracted for this order as it
combines, road graders, piling, concrete pipe and is high revenue cargo and presents an excellent
tractor trailers. Secondly, many of the shipments chance for unitization which could result in lower
that are available between two ports are less-than- costs for the operator. It suddenly became im-
a-unit load and it would be uneconomical to utilize perative for the manufacturing organization to ship
an entire container or barge for these small lots. several large pieces of equipment with the spare
The dilemma is that the good customer relations parts to fulfill certain obligations. If the shipping
that presently exist must be maintained when an company had vessels that could carry only con-
advanced system is employed. Can the operator tainers and could not have handled the large pieces
afford to take the chance of losing the good cus- of machinery, an extremely difficult situation would
tomer who ships several hundred tons each month have occurred. The carrier would not be legally
by refusing to handle his shipment of only a few obligated to transport this additional cargo, how-
tons on occasion. The alternatives are equally ever, the probability of receiving future orders from
unattractive; shut out cargo and lose a customer the manufacturer would have been reduced if the
or accept the cargo and carry a few tons in a unit cargo had been shut out.
that may be designed for several hundred. The barge tarrier did not shut out any cargo due
Table II was prepared showing a partial listing to size limitations, therefore the curve in Figure 5
of ports of origin and destination and the number of is the same as for Figure 4. A further analysis
barges and containers necessary to carry the of cargoes unsuitable for unitization is indicated by
unitizable cargo as well as the cargo shut out. A Figure 6. This graph points out the percent tonnage
container or barge was assumed to be loaded if lost each voyage due to less-than-barge loads and

7
 Table II

Ports Containers Barges

Tonnage shut out Tonnage shut out

Number Number
Origin Destination loaded Physically Less than loaded Physically Less than
unsuited unit load unsuited unit load

New York Rotterdam 11 3.0 0.0 1 0.0 0.0

New York London 18 39.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
New York Bremerhaven 0 14.0 1.0 0 0.0 15.0
New York LeHavre 3 3.0 0.0 1 0.0 0.0
Norfolk Rotterdam 21 48.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
Norfolk London 0 0.0 3.0 0 0.0 3.0
Norfolk Bremerhaven 14 26.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
Norfolk LeHavre 4 0.0 0.0 1 0.0 0.0
Boston Rotterdam 1 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 8.0
Boston London 0 0.0 1.0 0 0.0 1.0
Boston Bremerhaven 12 0.0 7.0 2 0.0 0.0
Boston LeHavre 1 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 12.0
Balto Rotterdam 28 0.0 0.0 4 0.0 0.0
Balto London 37 331.0 0.0 5 0.0 0.0
Balto Bremerhaven 19 17.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0
Balto LeHavre 1 237.0 0.0 2 0.0 0.0

PORT COMBINATIONS WHERE NO UNIT PORT COMBINATIONS WHERE SOME

LOADS COULD BE MADE UP CARGO WAS SHUT OUT

s%
/ %....... I
I ,A ¡t
it
,
i
%
01 ir
i 1

11 Barge System
Container System
CD OD CD OD CD OD CD OD OD
FIG. 4
VOYAGE NO. CD OD CD OD OD OD CD OD OD qD
FIG. 5
VOYAGE NO.

8
 systems and it can be concluded that additional
cargoes are needed if the new concepts are to be
successful.
LOST TONNAGE Figure 7 indicates the cubic utilization of the
vessels for each voyage based on the number of
containers and barges utilized and expressed as a
percentage of the maximum number of units that
can be carried. It would be expected from Figure
6 that the barge carrier would have the greater
Num. LESS THAN A BARGE utilization because of the physically unsuitable
LOAD cargo that the containership would be forced to shut
PHYSICALLY UNSUITABLE out.
FOR CONTAINERIZATION Considering the individual barge and container,
it could not be determined which was more efficient
in utilizing its cube. Many cargoes of drums, skids

.
of tin plate and ingots were containerized and the
its weight load was reached in some cases before 20%
of the volume was utilized. The barges, moreover,
Et,,, o4
V° carried some loads of 100 to 150 tons utilizing
tool...A ! * only 40% of available cubic as no more cargo was
0®®0®00®®® FIG. 6
destined for the port of discharge, and as a result
there was a waste of both cube and cargo deadweight.
VOYAGE NO. The size of the shipments for each port com-
bination was the deciding factor as to how efficiently
the units utilized available cubic and this varied
greatly for each port combination. For example,
when 150 tons of drums of lube oil were carried,
one full barge utilizing only 45% of the cube was
needed while eleven containers utilizing 65% of
available cubic would be required. lf, however,
300 tons of drums are available, one barge is still
sufficient but twenty-one containers would be nec-
cargo physically unsuited for containerization. An essary. In most instances where metals were not
average of 15% of the tonnage carried each voyage carried, the cubic utilization per container was
would have been shut out by the containership and
4% by the barge carrier. It is very interesting to
note that on one voyage 38% of the weight tonnage
could not have been carried by the container op-
erator.
The obvious conclusion pertaining to flexibility VESSEL CUBIC
is that the barge carrier can handle general cargo UTILIZATION
consist much better than the containership. How-
ever, the containership can more effectively cope
with the small loads and this can, presumably,
maintain better customer relationships. By ana-
lyzing the characteristics of the proposed trade
area, a steamship company should be able to ascer-
tain which of these considerations has the greatest
possibility of assuring a successful operation.
Cubic Utilization
The barge carrier and containership that have
been proposed for the trade area investigated follow
the present trend of ever increasing size. An
11°I. Barge Capacity
accumulation of statistical data over a period of Container Capacity
three years has revealed that United States flag
ships do not sail very often with all cargo spaces
completely utilized. The vessel from which the ® 0 0 0 CD O CD ®
FIG 7
cargo stowage plans were obtained is of W. W. II VOYAGE NO.
vintage with relatively small cubic capacity and yet
it sailed at less than 100% full for every voyage
analyzed. Compound this with the fact that it was
concluded in the flexibility discussion that some
cargo already booked would have been shut out if
the carrier was operating one of the advanced
9
 higher than for the barge. The container, being
smaller unit, was much more efficient in this
respect and would become more efficient if half-
height container trays are made available.
The containership operator could increase the
cubic utilization of his vessels by offering container
service to the shipper's door for small lots of high
revenue cargo. It may also be possible to induce
manufacturers of large pieces of machinery to
ship in knock-down form in containers for assem-
blage by the consignee. The barge carrier op-
erator has a very excellent opportunity to capture
medium lots of bulk grains, ores and oils to in-
crease cubic utilization. Barges have traditionally
carried these cargoes with success and steamship
companies could take advantage of a system already
in being. Finally, it is anticipated that the rela-
tively poor utilization forecast in Figure 7 may be
improved by the probability that superior service
provided by the advanced systems will attract ad-
ditional cargoes which, of course, leads to higher
cubic utilization and increased revenue.
Cargo Imbalance
The problem of cargo imbalance was discussed
in the Concept Analysis but the full significance
of its effect on operations was not determined
until the stowage plans were analyzed and the port
combination data tabulated. An analysis of the tab-
ulation has indicated that in order to maintain
balance the following ratios are necessary:
Empty container
Full container x 100 = 90%
Empty barge
Full barge x 100 = 80%
This means, of cour se, that almost as many empty
units as full ones must be carried and handled
as the vessel proceeds on its itinerary. There was
no difficulty encountered on the voyages analyzed
because the number of full containers and barges
available was always well below design capacity.
However, serious problems could develop on this
type of multiport service if the vessels attracted
more cargo and operated at a higher cubic utiliza-
tion. To counter this problem a decision must be
made to reduce the number of ports visited, back-
track to redistribute empties or provide for a feeder
system to relocate units from discharge ports to
loading ports. Due to the lesser number of units
involved and the greater ease of consolidation, it
appears that the barge carrier can more effectively
cope with the imbalance problem.
Figure 8 and Figure 9 indicate the percentage
of the units that would be needed to maintain balance
in each port. The abscissa is the percentage of
units that were needed or would have been left over
during normal operations on this service. It is
distressing to note that for both concepts it is in-
dicated that 80% to 100% of the units for nearly
one-half of the ports visited must arrive at the port
empty to provide for future cargo or be carried
away empty because no cargo is available.
10
DISTRIBUTION OF CONTAINERS
TO MAINTAIN BALANCE
2
PERCENT MT CONTAINERS/PORT
FIG. 8
DISTRIBUTION OF BARGES
TO MAINTAIN BALANCE
O-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 80,00
PERCENT MT BARGES/PORT
FIG. 9
These graphs are presented to indicate the seri-
ousness of the imbalance problem and the necessity
of giving much consideration to arrive at a workable
solution as the high cost of these advanced sys-
tems cannot allow lost time for handling and ferry-
ing large numbers of empty unproductive units.
Shipper Loaded Units
The most efficient way these advanced systems
could operate would be to handle only units that are
shipper loaded and consignee emptied. It is doubt-
ful, however, that this system will ever exist in
foreign trade as the average shipment to the in-
dividual consignee is small and cannot economically
utilize an entire barge or container.
The analysis revealed that an average of 20% of
the outbound containers and 27% of the outbound
barges could be shipper loaded. For the inbound
leg of the voyages, 44% of the containers and only
5% of the barges could have been shipper loaded.
There is no data available as to the number of
units that could have been consignee emptied, but
experience indicates that there would be relatively
few.
Figure 10 compares the barge carrier and con-
tainership as to the number of shipper loaded units
that could have been made up for each voyage, and
it is apparent that the container service offers the
greater advantages in this respect. This is true,
of course, because of the smaller size and there-
fore greater inherent flexibility of the container
to handle lesser shipments.

PERCENT OF UNITIZED UNITS THAT
COULD BE SHIPPER LOADED
ilimm BARGES
\ CONTAINERS
kA
C) 0) 0) CD 0) CD CD CD
FIG. io
VOYAGE NO.
Summary
This paper is concerned with comparing two new
cargo handling concepts, containerships and barge
carrying vessels, to ascertain if either can effec-
tively handle the general cargo situation as it
actually exists in foreign trade.
The Concept Analysis compared the two designs
from a more or less theoretical point of view. It
was determined that the barge system:
Could handle the varied cargo consist;
Is compatible with foreign inland transporta-
tion systems;
11
Did not exceed present terminal requirements;
and
Could compete favorably with the tramp trade.
The containership had its particular advantages in
that:
Small shipments could be accommodated;
It is compatible with the domestic inland
transportation system;
Cargo losses can be reduced; and
Some door to door service can be realized.
Both of the concepts can reduce overall transpor-
tation costs, avoid delays and effectively serve as
military auxiliaries.
The Operations Analysis puts the theory to test
by operating these vessels on an actual trade route
using the simulated voyage technique. The results
of the Operations Analysis proved the statements
made in the Concept Analysis with regards to the
behavior of the advanced concepts in the general
cargo, multi-port environment.
Utilizing containers or barges reduces the avail-
able cargo as some cargoes are not compatible
with unitized handling and these large expensive
vessels cannot afford to stop at the many smaller
ports on present itineraries. The final decision
to switch from general cargo ships to one of the
advanced systems, then, must ultimately be based
on the Operator's qualified determination that he
will be able to reconstitute his cargo bookings to
the extent that the larger, more expensive ad-
vanced ships will pay off.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his appreciation and
gratitude to E. Scott Dillon, Chief and Francis G.
Ebel, Assistant Chief, Division of Ship Design,
Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Administra-
tion, who have freely given their valuable time
and special knowledge for counsel and advice.
Sincere thanks goes to Ronald K. Kiss, Naval Ar-
chitect, Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Ad-
ministration, for his assistance in breaking down
the cargo stowage plans and recording the re-
quired data.
No. 61351

PGM 84 CLASS ALUMINUM GUNBOAT MACHINERY AND CONTROLS

by

BERTEL LUNDGAARD
Diehl and Lundgaard
Bainbridge Island, Washington
and
HAROLD M. MATHERS
Mathers Supply Company
Seattle, Washington

Paper No.
67-357

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to ou'thor and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

1.08, 5.08
 PGM 84 CLASS ALUMINUM GUNBOAT
MACHINERY AND CONTROLS
Bertel Lundgaard, Partner, Diehl and Lundgaard, Bainbridge Island, Washington
Harold M. Mothers, President, Mothers Supply Company, Seattle, Washington
ABSTRACT
The PGM 84 was the first of a growing class of ex-
tremely fast and maneuverable diesel or gas turbine power-
ed 165 foot aluminum ships. Two ships of the class are now
operational. The propulsion system combines one 14,000
horsepower turbine with two diesel engines, driving two
variable pitch propellers through a transmission consisting
of three gear units and several clutches. Misalignment
features compensate for the flexibility and thermal expan-
sion of an extremely light aluminum hull. The pneumatic
control system permits engine control from either the pilot-
house or the machinery space. There are three propulsion
control levers and three control modes. Diesel mode: Two
levers control diesel speed simultaneously with propeller
pitch. Gas turbine mode: One lever controls turbine
speed and the pitch of both propellers. Gas turbine maneu-
vering mode: The turbine lever controls turbine speed
while each diesel lever controls the pitch of one propeller.
Two additional levers select the desired propulsion mode.
Numerous safety features prevent mis-operation and over-
loading. The turbine may be started from either operating
station, which automatically engages turbine clutches, dis-
engages diesel clutches, brings the diesels to idle and
transfers control from diesel to turbine operating levers.
I. INTRODUCTION
The PGM 84 Class Motor Gunboats are among the
fastest and most maneuverable ships in the world. These
ships were developed to operate in support of counterinsur-
gency and antiguerilla warfare. They provide the Navy
with a powerful weapon against enemy coastal and river
shipping.
Two vessels of the PGM 84 class are now operational,
15 more are under contract. Tacoma Boatbuilding Company,
Tacoma, Washington, is building the first seven vessels of
the class.
The combined diesel-gas turbine (CODAG) or the
pure gas turbine drive is becoming increasingly popular for
ship propulsion plants, both in merchant and naval vessels.
The development of the PGM 84 class propulsion and con-
trol system offered a number of challenging and interesting
problems. It is the authors hope that the solution to these
problems may be of interest to the audience.
II. SHIP'S CHARACTERISTICS
LENGTH 165 feet
BEAM 24 feet
DRAFT 9.5 feet
D IS PLACEMENT 240 Long Tons
DIESEL POWER ....... (2) Cummins V-12
750 Horsepower each
TRANSMISSION ....... General Electric
TURBINE POWER GE LM1500 14,000 HP
ELECTRICAL GENERATORS (2) Cummins 6 cycle,
190 HP, 100 KW each
PROPELLERS (2) Liaaen Variable Pitch,
6 foot diameter
PERSONNEL .....
3 officers, 21 enlisted
ESTIMATED TOTAL COST .0... $4,000,000
Ill. CONSTRUCTION AND GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
The ship's hull is an all welded aluminum construction.
She is longitudinally framed.
The superstructure is fabricated of molded fiberglass
panels bolted to aluminum frames. Each panel is about 6'
wide by 7' high. Superstructure decks are also fiberglass.
The housefront is a single fiberglass molding.
Machinery spaces, crew's accommodations, mess,
galley and stowage spaces are located below the main deck.
Officers quarters are on main deck while the radio room and
the pilothouse are on the focsle deck.
Location of control rooms and machinery spaces are
shown on Fig. I. There are three main machinery spaces,
the turbine room, the diesel machinery room and the genera-
tor room. The ship is designed so that she can continue to
operate with any one of the three machinery spaces flooded.
There are two main ship's control oreas, the Pilot-
house, shown on Fig. 2, at the forward end of the focsle
deck and the Enclosed Cperating Station, (EOS), Fig. 3,
which is partitioned off from the auxiliary machinery room.
The EOS is completely watertight.
The EOS is the main machinery operating and moni-
toring station, but control of the ship's speed and certain
other machinery control functions may be carried out from
the Pilothouse.
IV. MACHINERY
The propulsion plant consists of two diesel engines
and one gas turbine driving two variable pitch propellers
through the transmission. The transmission consists of one
first reduction and two second reduction gear boxes together
with the necessary interconnecting shafting.
(a) Diesel Engines
Two diesel propulsion engines, each rated at 750 HP
at 2100 RPM are located in the diesel machinery room. The
engines are 4 cycle, turbocharged and cooled through salt
to fresh water heat exchangers. The engine starting system
is hydraulic.
 Gas Turbine
The gas turbine installation is shown on Fig. 4. The
turbine may be divided into two separate parts: the gas
generator and the power turbine. The gas generator sec-
tion contains the compressor and combustion components as
well as all auxiliary equipment, such as lub oil and fuel oil
pumps, controls, etc. The gas generator is basically a
standard jet engine and is the same engine used on B-58
and F-104 airplanes.
The power turbine is a simple two stage turbine
wheel driven by the hot gases from the gas generator. The
povver turbine shaft drives the first reduction gear unit
directly.
There is no mechanical connection between the gas
generator and the power turbine rotors. At full power, the
gas generator speed is 7200 RPM while the power turbine
speed is 5500 RPM.
During sea trials the fuel rate for the gas turbine was
found to be about 0.48 lbs per horsepower hour.
Propellers and Shafting
The two 6-foot diameter propellers are of the variable
pitch type. The propellers must be able to operate effi-
ciently on both diesel and gas turbine power, and consider-
ing that the power ratio between gas turbine and diesel op-
eration is almost 10 to 1, the need for variable pitch is ob-
vious.
The original propeller blades were made of stainless
steel. Later titanium blades were substituted. The ex-
tremely high tensile strength of titanium permits thinner
blade sections with less likelihood of cavitation.
The diameter of the two hollow lineshafts was kept
as small as possible to save weight. Hydraulic control lines
run through the shaft bores and convey the actuating fluid
for the pitch control mechanism in the propeller hubs.
Transmission
The transmission is shown on Fig. 5. For diesel mode
of operation the power path is as follows:
Each diesel engine drives one second reduction
gear through its friction clutch (3) and its overrun-
ing clutch (4). The two gas turbine clutches (5) are
disengaged making each diesel drive system complete-
ly independent.
In the gas turbine mode, the turbine drives
the first reduction gear, which in turn drives the
two second reduction gears through the gas turbine
clutches (5). The overrunning clutches (4) disen-
gage automatically as soon as the diesel pinion
speed exceeds the speed of the engines, thus taking
the diesel engines off the line.
The diesel friction clutches are conventional, pneu-
matically operated units requiring about 125 psi air pres-
sure. The friction clutches need no lubrication.
The overrunning clutches are fully automatic, cen-
trifugally actuated. Each clutch will engage when the
speed of its diesel engine exceeds the speed of the second
reduction gear diesel pinion,. When, under turbine power,
2
the pinion speed exceeds the diesel engine speed, the
clutch disengages. The overrunning clutches are spray lu-
bricated.
The gas turbine clutches are hydraulically actuated.
When the clutches engage, a set of friction discs synchro-
nize the speed of the driving and the driven clutch halves.
Upon synchronization, two sets of hardened steel teeth en-
gage and lock the clutch halves together. The turbine
clutches are cooled and lubricated by a heavy oil spray.
Hydraulic System
There are three main hydraulic systems:
A 1500 psi system actuating the controllable
pitch propellers.
A 3000 psi accumulator loaded system provides
diesel engine starting power. This sytem also pro-
vides oil for actuating the gas turbine clutches
through a 3000 psi to 500 psi reducing station.
The turbine clutches need hydraulic oil only during
the engaging and disengaging cycles.
A 4000 psi system starts the turbine. The
system consists of a 125 horsepower variable dis-
placement pump driving a variable displacement
motor, which turns the gas generator through an
overrunning clutch.
Duplicate sets of hydraulic pumps are provided, each
set driven by one generator engine front power take-off.
Each set consists of four pumps:
Two fixed displacement pumps for propeller
pitch operation, one for each propeller. They are
rated at 35 gpm each.
One fixed displacement accumulator charg-
ing pump, rated at 0.23 gpm.
One variable displacement turbine starting
pump, rated at 39 gpm.
The 1500 psi and the 3000 psi systems use a common
oil reservoir. The 4000 psi turbine starting system is an in-
dependent closed loop system with its own reservoir and a
small charging pump built into each main pump.
V. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND PROBLEMS
The two most unusual features of the PGM 84 class are
the aluminum hull and the gas turbine/diesel combined pro-
pulsion plant. It is therefore not surprising that these areas
posed a number of challenging engineering problems. These
problems and their solutions are described briefly below:
(a) Gas Turbine Support
The turbine is a very rigid, thin walled cylinder. The
temperature of the cylinder wall may vary as much as 1000°
F with a corresponding thermal expansion. The turbine is
located in a lightly built, highly flexible aluminum hull.
To accommodate.the relative motion between the turbine
and the hull, the turbine is supported as shown on Fig. 4.
Mount #1 does not carry any weight, but takes the
thrust of the turbine and prevents transverse motion of the
power turbine. Mount #2 carries the weight of the power
turbine and provides vertical restraint. Mounts #3 and #4
allow longitudinal movement of the machine while provid-
ing transverse and vertical restraint. Gear couplings in the
turbine drive shaft allow the turbine axis to move in rela-
tion to the drive shaft line.
(b) Transmission
The transmission connects one gas turbine to two
shafts or alternatively one diesel engine each to one shaft.
It must provide for the flexing and thermal expansion of a
very lightly built aluminum hull. It should be noted that
aluminum not only deflects three times as much as steel for
a given load, but that its thermal coefficient of expansion
is also about three times that of steel.
The problem of providing flexibility was solved by
splitting the transmission into three basically independent
gear boxes as shown on Fig. 5. The shafting between the
units as well as the input shafts from the diesel engines and
the gas turbine incorporate misalignment features which
allow for relative motion between the gear boxes them-
selves as well as motion of the gear boxes relative to the
machinery.
Each gear box is completely anchored at one point
only. The other attachment points to the hull were devel-
oped to allow relative motion between the hull and each
unit both longitudinally and transversely.
The transmission was designed to allow a smooth
transfer from full speed on diesel power to gas turbine
power. Two factors complicated the problem: the speed of
the power turbine cannot be controlled unless some amount
of torque is applied to the output shaft; but at the some
time the gas turbine clutches will only tolerate a limited
amount of speed differential during engagement.
We were afraid that the unloaded, idle speed of the
turbine might be well above the top speed of the diesel
engines, thus causing excessive wear of the clutch friction
discs during engagement of the gas turbine clutches. To
solve this problem a speed switch was mounted on the port
gear-shaft of the first reduction gear. This speed switch
initiates the clutch engagement. The speed setting was
selected by trial and error to balance the engagement times
of the clutch against the acceleration rate of the gas tur-
bine. The result is a smooth engagement with very little
speed differential between the clutch interfaces.
During shop testing of the gear, another unexpected
difficulty arose. The gas turbine clutches are cooled and
lubricated by a heavy oil spray. Due to this, some viscous
friction builds up between the clutch friction discs even
with the clutches disengaged. The friction was estimated
to be sufficient to free-wheel the first reduction gear and
the power turbine at about 700 RPM. But the power turbine
lub oil pumps are driven by the gas generator, and during
diesel operation the gas generator is not operating; the lack
of lubrication would have led to very quick failure of the
power turbine bearings. To solve this problem, one motor
driven supply pump and one motor driven scavenge pump,
serving the power turbine only, were added. However, if
these pumps were left running when the gas generator was
running, the motor driven scavenge pump and the gas gen-
erator driven scavenge pump would be taking suction from
the same bearing sump, with the almost certain result that
one pump would run dry and fail. To solve the problem, a
3
control system was devised which assured that the motor
driven pumps run only when one or both the diesel clutches
are engaged and at the same time the gas generator is not
running.
Another problem arose from the fact that some friction
is transmitted through ratcheting of the disengaged diesel
overrunning clutch. If the pneumatic clutch was left disen-
gaged, the entire overrunning clutch and the output side of
the pneumatic diesel clutch would spin during gas turbine
operation at close to gas turbine speed. However, the
manufacturer of the pneumatic clutch supply line seal would
not guarantee that this seal would last at the gas turbine
speed. The turbine end of the pneumatic clutch could be
kept from rotating by inflating the pneumatic clutch, and
this solution was initially adopted. However, on the test
stand, the nozzle lubricating the overrunning clutch became
plugged and the clutch froze. If this had happened in the
ship, with only the overrunning clutch between the gas tur-
bine and the diesel engines, the diesel engine would be
driven by the gas turbine at near gas turbine speed, and
would without doubt fly apart. To assure that this would not
happen, it was decided to sacrifice the pneumatic clutch
shoes rather than the diesel engines in case of overrunning
clutch failure. The solution adopted was to inflate the
pneumatic clutches enough to keep the diesel side of the
overrunning clutches from following the high speed side, but
still keeping the pressure low enough so that not enough
torque could be transmitted to drive the diesel engines in
case of overrunning clutch failure. The pneumatic clutch
pressure is automatically reduced to the holding pressure
when the propulsion mode is transferred from diesel to gas
turbine.
(c) Electrolytic Corrosion
The ship's sea water and bilge piping is copper nickel;
other piping systems were fabricated from copper or thin
walled stainless steel tubing. Any of these metals may
cause electrolytic corrosion in conjunction with aluminum
in a marine atmosphere. To prevent corrosion, metal to
metal contact between dissimilar metals was avoided by
lining all pipe hangers with rubber and by using rubber or
nylon sleeves around pipes where they pass through bulk-
heads.
The copper nickel sea water and bilge systems pre-
sented the most severe problems. Aluminum and copper
together with a salt water electrolyte is a very good battery.
The most important precautions taken to solve this problem
were:
Liberal use of anodes in sea chests and
overboard discharge fittings.
Isolation of aluminum hull fittings from
the piping by the use of 4" long specially molded,
flanged rubber spool pieces.
Keeping piping under floorplates dry by
keeping it as high as possible.
Using 18" long plastic bilge suction
nipples to insure that the copper nickel bilge
piping would not be submerged in saltwater
even if the bilges are not dry.
These precautions appear to have been successful.
To date, electrolytic corrosion caused by the piping systems
has not been a problem.
 VI. PROPULSION CONTROL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The PGM Propulsion Control System is primarily a
pneumatic system operating on 100 psi air. There are, as
well, electric and hydraulic systems that are initiated by
the air controls.
There are two propulsion control operating stations--
Pilothouse - Fig. 2 and 6
LOS (Enclosed Operating Station) -
Fig. 3, 7, 8 and 9.
The design direction was to provide complete propul-
sion control from either the Pilothouse or the EOS station.
The EOS operator, however, has sole control of some func-
tions and therefore the EOS station is manned when under
way.
The Propulsion Control System is designed around
five main control levers:
I. Starboard Diesel (Speed and Direction - Item 4)
2. Port Diesel (Speed and Direction - Item 3)
Gas Turbine (Speed and Direction - Item 2)
Mode Selector ("Diesel" or "GT" - Item 7)
Mode Selector ("GT Maneuver" or "Normal"-
Item 6)
These five levers are provided at the Pilothouse sta-
tion and at the EOS station and they perform the same func
tions. However, control is always at one station or the
other, never at both.
There are three modes of control -
Diesel
Gas Turbine
Gas Turbine Maneuvering
(a) Diesel Mode
Mode selector lever No. 7 will select diesel mode,
and levers No. 4 and No. 3 have control of the starboard
and port shafts, speed and direction under diesel power.
Lever No. 2 is inoperative.
Gas Turbine Mode
Mode selector lever No. 7 will select GT mode and
after the gas turbine has started, lever No. 2 will provide
speed and direction control under gas turbine power.
Levers No. 3 and No. 4 are inoperative.
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode
Mode selector lever No. 6 will select Gas Turbine
Maneuver Mode when the gas turbine is running. Under
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode, lever No. 4 will control
starboard propeller pitch only. Lever No. 3 will control
port propeller pitch only, and lever No. 2 will control gas
turbine speed only. Under Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode,
the gas turbine speed is limited to protect against over-
torquing the propeller shafts.
Levers 2, 3, and 4 operate cams to control the speed
and propeller pitch air signals. These cams were cut to
match vessel requirements after extensive sea trials on the
first vessel, the PGM 84.
4
VII. PILOTHOUSE CONTROL
Norrnally, the PGM's are controlled from the Pilot-
house station when the vessel is underway. Therefore, in
order to get the "feel" for handling the PGM, we will
follow a complete operating sequence from the Pilothouse
Station.
Call for Control
The pilothouse operator signals the EOS station that
he wants control. The EOS operator will start the diesels
and engage the diesel clutches. The LOS Operator will
then position the station transfer lever to Pilothouse control.
The Pilothouse operator will know that the transfer
lever at the EOS is on Pilothouse control position by the
Transfer Initiated Light going "on". It is then up to the
Pilothouse operator to match the diesel control lever posi-
tion to the EOS levers by means of the Duplex Gages read-
ing EOS and Pilothouse control lever position. As soon as
the Pilothouse operator matches the EOS lever position,
control will transfer to the Pilothouse and this will be indi-
cated at the Pilothouse by the control air gage rising from
Oto 100 psi.
Diesel Control
The Pilothouse operator now has full control of speed
and pitch of the port and starboard propellers under diesel
control, using levers No. 3 and 4.
Gas Turbine Control
The Pilothouse operator wants Gas Turbine mode of
control. He will signal the EOS operator that he wants the
Gas Turbine ready to start. The EOS operator will place
the gas turbine start switch on "automatic". When the gas
turbine is ready for automatic starting, the EOS operator
will close the "Gas Turbine Ready" switch and this will be
indicated at the Pilothouse and EOS stations by the Gas
Turbine Ready Light coming "on".
Until the Gas Turbine Ready Light is 'on, the system
is interlocked so that an automatic start cannot be made.
As soon as the Pilothouse oper&or has the Ready Light, he
can go to Gas Turbine Mode or he can elect to remain on
Diesel Mode with the Gas Turbine on Ready as long as
desired.
When the Pilothouse operator decides on Gas Turbine
Mode he wi I 1--
Place diesel control levers No. 3 and No. 4
to full ahead position.
Place gas turbine control lever No. 2 to a
position such that vessel speed remains un-
changed after transfer has occurred. This
position is indicated by detent feel in the
gas turbine control lever.
Hold mode selector lever No. 7 to Gas
Turbine position for 4 seconds and release.
The system is now fully automatic and in approximate-
ly 50 seconds the Pilothouse operator will have gas turbine
speed and propeller pitch control on lever No. 2. The
diesels will be automatically declutched and returned to
idle speed.
(d) Gas Turbine Maneuver Control
When under Gas Turbine mode of control, the Pilot-
house operator can, at any time, elect to go to Gas Turbine
Maneuver Mode. The Pilothouse operator will --
I. Position Gas Turbine Control Lever No. 2
to give a vessel speed of approximately
20 knots.
Position Diesel Control levers No. 3 and
No. 4 to full ahead position.
Hold mode selector lever No. 6 to Gas
Turbine Maneuver position for 4 seconds
and release.
The system will immediately change to GT Maneuver
Mode. Levers No. 4 and 3 will control starboard and port
propeller pitch only and Lever No. 2 will control gas tur-
bine speed only.
The Gas Turbine power is limited to slightly more
than top diesel power under the Gas Turbine Maneuvering
Mode.
(e) Return to Gas Turbine Control
The Pilothouse operator will --
Position Gas Turbine Control Lever No. 2 to
approximately 1/3 ahead.
Position Diesel Control levers No. 3 and
4 to full ahead.
Hold the mode selector lever No. 6 ta
"normal" for 4 seconds.
The mode of control will immediately transfer to Gas
Turbine Mode providing full Gas Turbine control of speed
and pitch on lever No. 2.
(f) Return to Diesel Control
The Pilothouse operator wi I I --
Position Gas Turbine Control lever No. 2
to the ahead transfer detent of approximately
19 knots.
Position Diesel Control levers No. 3 and 4
to full ahead position.
Hold mode selector lever No. 7 to Diesel
Mode for 4 seconds and release.
The gas turbine throttle will automatically be return-
ed to idle and the gas turbine clutches disengaged. The
diesel clutches will be engaged and the throttles brought up
to full speed. The transfer takes place immediately.
The gas turbine is left running at idle RPM until the
EOS operator shuts it down. This is to allow for a cooling
period. The EOS operator turns off the Gas Turbine Ready
switch which prevents an inadvertent gas turbine clutch re-
engagement.
VIII. EOS CONTROL
The EOS station operator has the same five main con-
trol levers as shown on Fig. 7, operating as outlined above.
Operation from the EOS is by telegraphed instructions from
the bridge. The EOS operator has, in addition to the 5
main control levers, the following controls:
5
Station transfer control
Emergency station transfer control which, in
event of damage to the control system forward
of the engine room, allows the EOS operator
to take imrnediate control, simultaneously
isolating all pneumatic lines forward of the
engine room bulkhead in order to prevent
loss of control air.
Diesel clutch engage-disengage controls
Diesel "start" and "stop" controls
Gas Turbine "start" and "stop" controls
Gas Turbine clutch controls
IX. FIVE PRINCIPAL CONTROL FEATURES
The following five features of the control system have
been selected as key points in the overall success of the
PGM propulsion control system:
5% Lever Match before Station Transfer
Pilothouse Starting of Gas Turbine
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode
Propeller Pitch Trimmer
Gas Turbine or Diesel Speed Interrupt
The need for the features, why they are important and
how the problems were solved will be covered.
1. 5% Lever Match before Station Transfer
The problem here is to interlock two remote pneuma-
tic control stations so that there can be no violent vessel
reaction to a control station transfer. Without the 5% lever
match interlock, a station transfer could be made, for ex-
ample, from full ahead Gas Turbine Mode at one station to
full astern at the second station. The effect would be vio-
lent and, in fact, would be the same as a crash reversal.
The pneumatic circuit developed to solve this problem
is shown on Fig. 10. A pneumatic regulator, driven by a
cam, was provided for each control lever in order to read
lever position. The cam provides a straight line pressure
curve, such that at full astern the position pressure is 10 psi,
neutral 50 psi, and full ahead 90 psi. The position regula-
tor pressures are applied to three spring center-supply center
balance valves - one for the Starboard Diesel, Lever No. 4;
one for the Port Diesel, Lever No. 3; and one for the Gas
Turbine, Lever No. 2. The EOS position pressures are sup-
plied to one end of the balance valves, and the Pilothouse
position pressures are supplied to the other end of the bal-
ance valves.
The station transfer air signal must pass through all
three valves. The position regulators are not supplied when
that particular mode lever is not in use. For example - we
are in Diesel Mode, the diesel position regulators are sup-
plied at the EOS and Pilothouse stations but the gas turbine
position regulators are not supplied. The gas turbine spring
centered balance valve, with no pressure on either end, is
therefore in centered position and will pass the transfer sig-
nal. Approxiniately a 4 psi pressure differential is required
to move the spring center-supply center balance valves off
center position. When moved off the center position in
either direction, the 4-way balance valves block the trans-
fer signal; the diesel levers must be matched so that the
position pressure signals are within 4 psi for corresponding
levers in order for the transfer signal to pass through.
How does the operator know what he must match to?
The position pressure regulator, in addition to supplying
one end of the spring centered balance valve, supplies one
feed I ine of a duplex gage at the Pilothouse and EOS sta-
tions. The corresponding position regulator at the other
station supplies the second feed line of the duplex gage at
the Pilothouse and EOS stations. The operators now have
a duplex gage for the two diesel control levers and the gas
turbine lever at both control stations. One pointer reads
local lever position, the other reads remote lever position.
Remember that only the position regulators corresponding to
the mode of control are supplied, and therefore, only the
duplex gage pointers showing must be matched to accom-
plish station transfer. For example:
Diesel Mode - Match pointers on the two
diesel duplex gages only.
Gas Turbine Mode - Match only the pointers
on the gas turbine duplex gage.
Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode - All three
duplex gages are operating and all
three must be matched for control
station transfer.
The duplex gages also serve as the engine order tele-
graph between the Pilothouse and the EOS.
2. Pilothouse Starting of Gas Turbine
The original decision to make gas turbine starting a
fully automatic Pilothouse operation was made in order to
save time in getting the PGM ready for high speed opera-
tion. The system allows for the gas turbine to be on
"Ready" (Ready Light "on", turbine not running) for long
periods, and at any time the Pilothouse operator can ini-
tiate gas turbine start and be on gas turbine control in 50
seconds. This is the time required to start the gas turbine,
bring it up to speed, and to engage the clutches.
The Gas Turbine start is initiated by the Mode Selec-
tor Lever, Fig. 6, Item 7. The lever is held to GT Mode
for 4 seconds and then released.
The rest of the cycle, turbine start, turbine clutch
engagement and control mode transfer is automatic. The
main control problem is to delay transfer of mode from
Diesel to Gas Turbine until the turbine clutches have
engaged. During this period, mode of control must remain
under Diesel.
The gas turbine starting sequence is as follows:
1. Holding the mode selector lever No. 7 to
gas turbine position for 4 seconds sends a
pneumatic signal to close a pressure switch
initiating the turbine electro-hydraulic
starting circuit. The pneumatic signal also
closes a pressure switch setting up the tur-
bine clutch engagement electric circuit.
The electric circuit, however, is not com-
pleted until the speed switch on the first
reduction gear is closed. During this
period, mode of control remains with the
diesels.
6
The gas turbine starts and the clutch en-
gagement speed switch is made, and clutch
engagement begins. Engagement time is
approximately 7 seconds.
Gas Turbine clutch engagement is indicated
by proximity switches within the gas turbine
clutches. When both clutches are engaged,
a solenoid valve is actuated to transfer Mode
of Control from Diesel to Gas Turbine, de-
activating the diesel control levers, Items 3
and 4, and activating the turbine lever,
Item 2.
The diesel overrunning clutches are dis-
engaged, the pneumatic clutch pressure
reduced to 15 psi, and the diesel speed
reduced to idle automatically.
Gas Turbine propeller pitch and speed con-
trol are available under the Gas Turbine
Control Lever No. 2.
In addition to automatic gas turbine start from the
Pilothouse or EOS stations, the EOS operator also has man-
ual gas turbine start and clutch engagement switches.
3. Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode
The design thought here was to provide vessel maneu-
verability in case of trouble with one or both diesels. Un-
der Gas Turbine Mode, the propeller pitch is controllable in
the ahead or astern direction but the pitch on both propel-
lers is always the same. Under Gas Turbine Maneuvering
Mode, the pitch on the propellers is independently adjust-
able.
The problem in the Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode is
to protect the propeller shafts from being over-torqued.
For example - if the port propeller was positioned to full
ahead pitch and then the gas turbine speed increased to full,
the starboard screw would attempt to absorb 14,000 HP.
The design requirements are only 7,000 HP. Therefore, in
order to provide the needed shaft protection, the turbine
speed is limited in the ahead direction to provide a maxi-
mum speed of approximately 22 knots. If the pitch on
either screw is in the reverse direction, the turbine speed is
further reduced.
The control problem is to sort out control supply air
so that --
Gas Turbine lever No. 2 controls gas turbine
- speed only.
Diesel levers No. 3 and 4 control diesel
pitch only.
Lever position regulators indicate position
of all three control levers.
The Gas Turbine Maneuvering Mode has proven to be
very successful. Some of the operators prefer making land-
ing under GT Maneuver Mode of Control rather than in the
Diesel Mode of Control.
Propeller Pitch Trimmer
The Pitch Trimmer Control system is a means of reduc-
ing the pitch on the inboard screw when in a turn.
 The Pitch Trimmer has proven beneficial in two ways:
The turning radius is reduced.
The propeller shaft loads are kept
more nearly in balance.
When the PGM is operating under full speed Gas Tur-
bine Mode, the propeller shaft loading is approaching max-
imum allowable torque. By reducing the pitch on the in-
board screw in proportion to the turn, inboard shaft over-
torque was prevented.
The control design approach was to provide an air
signal controlled by the rudder angle. One signal for a
port turn and a second signal for a starboard turn. This was
done using a drag link to the rudder arm and connecting a
cam shaft operating two regulators. The port turn regulator
delivers a 0-10 psi air signal depending on the degree of
the port turn. The starboard regulator delivers a similar
signal for a starboard turn.
The pitch trimmer signals are then used to bias the
corresponding pitch signal in a downward direction. For
example - the full speed gas turbine pitch pressure signal is
60 psi. If the operator puts the vessel in a 100 turn, the
pitch trimmer signal is 5 psi. The trimmer signal will re-
duce the pitch signal to 55 psi. The pitch on the inboard
screw will be reduced.
5. Gas Turbine or Diesel Speed Interrupt
The purpose of the Speed Interrupt Circuit is to hold
the gas turbine or diesel speed signal to zero when the ac-
tual pitch is in the opposite direction to that called for by
the operator.
7
The reason for the Speed Interrupt is that the propel-
ler pitch change from full ahead to full astern requires 7
seconds while speed change is very fast. For example - the
vessel is in a maneuvering condition, backing down with
full astern pitch and 1/3 speed. The operator would like to
stop the vessel quickly and positions the controls to full
ahead. The result is that the engine speed starts up; howev-
er, the actual pitch is still astern for 3-1/2 seconds and the
vessel receives additional thrust astern when it is not desired.
The action of the speed interrupt circuit would be to cut the
engine speed signal to "idle" until the actual pitch passes
through the zero pitch setting. At that point, the speed sig-
nal is allowed to pass and, therefore, all of the propeller
thrust is in the desired direction.
The actual propeller pitch position is read by a drag
link connected to the pitch position pointer on the pitch
servo control box, see Fig. 11. The drag link operates
cammed pilot valves to deliver a signal to break the speed
lines when the position is wrong.
The result is that the vessel can be handled quickly
under maneuvering conditions without the danger of power
being applied in a wrong direction.
The systems, circuits and features discussed have been
thoroughly checked and tested as trials have been completed
on two of the PGM Class vessels. The PGM 84 USS ASHE-
VILLE and PGM 85 USS GALLUP have been commissioned
into the U.S. Navy as the forerunners of what shows every
indication of becoming an efficient and growing class of
fighting ships.
F IG. 1
LOCATION OF PROPULSION
CONTROL UNITS
 LIST OF COMPONENTS

58 CRYPTO RM EMERG EXIT ALARM

69 I CK CIRC IND LTS

105 WINDOW WIPER CONT SW (SEVEN)

106 CHEMICAL ATTACK ALARM SW
107 COLLISION ALARM SW
108 GENERAL ALARm SW
110 BLACK LT CONO SW
129 IC VOICE SWITCH UNIT

FOR LIST OF CONSOLE TOP COMPONENTS

SEE FIG. 6

FIG. 2
PILOTHOUSE CONSOLE

POR MATERIAL CALLOUT:

ON CONSOLE TOP - SEE FIG.7

ON FRONT PANEL - SEE F IG. a

ON SIDE PANEL - SEE FIG. 9

FIG.3
EOS CONSOLE PICTURIAL

8
 x4USr
OUT
ITA/N
-1

L A/R //V
TRANSVERSE
SUPPORT S/N/LAR
TO J.

PLATFORM DIC -2

GAS TURBINE INSTALLATION

FIG4

0 Darn,
rere.d.0 GSA* UrVIT
011Serc olvv.
04,41-
dielf new.",
41. 1500 see,
0 OWNS. OrerOuCrIp. 00.4

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IA DSI. MODE (6) G T MODE

F IG. 5
PROPULSION SYSTEM ARRG'T

9
 1212 7,7
LIST OF COMPONENTS

HELM
LILj
202
2 GT CONT LEVER
3 Da. CONT LEVER - PORT
4 Da CONT LEVER - STEC
6 NORM/GT MANUV PRPLN MODE SRL 00220
7 DSL/GT PRPLN MODE SEL

15 STA TRANS INIT IND LT

16 GT MANUV PRPLN mODE IND LT . - a,
17 NORm PRpLN mODE IND LT ,
18 GT PRPLN MODE IND LT 3 04
19 DSL PRPLN MODE IND LT (46
20 PORT DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT
21
22
PORT DSL CLUTCH DISENG IND LT
STBD DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 4
134
liRb
23 STBD OIL CLUTCH DISENO IND LT
24 PORT GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 102

)
25 PORT GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT Co 01) (4, ,0
26
27
28
STBD GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT
STBD GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT
GT READY TO START IND LT
\\ .
>h,o,
341.! ES Orn,

31 STEERING MOTOR OVLD ALARM LT -.

37 OPER STA ORDER ir4o LT - PH
38 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - EOS
39 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - HISPD
40 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - GT MANUV
41 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - CRUISE 201 RUDDER ANGLE IND
42 GT RUN IND LT 202 SHIP'S COURSE IND
43 STEERING POWER AVAIL IND LT 203 HELm ANGLE IND
44 STEERING PUMP ON IND LT 204 MAGNETIC COMPASS
45 PORT OIL RUN IND LT 206 GT CONT IND
46 STBD OSL RUN IND LT 206 PORT DSL CONT IND
207 STBD DSL CONT IND
101 STEERING CONT SW 208 PORT PITCH IND
102 NFU CONT SW 209 STBD PITCH IND
103 NAV INO LT DIMMER CONT SVv 210 PORT SHAFT TACH
104 PROP IND LT DIMMER CONT SW 211 STBD SHAFT TACH
127 PRPLN CONT LOC ORDER Sw 212 PWR TURB TACH
PRPLN mODE ORDER SW
FIG.
128 213 PWR TURB INLET TEMP IND
154 WINDSHIELD WASHER CONT SW 245 PH CONT AIR SUP PILOTHOUSE CONSOLE -TOP

OP.

F.0 9
0411,
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(6-!)
10

114 117
eIII
12
Lmj. 3

8
11
00O
[4,741 " O0

LIST OF COMPONENTS

2 GT CONT LEVER 24 PORT GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 1.2 STBD DSL STOP SW
3 DSL CONT LEVER - PORT 25 PORT GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT 13 GT CLUTCH MAN/AUTO SEL SW
4 GIL CONT LEVER - STBD 26 STBD GT CLUTCH ENG IND LT 14 GT CLUTCH P/S/BOTH SEL SW
5 EOS/PH OPER STA SEL 27 STBD GT CLUTCH DISENG IND LT 15 GT CLUTCH ACTUATION SW
6 NORM/GT MANUv PRPLN MODE SEL 28 GT READY TO START IND LT 16 GT EMERG STOP SW
7 DSL/GT PRPLN MODE SEL 29 GT 1NTLKS CLOSED IND LT 17 GT FAULT RESET SW
8 EMERG OPER STA SEL 30 PH COMMAND ALARM LT 18 GT START/STOP/RUN SEL SW
9 DSL CLUTCH CONT - PORT 31 STEERING MOTOR OVLD ALARM LT 19 GIL. O. LOW PRESS INTLK BYP SW
O DSL CLUTCH CONT - STBD 32 DC POWER AVAIL IND LT 20 GT MOTORING SW
1 DSL START LEVER 33 SHAFT TURN GEAR ENG ALARM LT 21 GT wASHDOWN SW
34 SHAFT TURN GEAR DISENG IND LT 22 GT ANTIICING SW
5 STA TRANS INIT IND LT 35 PORT SHAFT LOCKED ALARM LT 23 GT VIBRATION SEL SW
6 GT mANUv PRPLN mODE IND LT 36 STBD SHAFT LOCKED ALARm LT 24 PRPLN mODE TRANS TEST SW
7 NORM PRPLN MODE IND LT 37 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - PH 25 RED GEAR ERG TEMP SEL SW
8 GT PRPLN MODE IND LT 38 OPER STA ORDER IND LT - EOS 26 PH COMMAND ALARM SIL SW
9 DSL PRPLN MODE iND LT 39 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - HI SPEED 27 PRPLN CONT LOC ORDER SW
20 PORT DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 40 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - GT MANUV 28 PRPLN MODE ORDER SW
21 PORT DSL CLUTCH D1SENG IND LT 41 PRPLN MODE ORDER IND LT - CRUISE 29 IC VOICE SWITCH UNIT
22 STBD DSL CLUTCH ENG IND LT 69 1 CK CKT IND LIS 30 ENGINE RM CALL BELL SW
23 STBD DSL CLUTCH D1SENG IND LT Ill PORT DSL STOP SW 31 GT READY TO START SW FIG.7
EOS CONSOLE - 'TOP

lo
 LIST OF COMPONENTS

205 GT CONT IND 221 PWR TURB L. O. PRESS GAUGE

206 PORT DSL CONT IND 222 GT L. O. PRESO GAUGE
207 STBD DSL CONT IND 223 PORT DSL TACH
208 PORT PITCH IND 224 STBD DSL TACH
209 STBD PITCH IND 225 DSL PYROMETER
210 PORT SHAFT TACH 226 RED GEAR L. O. PRESS GAUGE
211 STBD SHAFT TACH 227 PORT DSL L. O. PRESS GAUGE
213 PWR TURB INLET TEMP IND 228 STBD DSL L. O. PRESS GAUGE
214 PWR TURB TACH 229 PORT DSL J.W. TEMP IND
215 GAS GEN TACH 230 STBD DSL J. W. TEMP IND
216 GT FUEL SUP PRESS GAUGE 231 PORT PROP HYD PRESS
217 GT START HYD PRESS GAUGE 232 STBD PROP HYD PRESS
218 GT L. O. COOLER TEMP IN 233 RED GEAR L.O. TEMP "IN" IND FIG.8
219 GT L. O. COOLER TEMP OUT 234 RED GEAR L. O. TEMP "OUT" IND EOS CONSOLE -FRONT PANEL
220 GT VIS IND 235 RED GEAR BRG TEMP IND

LIST OF COMPONENTS

47 RED GEAR L. O. STE, PUMP NO. 2 RUN IND LT 38 AIR COMP NO. 2 STOP SW
48 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. I RUN IND LT 39 AIR COAAP NO. I START SW
49 F.O. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. 2 RUN INO LT 40 AIR COMP NO. I STOP SW
50 F.O. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. I RUN IND LT I MIST ELIMINATOR FAN START SW
51 .3T COMP SUP FAN RUN INO LT 42 MIST ELIMINATOR FAN STOP SW
52 AIR COMP NO. 2 RUN IND LT 3 GT L. O. HI TEMP ALARM SIL SW
53 AIR COMP NO. I RUN IND LT 44 GT L. O. LOW PRESS ALARM SIL SW
54 MIST ELIMINATOR FAN RUN IND LT 45 GT FLAMEOUT ALARM SIL SW
55 GEAR L.O. HTR ON IND LT 46 GAS GEN OVSPD ALARM SIL SW
56 PWR TURB L. O. PLIMP RUN IND LT 47 PWR TURB OVSPD ALARM SIL SW
57 ALARM PWR AVAIL IND LT 48 PWR TURB HI INLET TEMP ALARM SIL SW
58 GT L. O. HI TEMP ALARM LT 49 GT LOW FUEL INLET PRESS ALARM SIL SW
59 GT L. O. LOW PRESS ALARM LT 50 RED GEAR L. O. HI TEMP ALARM SIL SW
60 GT FLAMEOUT ALARM LT 51 CONT AIR LOW PRESS ALARM SIL Sw
61 GAS GEN OVSPD ALARM LT 52 SALINITY ALARM SIL SW
62 PWR TURB OVSPD ALARM LT 53 ALARM RESET SWITCH
63 PWR TURB HI INLET TEMP ALARM LT
64 GT LOW FUEL INLET PRESS ALARM LT 236 STM PRESO GAUGE
65 RED GEAR L.O. HI TEMP ALARM LT 237 AIR RECEIVER PRESS GAUGE
66 CONT AIR LOW PRESS ALARM LT 238 SS AIR PRESS
67 SALINITY ALARM LT 239 HYD OIL RESERVOIR TEMP IND
240 FW PUMP NO.2 DISCH PRESS
32 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. 2 CONT SW 241 FW PUMP NO.1 DISCH PRESS
33 RED GEAR L.O. STBY PUMP NO. / CONT SW 242 DSL START HYD PRESS
34 F.O. BOOST 8, TRANS PUMP NO. 2 CONT SW 243 SYS CONT AIR SUP
35 9.0. BOOST 8 TRANS PUMP NO. 1 CONT SW 244 ROS CONT AIR SUP
36 GT COMP SUP FAN CONT SW 245 PH CONT AIR SUP
37 AIR COMP NO. 2 START SW 246 ALARM BELL

FIG. 9
EOS CONSOLE - SIDE PANEL

11
 ,--/f/SAL/GNITENT
LOS CONSOLE .0G/A,E. X GAGE AGAR,/ spwrov P/I_OrNOC /SA- CONSOGAT
E

S TA 770N
TRANSFER
.ALANCE OL/T4G/T
VAGVE

4./

STA7/ON t k.
TRANSFER
/NPu r
1 T

STATION TRANSFER CIRCUIT

FIG. 10

- WAY VALVE
TO GOVER/VCR
SPEE0 /../NE pos/r/oNER
10-60 PS/

SPEED M./74-Ig/24./P7
!..7A//7

/YEC/-K
J. //VA"

,7- li/AY VALVE

AS'A' //V EX.,/
r/on,' Our ON SER.:/0 .60 Y

S.4/4/17-L4
VAL. ;/..47
ANSAZ1.../NE 0 OR 10c7j
AS 7.54)A., LAVE 0 04' CO1 /S/
SPEED INTERRUPT CIRCUIT
FIG.11

12
No. 61-358

UNITED STATES ARMY SHALLOW DRAFT BOAT PROGRAM

by

JOHN F. SARGENT
U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories
Fort Belvoir, Virginia

Paper No.
67-358

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 4.22
 UNITED STATES ARMY SHALLOW DRAFT BOAT PROGRAM
John F. Sargent
U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories
Fort Belvoir, Virginia
Abstract
The increased emphasis on counterinsurgency
type operations forced the Army to consider means
to improve logistics in swamps and inundated areas.
The intent of this consideration was to complement
aerial movement of men and supplies. Although this
type of ground operation has a long history in mil-
itary annals, the circumstances that currently pre-
vail force an urgency to improve mobility in that
environment which is unprecedented. The unit of
load arbitrarily established was a ton of supplies
or a squad of troops, depending on the mission.
The end item expected to carry that load had to be
simple, cheap and easily reproduced. Conventional
boat designs tested in-heavy watergrowths proved
totally inadequate; consequently, a major part of
the effort wes directed to obtaining a propulsion
system which was capable of swamp negotiation as
well as good open-water performance. In the pro-
pulsion study, waterjets, sine disc, paddle wheels,
rule propellers, and the airscrew were tested and
evaluated. The use of a unique propulsion system
was further compounded by boundary requirements of
minimal navigatioeal draft, of envelope size com-
patible with surface and aerial delivery, and of a
weight allowing manhandling over limited distances
overland. Selection was fin.11y narrowed to the
waterjet and the airscrew propelled boat. Devel-
opment of these two craft is currently in the final
phase of tests and evaluations for field use.
I. Introduction
A Presidential Board convening in 1958 consid,
ered the many factors influencing military opera-
tions in Southeast Asia. One of the major prob-
lens vas the need to improve mobility in an en-
vironment which ranged from mountain country to
humid swamps. An outgrowth of that phase of study
involved mobility over inundated areas, inland riv-
ers andewamps. Emphasizing that need was the well-
recognized increase in enemy military movements
during rainy seasons which not only swelled the
natural arterials of drainage but also averflowed
into adjacent low grounds. These Sh.11ow flooded
areas provided a natural maneuver area for indige-
nous river craft which were built for sh.11ow-water
operations. The frustration at seeing the enemy
pole away in a sampan from a high-performance deep-
water craft grounded on a mudbank is easy to under-
stand. As a result, a Small Development Require-
ment (SDR) was initiated in 1963 directing the cog-
nizant Army Agency to develop watercraft which
would have the capability of nullifying guerrilla
activities in this environment, now labelled Riv-
erine operations. Characteristics which were spe-
cified to be incorporated in the craft included
the following:
A cargo capacity of 2000 pounds or twelve
(12) lightly-equipped combat troops.
A navigational draft of eight (8) inches
when fully loaded.
An open-water speed of fifteen (15) knots,
minimum.
A propulsion system which provided the
1
capability of negotiating densely vegetated swamps.
Transportability by airlift, parachute
drop, or manhandling for short distances.
Sound level to be of a minimum compatible
with the economics and propulsive efficiency.
These Characteristics had to be combined in an
item that was simple to operate and maintain, eco-
nomical to construct, and easily reproducible.
Prior to prosecution of the SIR, however, the
Army marine research activity was directed to eval-
uate a group of pneumatic boats for specified
limited warfare missions in addition to a group of
pre-selected boats for an interim standard craft
for the above requirement.
Analysis of the required Characteristics left
considerable discretion to the developer in his
definition. The combination of payload and draft
established the hull geometry adequately and the
open-water speed left no doubt as to what was de-
sired. However, the definition of densely vege-
tated swamps was arbitrary and the need for man-
handling short distances was open to interpretation.
Furthermore, the restriction on noise level was
indefinitive. Consequently, after considerable
coordination and literature searches, the following
conclusions were reached. Predicated on "modus
operandi" of the user, the short-distance portaging
of the boat was necessary to traverse dry spots,
dykes, sand bars and similar obstacles when in
pursuit or ambush. Likewise, it was recognized
that the lowest sound level achieved with small
commercial craft, powered by an eighteen-horsepower
outboard engine acoustically damped, ranged between
60-70 decibels at 100 feet away including back-
ground noise; this emphasized the impossibility of
silent qperation considering the need for a larger
engine and uncontrollable hull noises. This also
raised grave consideration of high speed to com-
pensate for early noise detection. The definition
of dense vegetation was arbitrarily agreed upon by
the selection of the Chicks:hominy River test site,
described below.
Test Site Selection
Prior to a realistic evaluation of the pre-
selected craft, a test site typical of the envi-
ronment for its intended use had to be selected.
A reconnaisance of potential areas in the Central
Atlantic Region of the United States resulted in
the selection of a site in the Chickahominy River
near Providence Forge, Virginia (Figures 1 and 2).
In addition to the convenienee of proximity, that
site in full summer bloom presented such a diversity
and density of swamp vegetation as to afford a
Challenging test site. A botannical survey re-
sulted in the conclusion that there was a similar-
ity between this site and swamps of Southeast Asia,
such as the Mekong Delta, despite the greater
climactic difference. The longer-grewing season
of the Mekong Delta indicated a greater vegetative
development, but recent field reports showed a
striking similarity. Although the Chickahomigy
River empties into the James River, a 1942 dam
formed the impoundment of fresh water preventing
the entry of brackish water by tidal action. The
shoreline of the Chickehominy River is generously
provided with dense stands of aquatic growth con-
sisting of at least twenty-five genera of plants.
Certain of these plants form floating vegetational
islands twenty to thirty feet in diameter that form
impassable obstacles to most water traffic. The
following reactions invariably result in immobili-
zation of any watercraft daring this Lorelei:
Increased resistance and grounding.
-Paling ahead of the bow.
Fouling of the propeller, shaft and all
projections on the iitrersed hull.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Small craft would actually run aground on the
vegetational islands although in water depths of
five to six feet. Boats with a sharp, deep prow
would bale the vegetation ahead of it, straining
the submergents of the island until they separated
from their taproots; the small, free-floating is-
land resulting would then be pushed into an adja-
cent patdh until the drag exceeded thrust, immobi-
lizing the boat. In particular, a plant callpd
Arrow Arum presented the most serious obstacle to
marine propellers. This growth is a submergent
and averages approximately five to six feet in
length; although extremely flexible and responsive
to changes in current, it is surprisingly strong
showing a consistency similar to sisal hemp. It
2
was not uncommon for a root of this plant to demon-
strate a breaking strength of about four-hundred
pounds. The most innocent-appearing trail through
these stands of swamp growth abound in this genera
which ride the propeller stream through the low-
pressure area into the propeller and gear case.
The resulting fouling quickly occurs (Figure 3),
stalls the engine, and renders the boat helpless.
Figure 3
Of a less serious nature, but still an annoyance,
the duckweed released miniature leaves that formed
solid surface scums in open circulating water sys-
tems causing engine overheating. In all boats,
keel coolers were a must for water-cooled engines
to avoid this condition.
Initial Approach
Initially, to keep development costs low, vari-
ous commercial off-the-shelf equipment was used.0)
Except for a propulsion system using a 100-horse-
power diesel engine, driving a weedless type pro-
peller, this austere approadh was eventnplly ter-
minated due to the unfavorable swamp performance.
These initial evaluations were only indirectly re-
lated to the subject of this paper and are cursorily
discussed to present some of the engineering and
environmental data obtained during evaluations of
the latter group of boats.
In general, these boats were of fiberglass
construction, fifteen to seventeen feet long, and
powered by outboard propulsion units ranging from
18 to 55 horsepower. To overcome the obstacles
imposed by dense vegetation, various forms of pro-
pulsions were evaluated, including the long shaft
drive (Figure 4), rule propeller (Figures 5 and 6)
and the sine disc propeller (Figure 7).
The long shaft drive was simply an extension of
a conventional outboard shaft, cantilevered close
to the surface, to allow the propeller to operate
thereby using the wake wave for submergence to
avoid the bulk of vegetation4 The use of a con-
ventional propeller at the end of this shaft is
common practice in the Far East, but results ob-
tained during these tests indicated little anti-
fouling improvement over vertical shafts. Conse-
quently, rule propellers were tested on the long
shafts, both worm type and bladed type. The rule
propeller is formed by continuous helical blades
of specified length. In this case, 7-inch diame-
ter blades were used having two fixed pitches of

4.7 and 4 inches. During this application a hull
of 14-1/2 feet length, 7-foot beam and displaoement
of approximately 900 pounds was tested using a 6-
horsepower outboard motor. The basic purpose of
this test was to determine the capability of the
rule propeller to operate continuously in heavily
vegetated waters. Open-water speed was approxi-
Complete stoppage of
mately three miles per hour.
the propulsion plant was rare, except when the pro-
peller was deliberately ramm.d into Arrow Arum root
mass. However, the effort to control the tilted
motor-shaft assembly in adaition to motor noises
accelerated operator fatigue. Since the unit was
jury-rigged, a minor development could correct this
deficiency; but the efficiency needed for high-
water speed was believed far too inadequate for
consideration.
Figure 4
Figure 5
The Sine Disc propeller is a rotatable disc set
at some angle to its axis of rotation. Again, the
purpose of this evaluation was to provide a means
whereby swamp vegetation could be negotiated, recog-
nizing the poor propulsive efficiency in open water
compared with a well-designed screw propeller. In
this application the sine disc axis of rotation is
pervendicumr to direction of travel and only a
portion of the disc (which is a continuous helical
blade) below the axis is submerged. Since the sine
disc is mounted at an ann to its shaft, an un-
desirable side thrust i5s produced which had to be
balanced by a disc 180 out of phase to cancel out
this component of force. For hydrodynamic effi-
ciencies the discs should be relatively large, and
3
for structural strength a weight permlty must be
assumed. Compromises in both these areas were re-
quired to tailor their application to this use.
An experimental investigatiod2) indicated that for
a full scale model the weight and vibration involved
would penalize the design. Concurrently with the
above study, two sets of sine disc propellers were
evaluated -- 27-inch diameter set at forty degree
angle of pitch and a thirty-six indh diameter set
at forty degree angle. Using a 50-horsepower en-
gine, a speed of approximately 4 knots was achieved
at an engine speed of 1500 rpm using the 27-inch
disc; higher engine speeds proved ineffective with
excessive cascading and a drop in boat speed.
Using the 36-inch diameter discs, boat speed peaked
at 6-1/2 knots at an engine speed of 1500 rpm. The
splash from the disc action was considerable and
noisy, throwing water into the hull at both forward
and astern operations which necessitated a splash
guard. In swamm operations, the discs operated
satisfactorily, cutting through the vegetation with
little reduction in thrust. Subsequent use of a
disc with a 30-degree pitch allowed an increase in
engine speed with less cascading for the same boat
for all
speed. Steering was inadequate however
disc propulsion due to a combination of turbulence
induced by the discs and buildup of water growth
on the leading edge of the rudder. As a result of
paddle wheel propulsion potential and problems of
complexity, speed, weight, and vibration associated
with the sine disc, evaluation of the sine disc for
propulsion was discontinued.
Figure 6
Following the initial evaluation, larger com-
mercial craft were investigated in the sum ,r of
1963 during the swemp-growth season. Basic Char-
acteristics are synopsized in Table I.
Figure 7
 HULL DRAG
BOAT DESCRIPTION
(hull fiberglass, engine gasoline-except as noted)
SPEED
(m01)
P?6 P H LOALED(L1S.) OPNL
WAT
tdintil...
oCui, ro 'OPEN
BULL PROPULSION -.1
2 m 53r NAM SWAMP (LBS)

k. - LOA 111'
, ' L AI pRop 1-4 1-4 ZZS r- 'Z_'', MI @ 7n1Ph

100 hp @ Weedless
A 1250 20'-0" 7'-10" 2'-6" imT15.7543,i 18 11 33 88 2200 500 2000 3600

2,-6 14E1.600%1 Teuet 18 8 13 82 680 300 2200 2750

B 1350 18' -6" 7' -0"

weedless
110 hp e 3.75" x 30 20 20 * * *
C 1250 20' -0" 7' -lo" 2' -6"
1900
4400 rpm 11.5
Paddles
D 23,, 160 hp @ & Std. 13 10 27 87 1650 715 1250 3230
960 18' -6" 7' -0"
4500 rPm 14" x14"

E 8o hp @ SM.
500 16'-4" 6'-6" 24"
4700 13i:, x 29 14 24 89 600 420 2000 1210

., hn @ Std.
F 500 16' -4" 6' -6" 24" 3g80 - 10.25 x 17 7 17 88 425 315 875 1400
11"
2000 160 hp C. W§te;jet
G Weld.Al. 23'-3" 9'-9" 2'-4- 4500 rpm m-1/ 15 8 lo 89 goo 1000 * 3400
Diem
TABLE 1 RESULTS OF TEST CONDUCTED IN 1963 * Tests not conducted

A 100-horsepower diesel engine driving a weediess

blade propeller, boat A mentioned below, performed
admirably in uwamp areas Ance it relied on brute
torque with a propeller adaptable to this environ-
ment. Occasion.11y, this system would collect suf-
ficient growths on the shaft and gear case to render
it ineffective until, by an astern operation and
repeated hard-over-steer cycling, the growths would
unwind and slither off. But the major objection
associated with this design was the excessive navi-
gational draft (33 inches) which confined its opera-
tion to relatively deep waters. As a result, this
boat was used as a chase and safety boat during
subsequent tests. (Government restrictions prevent
public evaluations of competitive products, so a
verbal description of the boats tested follows be-
low). It should be noted that the method of opera-
tion, loading and certain military modifications
are not representative of the respective craft in
Figure 8
their design environment.

A synopsized review of these craft follows.
Boat A mentioned above proved the best swamp-
er but was slow and heavy. Boats B and G were
waterjet propelled test beds, each with a different
approach to enable swamp operation; boat B was
fitted with an excessively large inbmkp opening
(ten to one ratio of opening to pump suction area)
to keep flow rates low at that point. Both boats
were obviously underpowered to attain the desired
open-water speed, but the weedcutter innovation of
boat B showed promise; whereas, the low-flow intake
design demonstrated little improvement over a stand-
ard inlet. (Figure 8)
Boat C was very similar to boat A except for
the spark ignition engine. As uwamp tests eventu-
ally demonstrated, the higher torque of the diesel
engine proved to greater advantage and no further
testing of boat C was conducted.
Boat D (Figure 9) became an item of considerable
interest since it resurrected the paddle-wheel pro-
pulsion wtich was believed a possible solution to
the heavy growth. The paddles were 5" by 7-3/4"
attached to a 35-inch effective diameter side-
wheelers (one port, one starboard). Eight of these
paddles were attached to each sidewheel which turned
at approximately 133 rpm at full engine speed, pro-
ducing a boat speed of approximately 13 knots,
loaded. The relatively high rate of rotation was(3)
dictated by the philosophy of using standard, shelf
equipment. In this case an automotive differential
transmission was instP11d whieh, due to the weight
involved, prohibited consideration of another re-
duction gear. Also, the paddle wheel size was
restricted due to weight and silhouette. The ini-
tial installed power was 80 horsepower when paddie
wheels were the sole method of propulsion; this en-
gine was replaced with a 160-horsepower unit upon
incorporating a propeller drive with the paddle
wheel propulsion (Figure 10). As anticipated,
open-water speed of paddle wheel propulsion was
poor, necessitating the additional complexity
and weight of an augumentary outboard drive. In
swamp operations, boat D performed fairly well al-
though there were occasions when the sidewheels
and hub (Figures 11 and 12) became heavily entwined
with growths; likewise the steering which was ac-
complished by brpking one side of the differential
was inadequate for tortuous creek and stream opera-
tion.
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
5
Boats E and F were test beds for a compact in-
board-outboard unit that appeared quite attractive
for satisfying a parallel requirement (viz., to
develop an engine and propulsion kit for indige-
nous craft) which was subsequently cancelled.
These craft operated very well both in open water
and swamps; but their obvious 1-imitations in both
size and power, coupled with the philosophy of
avoiding development costs, precluded further pro-
secutions of their evaluation.
Figure 12
As a result of these engineering design tests,(4)
the following conclusions were formed:
None of the craft under test and evalua-
tion met all requirements specified.
A deviation from conventional marine pro-
pulsion was mandatory if swamp negotiation were to
be achieved. In this respect, the two concepts ap-
pearing most likely to economicRlly satisfy require-
ments of swamp operation, open-water speed, and
draft were the waterjet-propelled craft and the
airboat. In both concepts, the entire underwater
surface of the hull could be kept free of projec-
tions and the propulsion system could be kept free
of the water vegetation. Developments of the
Captive Air Bubble and the Archimedes Screw pro-
pelled craft were closely followed, but development
lead time and low-water speed, respectively, dis-
couraged their serious consideration.(s)
IV. Development of Waterjet Boats and Airboat
Accordingly, a parallel development of the water-
jet-propelled craft and the airboat concept was
recognized as a necessity. Each was to be tailored
to the requirements and still represent a relatively
low cost item. The waterjet-propelled craft concept
was to be evaluated on the basis of two separate
approaches, one involving a boat propelled by twin
commercial waterjets separately powered, and the
other a boat propelled by one large commercial
waterjet equipping both types with weedautters.
It was anticipated that the incorporation of a weed-
cutter having an external rotary mechanism may
interfere with flow pattern resulting in entrained
air in the pump suction, aggravating cavitation at
the higher pump speeds. This latter condition would
certainly hinder peak performance during open-water
operation; but, no alternate solution was feasible
which would enable swamp operation. Again, in com,
pliance with Government restrictions, the boats will
be identified as boat H and boat J.
 Boat H used a commercial fiberglass hull which
had excellent sea-keeping capability. Boat J in-
corporated a special design hull of welded alumi-
num which was very mefleuverable and, in general,
quite satisfactory. 3oth boats had similar dis-
placements, approximately 3400 pounds in the un-
loaded condition, although the wider beam of boat
J provided less draft in the loaded condition
(9-1/2 indhes compared with 11 indhes). Further-
more, the concentration of weight in the stern
caused a navigational draft of 13 inches in boat H.
Boat H is 23V-7" lonq with an e-o"beam (Figure
13); boat J is 231-g long with a 9'-9" beam
(Figure 14).
Figure 13
Figure 14
Propulsion system for boat H consisted of twin
waterjets (Figures 15 and 16), each separately
powered by a gasoline engine rated 110 horsepower
at 4000 rpm. Each waterjet consists of a multi-
intake (eight tube suction off a sea chest opening
for optimum flow) providing 56 sq. in. intake area.
A 7-indh diameter impeller pumps a 9.1 Cu. ft. per
sec. flow through exdhangeable diseh.rge nozzles
varying from 10 to 15 sq. in. Eadh waterjet is
directly driven by its engine and includes a
clutched take-off to energize a rotary weedcutter
fitted exterLally to the intake housing plate at
the waterjet suction. Speed of the weedcutter was
700 rpm at full engine speed for optimum pocket for
protection of the weedcutter blades when beaching.
Engine cooling was provided by a commercial keel
cooler. Control of the craft was unique in that a
rotatable nozzle was incorporated in the design
providing thrust in any direction. During tests,
it was determined that the boat could maintain
course with only one waterjet operational.
Figure 15
Figure 16
Propulsion system for boat J is a single water-
jet powered by a gasoline engine rated 280 horse-
power at 4400 rpm (Figure 17). A reduction
(1.5;1) is provided to reduce impeller speed to
2900 rpm, maximum, and a combination gear and belt
take off from the drive shaft is incorporated to
drive a rotary weedcutter (Figure 18). The inlet
is a fabricated aluminum section bolted to a small
sea Chest with an opening of approximately 182 sq.
in. The 12-1/2-inch diameter impeller pumps ap-
Proximately 15 Cu. ft. per sec. flow through a
disdharge nozzle of 33 sq. in. area. The weed-
cutter lats initially installed on the inboard side
of the intske housing plate, but due to its inef-
fectiveness in this position, it was eventually
supplemented by an additional cutter on the out-
(The inboard cutter was retained to
board side.
aid in priming the pump). The weedcutter was
driven at a speed of approximately 1000 rpm at full
engine speed. Deaerator strips (Figure 19) forward
of the intake were provided to reduce the induction
of entrained air set up by hull interaction. Also
the location of the pump inlet had to be kept well
forward to avoid recirculation during reversing;
reversing is accomplished by a reversing gate, or
clamshell whidh is inefficient. A high backing
thrust is especislly important for beach retrac-
tion and swamp extrication. The size of the keel
6
cooler was kept small by augmenting the cooler with
chine tubes on the hull.
Figure 17
Open-water performance left little to Choose
from since speed of both boats was approximately
30 mph maximum and 20 mph in the loaded condition.
Bollard pull for boat H was 1400 pounds and boat J
was 1800 pounds. However, the difficulty of con-
trolling boat H during tight maneuvering was ex-
tremely poor due to force required to swivel these
jets when under power. Boat J, on the other hand,
7
was superior in close-in maneuvering such as docking,
where it could be walked in a tight berthing with
ease. In swamp. operation, boat H was superior to
boat J because the inboard weedcutter of the latter
failed to chop up the Arrow Arum in short lengths,
which would then wrap around the cutter shaft until
the size of the wrapping began to restrict inlet
flow. Boat E negotiated some of the more dense
stands by providing a bow load so as to induce a
slight trim by the head, and then proceeding at an
engine speed of approximately 2000 rpm. A subse-
quent modification to boat J incorporated outboard
installad weedcutters since the inboard weedcutter
was still needed to accelerate pump prime; full
field tests of this modification will not be com-
pleted until the season of swamp growth occurs next
summer. The weedcutters of both boats are left in
operation during open-water operations since the
loss in power from weedcutter engagement is negli-
gible in clear water.
In 1964, development of what is probably the
largest Inland-water airboat was initiated to meet
the requirements of this program. During the ori-
ginal phase of this program, airboats were not
considered since the user reportedly objected to
their use primnnily because of foiling by overhead
foliage and because of noise. Nevertheless, a de-
velopment was undertaken due to the airboat capa-
bility of negotiating gumbo mud and dense water-
growths. The airboat concept of course materialized
from the necessity to travel over the Everglades
country of Florida, the bayous of Louisiana, and
Texas swamps. Subsequent use over snow and ice
broadened its application and opened up areas pre-
viously believed impractical both here and in
foreign countries. The growth of the airboat paral-
lelled that of fast seagoing boats for the 1920 rum-
runners in that the element of lawlessness provided
a stimulus for improvement. Circa 1930, poachers
took a dim view of laws which limited moonlighting
for alligator hides. The Game Commission in Flori-
da took exception to their operations and a "Key-
stone Cops" chase resulted. Since the airboat was
the only vehicle that could traverse the shallow
swamps and grassland of the Florida Everglades, a
backyard design race ensued that culminated in the
air-cooled-engine powered craft we recognize today.
The typical airboat is a very low freeboard boat,
designed for calm waters,which is noisily driven by
an air propeller permitting a smooth underwater hull.
The propulsion assemblage is usually protected by
a framework bushguard to which a large grid wire
mesh is attached for protection from foliage. In
heavy, tall sawgrass a bow guard is also provided
and the operator is usually seated four to five
feet high for the necessary visibility. Hull ma-
terial varied over the spectrum, depending on
market economics and ground environment the boat
was expected to traverse. Initially wood and
riveted light-gage hulls of oversimplified box-type
hulls kept costs low despite high mortality rates,
and powering came from second hand engines and
airplane propellers which sometimes matched. There
were considerable differences of opinion as to the
optimum hull material which could skid over dams,
dikes, and even roads -- stainless steel bottoms
were preferred by the more affluent; galvanized
steel sheet was generally usedi and aluminum --
despite its lightness -- had a tendency to drag
in grass and sand more than other available ma-
terial. The advent of fiberglass, which lends
itself so well to mass production for small boats,
found its way in the airboat market by its advan-
tage over austere metal hulls in permitting some
initiative in hull design and, of course, providing
a hull material easily repairable. The latter ad-
vantage is significant since mad dashee over un-
familiar swamp vegetation concealing logs, rocks
and stumps exact their *11 of the hull, usni,ily
in sone remote location. The exhilaration of this
contagious madness to coax out the last bit of
power during these spurts is further heightened by
the knowledge that one's destiny rides on quick
and proper reaction. When on collision course, a
choice of stop or steer remains and -- if time
permits -- a one-word prayer. (A reversing capa-
bility is seldom provided due to cost and inef-
ficiency.) Without strong propeller blast on the
rudders, steerage is sluggish. On the other hand,
steering is hieily responsive at the upper propel-
ler speeds which can be adverse when a hard helm
is applied at full boat speed; either a spin out
will result with the boat wallowing in its own
wake, or the hull will skid and trip. The tech-
niques of airboat operation can be mastered only
through experience with that particular airboat.
Prior to availability of high-powered aircraft
engines, airboat accidents could be blamed on
violations of accepted airboat practices. It was
not unusual for a veteran operator to have been
flipped out of the airboat a few times during his
apprenticeship, nor did it discourage him from con-
tinuing operations, asguming he avoided the pro-
peller teeth. However, refinement in later airboat
design was reflected in lighter boats and greater
power as industry improved its products. The in.
crease in power was warranted to improve amphibious
capability -- denser swamps penetrated and longer
stretches of dry land negotiated. But a hot hand
at the throttle demonstrated the folly of using
that reserve power for water speed after the
disastrous results of becoming air-borne were ex-
perienced. Table 2, below, contains a synopsis of
selected airboats.
The airboat hull is a ealm-water boat. Low
freeboard of most commercial airboats encourages
flooding from following wake on engine shutdown
even in calm water. It also allows shipping solid
water over the bow from random swells and.wakes
of preceding craft, or when attaining the planing
attitude when overloaded.
The airboat development (Figure 20) for this
program was constructed under contract to the
Engineers Research and Development Laboratories.
The hull was constructed of welded aluminum and
had a length of 20 feet, beam of 9 feet, and depth
of 33 inches. The beam and length were estab-
lished by the required draft. The high freeboard
was incorporated to provide a dry ride. A cargo
well of 11-feet length and 7-feet width was lo-
cated amidships which, in addition to carrying
cargo, accommodated the operator's console and
troop seats located outboard which folded up snug
to the gunwhale. Forward of the cargo well, under
the bow deck was a void originally used for stor-
age and subsequently used for fuel tanks to reduce
the hazard associated with the proximity of fuel
to hot exhaust pipes. Aft of the well on the deck,
the propulsion plant was installed and immediately
below, the fuel tanks and batteries. Steering was
provided by two large ruadars of 22-square-foot
area, each. A bushguard was added for propeller
protection. The hull approximated a box form
with a flat bottom to keep within draft limita-
8
tions and to insure successful swamp operations; a
flat spoon bow was incorporated, and turning chines
aft completed the only deviations in the box-like
shape. The large beam was selected to provide
positive transverse stability to oppose the large
overturning couple created during a hard turn by
the high thrust line. The wide beam and flat bot-
tom caused some difficulties in using conventional
speed and powering predictions. Parameters gov-
erning powering predictions were a 35 mph speed for
a flat bottomed hull weighing 3000 pounds and
carrying a 2000-round payload. Neither Taylor's
series, nor NAGA s Seaplane Coefficient were appli-
cable due to the low aspect ratio of this hull
(1;2). Further, the speed-length ratio(X., 7.8)
and the displacement-length ratio 1:
L - 625,000 )
(i--/oo)
caused this hull to be outside Allen NUrray's pow-
ering curves. However, the classic Crouch and
Hacker formulae (modified planing hull) was rela-
tively accurate when gross installed power was
reduced 50% for a pusher-type air propulsion.
Assuming a constant of 180-200 for a cargo carrier
having a wide, flat bottom and solving by the Crouch
formula
P
v'w (35)2(5000) 19 0
C4 (180)a
-
hP
correcting for air propulsion
P-19°
0.50
- 380 hp
Checking by the Hacker Modified formula where B =
7.5
Va(10)1N (35)2(10)(5000)
P = = 2 0 3 hp
B(404300) (7.5)(40,000)
correcting for air propulsion,
p 203= 406 hp
0.50
The agreement in results from the two formulae pro-
vided the basis for selection of a 400-horsepower
engine. Based on the rule of thumb that a well-
designed pusher propeller in an alrboat produces
about three pounds of bollard thrust per horse-
power in free air, approximately 1200 pounds of
thrust would result. Predicated on prior swamp.
test data, this thrust would be apple to power a
boat of this size over dense watergrowths. The
engine selected was an 8-cylinder unit, rated 400
horsepower at 2650 rpm, air cooled; weight of this
well-proved engine was approximately 600 pounds.
A cowling was provided the engine to insure adequate
cooling during sustained, slow-speed, swamp opera-
tions. In mating the propeller to the engine, it
was decided to incorporate a direct engine cou-
pling to avoid development costs and weight of a
gearbox (Figure 21). A four-bladed wooden pro-
peller of 6-1/2 feet diameter and 44-inch pitch
was designed for the boat. The diameter of the
propeller was limited to this dimension by hull
clearance and in order to avoid exceeding critical
tip speed of Mach 0.85 at engine speeds up to 2650
rpm. The propeller was pitched at 44 inches to
load the engine at 2600 rpm; the pitch was devel-
oped at a radial rate which would encourage good
flow characteristics over the full length of the
blade for engine cooling. During run-in operations,
the ERDL airboat confirmed calculations indicating
dynamic instability by porpoising at approximately
2200 engine rpm. It was originally believed that
the high longitudinal thrust line of the alrboat
would form an effective couple to dampen porpoising.
However, despite the inclusion of engine shims to
angle the thrust line down from approximately two
to five degrees from the horizontal, porpoising was
not eliminated. Consequently, a three-quarter inch
wedge, two-foot square, was applied at the stern
which did correct the problem. Contrary to appre-
hensions -- and on the brighter side -- the proba-
bility of kiting, or becoming air-borne, did not
occur even in the face of 20-knot winds. The test
bed airboat lived up to expectations during concept
evaluation tests, attaining a light displacement
speed of 43 mph and a loaded speed of 37 mph. Swamp
operations were outstandingly successful (Fig 22);
and the bonus benefits of gumbo-mud operations
(Figure 23) provided a mobility that had been lack-
ing. Maneuverability was excellent except at low
engine speeds as expected where the propeller wash
was insufficient to enable good rudder thrust.
Furthermore, the lack of a reversing capability --
deliberately omitted due to cost, complexity and
inefficiency -- caused docking to be difficult.
Still, for its intended use in relatively primitive
areas, the diversified capability of the airboat
concept for the cost-per-ton-mile of cargo moved
far exceeded any other medium in effectiveness. It
was believed that sophistication of the design by
incorporating nice-to-have features such as propel-
ler shrouding, controllable pitch propellers and
sound attenuation devices would have nlillified the
austerity targeted. It wss event,.11y deterrained
that experienced operators could effectively work
the boat despite the lack of those features.
BOAT DESCRIPTION
ance imposed for overland operations, and increased
hull costs. Consequently, the flat bottom was re-
inforced by reducing spacing of the longitudinals
from 15 inches to 9 indhes to reduce span of the
bottom panelling subjected to pounding and to in-
crease section modulus. The continuous two-inch
channel longitudinPis were strengthened by trans-
verses spaced three feet apart, which were of
identical chs,nel, cut and butt-welded between the
longitudinals to form the frames to strengthen the
1/8-inCh bottom. Section modulus was predicated on
a 3G loading. Both TIG and MIG processes were used
to weld the hull, but inadequate weld preparation
caused early failures as explained below. Also
incorporated in the redesigned hull was the relo-
cation of the fuel tank from under the engine on
the aft deck to the bow compartment; although the
performance which resulted was more sluggish, the
boat became a safer draft to service. Shortly after
tests had begun in earnest, welding failures in the
transverses began to appear in the vicinity of the
center of bottom skin pressure at the outboard
sides. The pattern of failure was one of tension
in the upper part of the weld joint, confined to
the weld itself. A direct snAlysis of the problem
was complicated by abnormal usage of the boat
wherein impact loads and racking stresses set up by
limited sand-bar and mud-bank hopping exceed normal
design criteria. However, since failure occurred
in the weld and not the heat affected zone, indi-
cating incomplete fusion, the weld procedure became
.....
--- E.- N

HULL .1; 2§m-

TYPE LOA BEAM ENGINE PROP DESCRIPT

SWAMP GLIDER 130 hp 6'-0" D Semi-V 30

(Mahogany & Oak) 18' -8" 7' -6" @ UNK UNK 1700
1954 2800 rpm 2 Blades (600)

RESCUE BQAT '

18, ..7u 7, 130 hp 5'-10" D
(Fiberglass) -7 Semi-V 9 360 675 2770
30" Pitch
1957 2800 rPm 2 Blades (600)
STORM BOAT 75 bP 6'-o" D
(Mahogany & Birch) 16' -10' 5'-11" @ 40" PitCh V-Bottom 20 UNK UNK 1300
1942 3000 rpm 4 Blades (1300)

ERDL AlRBOAT 400 hp 6'-6" D Flat

(Welded Aluminum) 20' -0" 9' -0" @ 44" Pitch Bottom 30 1180 430 3200
1966 2650 rpm 4 Blades (2000)

FLORIDA AlRB0AT
180 hp 5'-6" D
17, _ou 7, _3,, @ 44" Pitch Semi 32 600 UNK 1450
(Fiberglass) 2650 LI., 2 Blades Inv-V (Zoo)
1966
TABU 2 SYNOPSIS OF SELECTED AIRBOAT
Data is approximate

But the relatively good success realized with
operational Characteristics was not achieved with
some of the meptuRniaal aspects of the design. The
extremely light weight construction m.nifested the
need for local reinforcement by failures of welds
which occurred at the longitudinals near the center
of pressure. Also, the proximity of the fuel tanks
to the engine exhausts constituted a potential
hazard- Subsequently, in transition from the test
bed to prototypes for more extensive tests, a
slightly redesigned boat resulted. A departure
from the geometry of a flat bottom hull was not
considered due to draft limitations, high resist-
9
suspect. Consequently, weld specimens were pre-
pared duplicating construction welds by little
surface preparation; i.e., minim1 wire brushing
and grease removal. The specimpns were made from
two-inch wide samples of 5086- 11112 base metal,
1/8-inch thick, butt-welded together on one side
only by MIG method with 5356 filler rod. The
ultimate tensile strength realized ranged from 8500
psi to 12000 psi, with the failure duplicating the
pattern occurring on the hull; confirmatory tests
performed on the base metal validated the tensile
strength of 45,000 psi before welding. Tensile
tests conducted on a properly prepared weld sample
of identical material provided an ultimate stress
of approximately 41,000 psi with failure occurring
in the heat-affected zone, as could be expected.
-
Figure 20
The conclusions were obvious -- better preparation
for welding was mandatory. Fortified with this
knowledge, the next step was to confirm bottom
skin loading. Hydrodynamic pressures were obtained
by use of open-ended stand pipas installed in the
hull bottom and recording the head of water stand-
ing in the tube for various operations. Prior data
relative to bottom pressures considered rough open-
water operation and recommended design values of 15
psi. Values, observed for the airboat in calm,
protected water ran as high as 36-1/2 inches of
water, approximately 1.6 psi. Using this design
loading and increasing for the 32 loading, the hula
structure was calculated on the basis of 17,000 psi
allowable stress. Calculations indicated that,
for the transverses in the vicinity of the center
of bottom pressure, a 4- x 3-inch tee was adequate.
The four-inch height was selected to allow the
transverse member to be continuous over the longi-
tudinal cutout, permitting a better weld design.
Figure 21
At the outboard sides, the transverses were faired
with generous radii to act as hull stiffeners
formed by the same web of the fabricated tee. The
flange of the fabricated tee then became merely a
three-inch strip welded to the web over the entire
periphery of the transverse. Weld surfaces were
vigorously cleaned by stainless'-steel wire brushing; action. In a cUrrent study under contract to these
removal of the entire oxide film was signaled by
increasing resistance offered the brush by the
metal. (Chemical means for oxide removal were not
used since the re-forming of the oxide film occur-
red quickly and storage time of the cleaned plate
was unknown.) Distortion waz controlled by
welding sequence and chill bars rigidly clamped to
the metal. Also, to avoid a pocket at the end of a
weld pass, back welding -- one to two indhes -- was
included. As a result of these weld details, the
restructured hull (Figures 24 and 25) withstood 170
hours of rigorous testing without failure.
Figure 22
The forward location of the fuel tanks raised
considerable objections by the user, reportedly
due to slowness in attaining a planing attitude and
difficulty in extrication when grounded. Conse-
quently, rubber fuel cells tailored to fit amid-
ships were incorporated. This location served to
provide a better trim by the stern and still pre-
served the safety feature of remoteness from the
hot exhaust pipes.
Figure 23
One of the principal objections is the high-
noise level. Measurements by an Octave-Band Noise
Analyzer indicated 135 decibels (db) at the opera-
tor's seat. Attenuation is provided by earmuffs
which tend to prevent ear damage, although pre-
venting voice communication and perception of enemy
LaboratoriesM, a reduction in the noise level has
been implemented by use of a multi-bladed propeller
10
 Figure 24
Figure 26

and shroud (Figures 26 and 27). NASA studies

indicated that propeller noise could be reduced by
increasing the number of blades, and use of a shroud
or nozzle encasing the propeller would increase
thrust twenty to thirty percent, thus allowing a
decrease in propeller speed with attendant decrease
in noise. Engine noises were not the principal
offenders in this application based on srnlysis of
the data; and, of course, hull slap could not be
eliminated. Since the study is incomplete, little
more can be said other than, that for a reduction
in sound level of from 135 to 115 db, considerable
cost, weight and complexity must be incorporated.
In recognition of the impossibility of obtaining a
"silent patrol type craft with this method of pro-
pulsion, tactical significance of the noise level
was ignored. It has been observed, however, that
in Florida Everglades although the sound of the
boat is quickly picked up, the direction is not. Figure 27

horsepower bundle of power, mobile over most type

terrain, excellent fuel consumption and good for
transporting a ton of payload -- the water buffalo."

References

1 "Evaluation of Pneumatic Boats for Limited

Warfare," USA TRECOM Technical Report 63-20,
May 1963.
2 "Theoretical and Experimental Investigation
of Disc Propellers," Report No. 368-1, Hydronautics
Inc., 7 June 1963.
3 a "Model Tests with Paddlewheels," Report
No. 176, US Experimental Model Basin, Navy Yard,
Washington, D. C., September 1927.
b "Experimental Towboats," Document No. 857,
63rd Congress, 2nd Session, 1914.
4 "Shallow Draft Boats for Limited Warfare:
Engineering and Environmental Test Report," USA
TRECOM Technical Report 62-77, July 1962.
5 "Final Report of Military Potential Test of
Marsh Screw Amphibian," USA TECOM (Uap, GETA) Proj-
In summary, this is the current status of the
ect No. 7-5-0524-01-9, December 1964.
Shallow Draft Boat Program. Evaluation of the
airboat concept and a parallel development of 6 "Airboat Noise Reduction," Report No. 532-3,
Hydronautics, Inc., Laurel, Maryland.
waterjet propulsion is continuing. For the diver-
"US Army Airboat Design Notes," Franklin
sified requirement, both concepts fill a need.
GNO Corporation, West Palm Beadh, Florida
However, in the words of a highly knowledgeable
(McCarthy), 1964.
officer recently returned from SE Asian jungle
"Lesign Study of Waterjet Propulsion for
environment "it will be most difficult to replace
Sbnllow Draft Boats," Report 516-1, Hydronautics,
the standard means of transportation acceptable to
Inc., Laurel, Maryland, April 1965.
indigenous personnel of that area -- a fifty-

11
No. 61359

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A CATAMARAN SUBMARINE RESCUE SHIP (ASR)

by

HERBERT A. MEIER
Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-359

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and te AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-61.50)
L08,3.08.1031
 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A CATAMARAN SUBMARINE RESCUE SHIP (ASE)
Herbert A. Meier
Advanced Concept Section
Ship Concept Design Division, Naval Ship Engineering Center
Naval Ship Systems Command, Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.
Abstract
The submarine rescue ship has as its primary
mission the handling and support of a new design
rescue submersible. The catamaran appeared to be
ideally suited to handling large heavy weights and
hence was investigated as a suitable configuration
for this ship. It was found that in addition to
simplifying the hoisting problem the catamaran has
superior low speed maneuverability and, when com-
pared to a single hull of approximately the same
displacement, had a 40% increase in deck area.
These advantages were felt to justify the exten-
sive model testing necessary to insure a
structurally and hydrodynamically sound final
design. Both symmetrical and asymmetrical hulls
with varying hull spacing were tested resulting in
the selection of the asymmetrical hulls with the
spacing selected soley on the basis of handling
requirements. Resistance was found to be insensi-
tive to hull spacing over the practical range of
spacing. Strain gauge instrumented models were
run in waves and it was determined that the maximum
loading on the bridging structure, from the point
of view of vertical shear and moment loads, occurs
in beam seas at zero speeds, and for torsional
loads, at zero speeds in quarter head seas.
Background
The existing submArine rescue ships (designated
ASRs)are of two classes: The CHANTICLEER (ASR 7)
class, a ship 251 feet long over-all, displacing
2,300 tons and the PENGUIN (ASR 12) class, 205 feet
long, displacing 1,700 tons. These ships carry the
McCann rescue chanter and the anchors and buoys for
mooring over a sunken submarine. The McCann cham-
ber was used to remove survivors from the
submarine SQUALIS in 1939 and is still the only
operational device for removing personnel from a
sunken submarine. In addition to being called on
to perform rescue functions in the event of a sub-
marine disaster, these ships accompany submarine
squadrons to act as escorts and serve as targets
for practice torpedo firings and torpedo recovery.
The original requirement for the FY 1967 ASR
arose from the need to replace the existing sub-
marine rescue ships, all of which were constructed
during or shortly after World War II. A total of
ten ships of this new class have been programmed
for construction over the next decade. Several
years ago, it was felt that this ship would be a
close replica of the FY 1966 ATS, an enlarged ver-
sion of present auxiliaries such as ARS, ATF, and
ASR. However, this was not to be the case.
The tragic loss of THRESHER in 1963 set into
motion a chain of events which was to have a pro-
found effect on the new ASR. The Navy's Deep
Submergence Systems Review Group examined the
national capability for search, rescue, and
1
recovery in the ocean and found it to be meager.
The Deep Submergence Systems Project (DSSP) was
created as an organization within the Special
Projects Office to develop new systems for search,
rescue, salvage, and man-in-the sea. The FY 1967
ASR will constitute the first fleet operational
deployment of several of these systems: Small
submersibles for rescue, towed platforms for deep
ocean search, and decompression chambers for deep
diving.
Selection of the Catamaran Hull Form
The catamaran hull form selected for this ship
represents a major innovation in naval construction.
It was chosen for the following reasons:
The problem of handling 30-ton Rescue
Vehicles (60 tons with entrained water) was felt to
be the most demanding requirement on the ship. The
use of a catamaran permitted vehicle handling at a
point of minimum motion - amidships between the
hulls where roll and pitch would cause no vertical
motion and where some shielding from the seas
would occur. Mechanical hoisting devices could be
simpler and lighter.
The high metacentric height and good roll
damping of a catamaran hull could eliminate the
heavy roll which is typical of the smaller auxil-
iary ships. It would also solve a very severe
problem anticipated in the stability of the ship
because of the heavy vehicles and deck equipment
required.
The low speed maneuverability would be
greatly enhanced by the large separation of the
screws on the catamaran hull form. This maneu-
verability is important in submarine rescue and in
most low-speed work accomplished by an ASR at sea.
The catamaran hull form provides a major
increase (about 40 per cent) in deck area, both
open and enclosed, compared with a single hull
ship of the same displacement. This space advan-
tage was expected to be important in view of the
increased deck handling requirements and new ship
functions, including the provision of a helicopter
landing platform.
Considerable confidence was felt in the
ability to design a seaworthy twin-hulled ship
because of the successful catamarans in commercial
use throughout the world.
DSSP Requirements
The following requirements of the Deep Sub-
mergence Systems Project have had a major impact
on the configuration of the ship:
 Rescue Vehicle Handling
The Rescue Vehicle is a submersible which is
designed to rescue submarine personnel up to sub-
marine collapse depths. On I March 1966, proposals
were being evaluated by the Special Projects Office
for design and construction of the prototype. It
is expected to weigh about thirty tons out of the
water, and 60 tons with entrained water. Needless
to say, the devising of a method for the safe
handling of such a large object in a seaway is a
formidable design task. The Naval Ship Engineering
Center conducted a thorough feasibility study which
proposed a platform lift system located in the cen-
ter well. The design objectives of this system
were:
inary design approach used and a presentation of
data developed at the David Taylor Model Basin in
support of the design work. The following data is
for an early version of the design. The beam and
draft of each hull was increased during the pre-
liminary design stage to compensate for weight
growth and the final version of the contract design
was increased in length to accommodate an increase
in length of the rescue vehicle. Figure 1 shows
the ship at the completion of the preliminary
design.
ASR FY '67

No divers should be required in the water to

make the lift attachment.

The vehicle should not be damaged by lateral

impact against the ship while in the water or being
hoisted.

The vehicle should be precisely located so

that its strengthened sections would be aligned for CHARACTERISTICS
lifting with a platform. LOA 234Le DRAFT 19'-0"
LBP 210-0" LIGHT DISP..... 2575 TONS
The vehicle should receive no damage from
BEAM I MAX.) 8e-0" FULL LOAD A ....3200 TONS
vertical impact with the platform.
BEAM EACH HULL) ... 26'-0" SPEED SUS... 16 ETS.

The vehicle should be under positive control MAIN 0K. *8V W L 16-0. ENDURANCE/ IX KTS 10,000
at all times when it is in the air with no pendu-
lous swinging.

The system should be simple. Figure 1

Vehicle Support Hull Form
The requirements for vehicle support - checkout,
maintenance, and replenishment - are unique in In view of the meagerinformation on the resis-
auxiliary ship design. The basic philosophy of tance and motion characteristics of catamarans it
vehicle support is that each vehicle be accompanied, was decided to initiate model...tests on hull forms
by a support van. Maintenance for the vehicles sized on very preliminary weight and space informa-
will also be accomplished with the facilities of tion. Two hull forms were tested at David Taylor
the various shops aboard. Model Basin, a symmetrical configuration and an
asymmetrical one with sides of least curvature
Advanced Diving System inboard. The body plans of these models are shown
This system consists of installations in the in figure 2.
port and starboard hulls, each consisting of two
chambers for diver support plus a center access
chamber, a mixed gas system, and a control console.
This system is designed for saturation diving,
that is, diving and living under constant pressure
for periods of as long as a week. It can support
eight divers to depths of 850 feet.

DSSP Ship Electronics

The Rescue and Operations Control Center on the
ship will control the rescue evolution, with under-
water communications and vehicle tracking.

Towed Search Sensors

A towed platform for deep visual, photographic,
and acoustic search is being developed under DSSP.
It is intended that this system be operated from a
van of the same size as the vehicle support vans.

Design Approach

Although the catamaran is very old historically

and many ships of this type have been constructed,
A S R BODY PLANS
very little data useful in design work exists;
hence the adoption of this configuration for the
ASR posed many unique naval architectural problems. FIGURE 2,
What follows is a brief description of the prelim-

2
 The principal dimensions and coefficients of these
hulls are identical and are as follows: PERCENT
INCREASE
LBP = 210' 10 IN EHP
Beam each hull = 24' OVER EHF
Draft = 18'
AT 38'
Displ each hull = 1,397 tons SW
Designed speed = 16 knots
SPACING
cP = .55
= .98
LCB = 0.502 aft FP
24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
HULL SEPARATION IN FEET

EFFECT OF HULL SPACING ON POWER

ASR: 9000
ASYMMETRIC HULLS - Figure 4
SYMMETRIC HULLS
I

TAYLOR E H P :
CATAMARAN
1 cum Both the symmetrical and asymmetrical hull forms
SINGLE HULL -
1
were tested in head and following seas at speeds to
16 knots and sea states up to seven to observe
COMPARISON OF
1
7000 motions and wave formations particularly between
i the hulls. Experience with other catamarans indi-
CATAMARAN POWER
cated vertical magnification of waves passing
i 6 000 between the forward walls of a symmetrical configu-
ration. This was not observed in these tests.
However, at the design speed an extreme pileup of
water between the symmetrical hulls at the after
5000
/ quarter point was observed. This phenomenon had
also been observed during the powering tests.
Since this pileup of water did not occur on the
4 000 asymmetrical configuration and there appeared to be
little to recommend the symmetrical hull from the
/
,4/ , 3 0 00 i
1
powering standpoint the asymmetrical form was
selected.

111/11
Model tests were also conducted on the asymmet-
rical catamaran to determine full scale motion
2 0 0 0 1
characteristics. The model was tested in irregular
uni-directional seaways at various headings corres-

2. 9,,
ponding to five and fifteen knots and sea states
from low five to high six. The natural motion
....---
..----->" periods for the ship as obtained from model tests
are as follow:

8 10 12 16 18 Natural heave period Sec = 5.35

SPEED M KNOTS Natural pitch period Sec = 5.35
Natural roll period Sec = 6.17

FIGURE 3 The predicted significant motions obtained from

model tests are shown in figure 5.

Figure 3 shows a comparison of the horsepowers Propulsion

for the symmetrical and assymetrical forms. Also
shown is a comparison of Taylor's standard series The propulsion system selected for the new ASR
calculations for both a catamaran and a single hull is based on geared diesel engines developing 6,000
ship of the same length, draft, displacement, and SHP with controllable pitch propellers on two
coefficients. This comparison necessitated con- shafts. The propulsion system can be controlled
siderable extrapolation of Taylor's data with from several topside operating stations.
respect to beam/draft ratio for the catamaran and
displacement length ratio for the single hull ship One problem associated with a catamaran is the
and hence is not precise. need to have two remotely located machinery spaces
resulting in increased complement and some dupli-
The effect of hull separation was investigated cation of equipment. This can be avoided by
and found to be insignificant over the practical putting all the machinery in one hull and using
range. Figure 4 shows the results of these tests. electric drive; however, in this ship, the initial
cost was unacceptable.

Turning and maneuvering tests were conducted

early in the design to insure that this was not a
major problem area. Of particular concern were the
handling characteristics with machinery in only one
hull operable. The results of these tests were

3
very encouraging and are best summarized by quoting
the conclusions of the DTMB test report:
1. The ship will be directionally stable and
should have good coursekeeping characteristics.
the existence of six main transverse structural
bulkheads, three forward and three aft in addition
to the longitudinal bulkheads port and starboard
that are extensions of the inboard sides of the
hulls.

It will have overshoot angles in zigzag
maneuvers which compare favorably with conventional
ships.
Its turning characteristics will be accept-
able; the tactical diameters at 16 knots will be
5.2 and 3.7 ship lengths for rudder angles of 25
and 40 degrees, respectively.
However, these restrictions were more than out-
weighed by the existence of very large and usable
deck area for a ship of this size resulting in
ample space to accommodate the vast increase in
requirements imposed on this new ASR as compared to
its predecessors.
Structure

The ship can be kept on a straight course at
low speeds astern by using about +10 degrees of
rudder.
It will be possible to control the ship on
straight course even if both the power and steering
systems of a single catamaran unit are disabled.
In the early stages of design before model tests
were available it was necessary to make an estimate
of the torsional loading imposed on the bridging
structure when the ship is oblique to the waves.
For these preliminary calculations it was assumed
that the ship was supported on the bottom forward
end of one hull and the stern of the other hull,
at stations four and eighteen, respectively.

Sea *Heading Speed Heave Roll Pitch A model of the catamaran was constructed and the
State Deg. Kts Ft... Deg.., Deg... cross structure instrumentated with strain gages in
order to determine the loads to be expected in the
5 180 5 10.59 1.44 10.48 full size ship. This was accomplished by measuring
15 12.11 3.68 7.80 the total vertical end moments (port and starboard),
6 180 5 13.29 1.48 11.00 the total torsional moment, and the total vertical
15 17.62 1.24 7.96 shear force acting on the cross-structure configu-
5 210 5 11.20 8.28 6.48 ration during model tests in random seas for
15 10.53 4.60 6.36 various model speeds, and headings. Spectral
6 210 5 13.06 5.44 9.72 analysis of the response were performed and response
15 15.71 5.96 8.64 amplitude operators (RA0s) were derived for each
5 225 5 8.11 6.80 7.56 test condition. The RAOs were then employed
15 11.43 7.48 5.56 together with theoretical Neumann sea spectra to
6 225 5 12.78 19.84 9.00 obtain prediction curves for extrapolating the
15 15.32 20.92 7.16 responses to more sea conditions.
5 0 5 6.81 .96 5.44
15 5.52 .96 2.72 The following conclusions were reached from
6-7 0 5 9.52 1.36 6.24 these tests:
15 11.09 1.28 4.40
5 45 5 7.60 6.76 5.68 The most severe operating condition, from
15 7.04 3.60 3.84 the point of view of vertical shear and moment
6 45 5 11.94 6.76 6.24 loads on the cross structure, is with the ship
15 11.43 5.32 5.20 operating at zero speeds in beam seas.
5 270 5 7.21 20.52 3.76
15 6.48 15.36 2.68 The most severe torsional loads occur with
the ship operating at zero speeds in quarter head
.. Double seas.
00 Stern Seas Amplitude
900 Port Beam Seas 3. The measured responses agree well with the
180° Bow Seas loads predicted on the basis of response amplitude
270° Stbd Beam Seas operatoPs and Neumann theoretical sea spectra for
the severe operating conditions cited above, there-
Figure 5 fore lending support to the extrapolations of these
loads-to the higher sea states.

Arrangement It was encouraging to note that the final

To minimize the effect of pitch motion the res-
cue vehicle handling area was located slightly
abaft amidships. As a consequence of this arrange-
ment, the superstructure is broken into two
separate blocks forward and aft. The forward
superstructure and the space in the hull below it
houses the entire complement and complement associ-
ated functions in addition to the command and
control spaces. The after superstructure, and
space below it house the workshops and spaces
associated with the DSRVs, including the support
vans. The arrangement of spaces in both the for-
ward and after superstructures was restricted by
scantlings of the main transverse structure are not
excessive when compared to those normally associated
with bulkheads and also that they are very close to
the scantlings resulting from designing to the very
early load estimates.
Because of the extreme depth of the individual
hulls with respect to length the hull girder
stresses resulting from positioning the ship on a
standard wave are extremely low and consequently
hull scantlings are governed by local strength
requirements.

4
 Intact and Damaged Stability
All catamarans are characterized by high initial
stability which in this ship is illustrated by a
G.M. of 45 feet and maximum righting arm of 22 feet.
However, this maximum righting arm occurs at a 300
angle of heel and falls off rapidly thereafter.
The characteristics for the ASR require a two com-
partment standard of subdivision and this standard
can be met under the assumption that the watertight
doors on the second deck are closed. . For the worst
case of two compartment flooding the resulting
angle of steady heel with a 33 knot beam wind is
100.
Rescue Vehicle Handling
As was mentioned previously, the catamaran form
was chosen primarily to facilitate handling the
rescue vehicle which, because of its size, weight
and fragility, presents a unique handling problem.
In extremely calm weather, as an emergency back-
up, and when transferring from dockside, it is
proposed to use the bridge crane that traverses the
midship work area. This crane, which will be used
primarily for handling the McCann rescue chamber
and the personnel transfer capsules, will have
adequate capacity to lift the rescue vehicle by
attachment of cables to its topside hard spots.
The rails for the bridge crane will have extensible
portions port and starboard to permit operation
over the side as well as through the well.
Normally the rescue vehicle will be launched and
recovered by a separate hoist built into the under-
side of the well. This hoist consists of a powered
platform riding on vertical rails that can be
lowered into the water at low or zero speed. In
addition to the hoist there is a trolley that moves
forward and aft on the underside of the bridging
structure between the inboard shells of the ship.
This trolley has an extensible boom to which the
bow of the rescue vehicle is attached. Once this
attachment is made and the ship attains a moderate
speed such that the rescue vehicle will trail its
attachment point the rescue vehicle is moved aft
over the platform hoist.
5
The following modes of attaching the rescue
vehicle to the boom are envisioned and will prob-
ably be tried out full scale to determine the best
operating procedure.
The rescue vehicle is surfaced and the ASR
overtakes and straddles the rescue vehicle which is
proceeding on a steady course at very low speed.
The attachment to the rescue vehicle is made by
remote manipulation of the boom.
The rescue vehicle is submerged and approach-
es a weighted cable attached to the boom. This
cable will have a light and sound source attached
to aid the rescue vehicle in homing on it. Once
this cable has been located the rescue vehicle
attached itself and is towed at low speed by the
ASR to insure proper orientation before ascending.
When the rescue vehicle is at main deck level,
it can be moved laterally on rails to a point over
the decompression chambers in either hull for
transfer of rescuees directly into these chambers.
Conclusions
The primary reason that the catamaran configu-
ration was adopted to solve the unique handling
problems associated with the rescue vehicle. The
other advantages of increased deck area and man-
euverability are important but would probably not
have justified selection of this configuration in
view of the unknown existing with respect to struc-
ture and motion. The structural problems have prove-n
to be readily solvable and while there are some
gains in motion characteristics the high accelera-
tions associated with the rapid roll period are
undesirable and future research could profitably be
directed toward solving this problem. In this
regard anti-roll tanks should be investigated.
It is hoped that the information being developed
in support of this first military application and
the several commercial catamaran designs will ulti-
mately result in enough data upon which to base a
rational decision, early in the design process, on
whether a catamaran or a single hull is more appro-
priate for a given set of operational requirements.
No. 61-360

ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATERJET PROPULSION

SYSTEMS AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART
by

JOHN H. BRANDAU
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Paper No.
67-360

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceV.50)
5.08
 ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WATERJET PROPULSION SYSTEMS
AND A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART

by

John H. Brandau
Naval Ship Research and Development Center
Washington, D. C.

Abstract

Characteristics peculiar to waterjets may H_ Net positive suction

make this type propulsion capable of overcoming sv
head (npsh) (ft)
some of the problems facing high-speed marine pro-
pulsion. As a basis for judging the potential of Advance ratio (V/nd)
waterjets in relation to other propulsion methods, KH Head rise coefficient
a study was conducted to determine the state-of-
the-art of waterjet technology. Available litera- (gH/N2d2)
ture was surveyed with particular emphasis on: KL System loss coefficient
(1) performance criteria and performance data,
and (2) performance evaluation and experimental (HL/Vs2/2g)
techniques. A review of the existing work indi-
cates a general lack of definitive experimental Torque coefficient
data. Although the greatest apparent need is for (qiN2d5)
experimental information on the design of efficient
and cavitation-free high-speed inlets, work is also
Kt
Thrust coefficient
needed on light-weight pumps which are capable of
sustained high performance under relatively severe (TiN2d4)
cavitation conditions. It was also found in the
Jet velocity ratio
literature that thrust efficiency was usually con- (V./V)
fused with propulsive efficiency. Propulsive effi-
ciency is equivalent to-the product of thrust effi-
Jet velocity ratio
ciency and the hull/waterjet interaction effi-
(V./V.)
ciency. Therefore, propulsive efficiency is a more 1
definitive performance parameter but is inherently
Length (ft)
more difficult to obtain. The requirement of
separatirg resistance and propulsive forces in Mach number (1/7/1E)
determining this efficiency leads to model experi- N Rpm or rps (rev/sec) 1/T
ments. A review of model experimental techniques
and facilities shows the capability for carrying N Pump specific speed
S
out the necessary experiments.
(NQ1/2/ (gH)3/4)
Notation
NVA Jet loss energy (ft-lb)
Symbol Quantity Mass Length NVK Additional loss energy
Time Dimen- (ft-lb)
sions
Propulsion loss energy
P
o
-P NVT
(ft-lb)
'ask

1 2
2p V NT
Thp energy (ft-lb)

O.P.C. E
Diameter
e Mean roughness height PB
pressure (lbs/ft2) M/LT2
E Euler number (4771:7) Effective horsepower ML2/T3
2 Z1p
(R x V/550) (ft-lbs/sec)

Fn
Froude number (V/153) Brake horsepower ML2/T3
Gravitational accelera- L/T2 (2 ft-lbs/sec)
bigbrake/550)
tion (ft/sec2)
Propeller horsepower ML2/T3
Pump head rise (ft) (delivered)
Power input (ft-lbs/sec) ML2/T3
He
Exit nozzle head (ft)

H. Inlet head (ft)

Power output (ft-lbs/sec) ML2/T3

Absolute pressure at Pump horsepower ML2/T3

H1
shaft centerline - vapor (pgQH/550) (ft-lbs/sec)
pressure (ft)

1
 Ps
Shaft horsepower (ft,lbs/sec) ML2/T3 Coefficient, kinematic L2/T
viscosity (ft2/sec)
Thrust horsepower (T x V/550) ML2/T3
PT
(ft-lbs/sec)
Angular velocity 1/T
Vapor pressure (lbs/ft2) (radian/sec)
V
Po Freestream static pressure (1b/ft2)
0 Flow coefficient (Q/Nd3)
Volume flow rate L3/T
Mass density (slugs/ft3) M/L3
(ft3/sec)
a Cavitation index
Shaft torque (lb-ft) ML2/T2
/V2/2g)
Resistance (lb) ML/T2 (H1

Re Reynolds number (VZ/v) thoma Thoma cavitation number

(H /H)
Impeller radius (ft) sv

Thrust (lb) ML/ T2 To Shear stress (lbs/ft2) M/LT2

Thrust deduction (1-R/T)
Surface tension (lbs/ft) M/T2
Axial velocity (ft/sec) L/T
ua
Tangential velocity L/T
ut
(ft/sec)
INTRODUCTION
V Ship velocity (ft/sec) L/T
An increase of interest in waterjet propulsion
Vi Inlet velocity (ft/sec) L/T
of marine craft has been noted in the past few years.
V, Jet velocity (ft/sec) L/T This type of propulsion is not new since, as pointed
Velocity through pump (ft/sec) L/T out by Taggart,(1) evidence exists of experimental
V
evaluation of a jet-propelled craft in England as
Weber number (pRV2/C) far back as 1661. Taggart states that, by 1900,
Wake fraction (1 - Va/V) certain inherent disadvantages of hydraulic jet
wl Weight rate of flow (lbs/sec) ML/T3 propulsion regarding ducting losses and weight were
Free stream velocity L/T recognized. Moreover, performance improvements
o
within the succeeding 60 years have not been impres-
(ft/sec)
sive, and the attractive advantages of waterjets
Propeller speed of advance L/T may not yet have been fully realized. Extensive
Va
(ft/sec) historical surveys have also been made by Papir(2)
and Schuster, et al.(3) Another brief history of
Advance angle (deg)
waterjets(4) was published in 1962 by Engel, et al.,
Ft Hydrodynamic pitch angle in a paper "Axial Flow Pumps for Waterjet Propulsion."
(deg) By waterjet is meant a marine propulsor in
which water is fed to internal pumps which add
i
(He - H.) (ft)
energy and expel the water aft through a nozzle.
AY (Y, - Vi) (ft/sec) L/T The water is exhausted at a higher velocity than
that of the incoming stream and tbrust is achieved
nA External efficiency through the resulting momentum exchange. It can
also be classed as an internal ducted propeller for
nhull Hull efficiency (1-t/l-W) which the duct is long. The waterjet system, by
nid Jet efficiency definition in this study, is that system using water
alone as the working media, as opposed to those using
Ideal jet efficiency water-gas mixtures.
nj pr Real jet propulsive A waterjet propulsion system, in distinction
efficiency from all other types of shipboard jet propulsion
systems, is located mostly within the hull of the
np Propeller efficiency ship. Therefore, it must, of necessity, have three
T x Va /550 basic elements: (1) an intake duct which inducts
fluid from outside the ship's hull, (2) a pump for
PD transmitting energy to this fluid, and (3) an ex-
haust duct and nozzle which guide the jet of fluid
npump Pump efficiency back out of the hull.
ns System efficiency It could be expected that a waterjet-propelled
ship, having no elements protruding beyond the
ltr Internal efficiency limits of the ship's hull lines, would have less
Specific weight (lbs/ft3) M/L2T2 drag (other things being equal) than a hull i_tted
with a conventional propeller. On the other hand,
Linear ratio as/m) however, the flow of fluid through the internal
Coefficient, dynamic vis- M/LT
1References are listed on page 23.
cosity (lbs-sec/ft2)

2
waterjet system is accompanied by additional hy-
draulic losses, The resistance may change sig-
nificantly when the hull is propelled since
operation of the propulsion system changes the
distribution of pressures on the hull. The in-
take opening in the stern of a ship's hull can
strip off the boundary layer which conceivably
On the
could decrease frictional resistance.
other hand, a force reacting opposite to the
intake induction momentum can suck the hull
down with possible increase in trim and thus form
drag. Also, ejection of the jet in the vicinity
of the ship's wake can change the magnitude of
the useful thrust. These examples are given as
possible interaction effects of hull flow on
waterjet flow and vice versa. Determination of
the reaction coefficients for such a problem
with experimental verification is a prime need
in waterjet propulsion research.
The importance of waterjets for marine pro-
pulsion can be ascertained by consideration of
what this form of propulsion has to offer to the
ship designer. It is found to be generally more
expensive, less efficient, heavier, and the pro-
pulsor itself is more complicated that a conven-
tional propeller. However, for certain special
purposes such as shallow-draft operation or high-
power, high-speed operation, waterjet propulsion
may permit the elimination of, or may diminish,
unavoidable disadvantages inherent with the use
of a propeller. (Detailed advantages and dis-
advantages of waterjets will be enumerated in the
section on General Considerations.)
Although waterjet propulsion systems may offer
attractive features which would be highly desir-
able for certain marine applications, a number of
significant development problems have to be solved
before the full use of such propulsors can be
realized. These problems areas will be discussed
in detail later on in the paper, but to mention a
few, they include: (1) proper design of hull
inlet to prevent separation and cavitation, es-
pecially during yaw and heave conditions; (2) op-
timization of system ducting and pump location to
minimize friction losses and pump elevation losses;
(3) design of high-speed axial-flow,waterjet pumps
capable of meeting cavitation, efficiency, and
off-design performance required for vehicle take-
off and cruise conditions; and (4) adequate methods
and techniques for model-scale performance evalua-
tion and prototype system performance evaluation.
This paper presents a critical survey of the
technical literature currently available on water-
jet propulsion of marine craft. Emphasis is plac-
ed on the real problems which exist today in this
area. First, a discussion of naval applications
for waterjet propulsion in light of the advan-
tages and disadvantages of this type of propulsion
is given. Secondly, theoretical treatments and
experimental performance techniques for evaluating
system components, and complete installed systems,
are discussed. Discussion of performance evalua-
tion information found in the literature is in-
cluded here. The literature pertaining to general
waterjet propulsion considerations is treated
next. This is followed by a list of unsolved
problems existing in light of the conclusions
reached by theory and experiment. A recommenda-
tion for performance parameters and modeling
tdchniques is included.
Based on this information, conclusions will be
drawn regarding what are felt to be the knowns
and unknowns (problems) in the state.of the art.
3
An annotated bibliography and appendices containing
pertinent background material will complete the
paper.
General Considerations
Consideration of Existing Waterjet Literature
A major portion of this study involves a con-
sideration of the available literature regarding
hydrodynamic performance evaluation of waterjet
propulsion systems. The main purpose of the study
was the determination of and suggestions for find-
ing solutions to the problems facing the task of
acquiring efficient reliable waterjet propulsion
systems for special types of marine craft.
The papers and reports surveyed for this study
are varied in their treatment of aspects of water-
jet propulsion. Some are feasibility studies, some
are general studies proposing procedures for water-
jet propulsion system design, and others fall into
the category of theoretical and/or experimental
investigations. The experimental work lends itself
somewhat to a tabulation of variables considered
and measurements made (see Table 2 in the Appendix).
The information obtained from the literature pertains
to the theoretical and experimental treatments of:
(1) waterjet propulsion system components, includ-
ing pumps, inlets, and ducting; (2) complete water-
jet propulsion systems; and (3) waterjet propulsion
system installation in a hull including efficiency,
model and prototype testing.
As far as those papers dealing with theoret-
ical approaches or in feasibility studies, an
attempt has been made to briefly present their sig-
nificant points in the text of the survey chapter.
An annoted bibliography is included to concisely
provide some insight to the reader on the surveyed
material considered to lie within the scope of
this study.
Applications
Emphasis of Important Differences between
Waterjet Application to: Planing Boats,
Hydrofoil Craft, and Captured Air Bubble
(CAB) Craft
Current U. S. waterjet propulsion applica-
tions include small pleasure .N_aning craft, small
military river patrol boats») and hydrofoil
craft. Serious proposed applications include
larger military patrol planing boats, high-speed
hydrofoil and captured air-bubble craft.
The bulk of the small pleasure boats are of
the 200 to 300-horsepower range. Several thousand
are now in service, with propulsors of the Bueh-
ler,(6) Berkeley, or Jacuzzi design, for the most
part. European manufacturers have comparable units
available. Some idea of the qualitative operational
performance of complete waterjet-propelled hulls
can be obtained, taking into consideration the
mission of the craft, by studying reports of owners
and operators. Efficiency is not a prime require-
ment for private water ski or sport runabouts of
the present waterjet era, and manufacturers rarely
take pains to determine real efficiency. Instead,
characteristics such as speed, maneuverability,
boat handling, noise and vibration, and desire to
eliminate the external propeller for safety's sake
are stressed.
At the present time some of the in-service
designs are good as far as ahead maneuvering and
handling, but efficiency is lower than comparable
conventional propulsion installations.
Recent attention has been given to the use of
waterjets for high-speed oceangoing ships,(7,8) of
the nondisplacement type. At present, serious
consideration in this area is mainly limited to
hydrofoil craft and, more recently, air-cushion
vehicles including the captured air-bubble (CAB)
type. Certain major design tradeoffs for these
ships are highly dependent on mission cruising
range. For the smaller high-speed but short-range
(cruise range duration of a few hours) craft, it
is essential that the weight of propulsion mach-
inery be kept low; however, high-system efficiency
may not be a critical requirement. High-system
efficiency becomes increasingly important as the
ratio of fuel weight to gross weight increases
and, in the case of a long cruise range ocean-
going craft, fuel weight is significant. At the
present time, consideration is being given to the
use of CABS, displacing several thousand tons.
for long-range oceangoing service, with hydrofoil
craft, limited to short-range missions. In this
respect, the CAB sidewall configuration is encour-
aging with respect to achieving a more efficient
water ducting system than can be realized with a
hydrofoil craft, up-the-strut configuration.
Apparent Advaftages and Disadvantages
The selection of any propulsion system is
based on a value judgment of the advantages and
disadvantages of that system. Following is a list
of advantages and disadvantages inherent in water-
jets: however, the final application will deter-
mine how these are weighed and compared with other
systems.
Although practically every publication found
in the literature of waterjet propulsion mentions
certain advantages inherent in waterjets over
other forms of propulsion, very few unqualified
statements can actually be made in this regard.
This is due to the fact that a possible advantage
of a waterjet is dependent on the particular
application and also must be compared with all
other existing propulsor types. Advantages of
waterjet are:
With a waterjet, it is possible to eliminate
external underwater appendages.
A freer choice of location of the propul-
sion machinery than is normally found.
Elimination of complex transmission
machinery where right-angle drives are required,
such as in hydrofoil craft strut-propeller applica-
tions.
Possible alleviation of underwater radiated
propeller cavitation noise through more control
over cavitation and removal of the propeller from
the main body of water.
Steering and maneuvering control directly
from the propulsor (note, however, that this is
done by attaching control surfaces to the waterjet
nozzle which is effectively calling the rudder
part of the propulsor). It should be noted that
right-angle drive units have been successfully
built for 360-deg directional control.
Detrimental effects of propeller vibration
may possibly be alleviated due to control of the
impeller inflow characteristics over that of an
open propeller.
For towing boats and for icebreakers, the
waterjet can produce greater tow-rope pulls than
an open propeller; however, a Kort nozzle, in this
regard, will be more efficient.
4
Most statements regarding disadvantages must
also be qualified in light of application and com-
petitive propulsors. However, it can be stated that:
Waterjet systems have higher weight than
most other practical propulsor systems. Note that
the weight of the water in the system above the free
surface must be included in the system weight.
In general, a waterjet system will not be
as efficient as a propeller system; i.e., more
horsepower will be required to perform a particular
function with a waterjet system.
The possibility of cavitation at the water-
jet inlet and other places in the inlet system,
which can adversely affect performance, means that
there are several sources of cavitation to be con-
sidered.
Impeller access compared with conventional
propeller designs is poor, making inspection, re-
pair, or removal of debris difficult.
System Component Performance
Efficiency
The overall propulsion performance of special-
mission, high-speed craft is dependent on a number
of significant factors. For a specific mission, at
a specified design speed, consideration should be
given to: payload, horsepower, specific fuel con-
sumption (SFC), range, dash capability, and gross
weight, among other factors.
A number of special performance coefficients or
merit factors have been proposed to lump together
these variables into a meaningful parameter.
Examples are the so-called Karman-Gabrielli factor(9)
and Telfer's merit factor. (10f The Karman-Gabrielli
factor is defined as:
1
MKG1 = 8800
--x (equivalent ratio) x
wpayload
x V (1)
winitial
The merit factors utilizing total craft weight or
displacement, suggested by some authors, are not
as meaningful as those using Wpayload .
The following discussion pertains to the
choice of a meaningful or definitive hydrodynamic
propulsion parameter. On normal conventional pro-
peller-hull installations, overall powering per-
formance of the craft is based on:(1°, 11)
effective horsepower E _ RV
0.P..
C - _
brake horsepower
PB PB
n x (2)
nhull
where PB = brake horsepower measured at the out-
put of the prime mover,
R = towed hull drag (sometimes utilizing
bare hull drag and at other times using
appended hull drag),
T = required thrust,
t = thrust deduction, and
n = propeller efficiency in the "behind
P ship" condition.
Reference 10 by Rossell and Chapman and Reference 11
by H. E. Saunders point out in detail the terminol-
ogy and usage of O.P.C. and propulsive efficiency
(quasi-P.C.) in conventional marine propulsion
applications. between the point of measurement and the impeller.
For purposes of discussion of the efficiency This term can be referred to as thrust efficiency
of propulsion in this paper, the term overall pro- nT since it is clearly not equal to the standardized
pulsive coefficient (0.P.C.) will not be used.
propulsive efficiency. So
Instead, the quasi-propulsive coefficient, some-
times called propulsive efficiency ID will be
n= TV
(5)
used.

D
=
PEPB
PD
= (0.P.C.).
PD
(3)
PS
T

One reason that nT has been widely used in

waterjet analyses is that it is relatively easy to
measure during sea trials and another is that it
where
is of the form corresponding to the expression for
PE = effective power to overcome resistance,
Ideal Jet Efficiency nrni is sometimes also
PB = brake power measured at output of known as Ideal Propulsive Efficiency or Fraude
prime mover, and Efficiency. (12, 13)
In attempting to improve the propulsive per-
PD = power delivered to propeller.
formance of a system, it is necessary to relate the
overall propulsive efficiency of a waterjet-pro-
PD pelled craft to the aggregate of the propulsion
is termed transmission efficiency and reflects
17' component efficiencies. In conventional propul-
;
the power losses occurring between the prime s ion
mover coupling and the propeller due to shafting,
bearings, etc.
RVT(1-t)V
n = - -
D npropeller "behind"
It is more expedient to use P0 model PD PD
testing usually involves the measu'rement of PD
(6)
rather than PB' On the other hand, in full-scale
rhull
trial work, power Ps is normally measured by means
of a torsionmeter on the inboard shafting, inter- where R = bare hull resistance (since R.
bare hull
mediate between the propeller and the prime mover. is the base drag)
(See sketch below.)
TV(1-w)
rpropeller "behind" PD
1-t
rhull =1-w

PRIME 1-t = thrust deduction.

MOVER
The term (1,,w), which is called wake gain, is not
meaningful for waterjet pumps because w, the wake
fraction, is without specific meaning since the
impeller is located in a long duct. Therefore,
rhull is not applicable to waterjet systems. In-
SCHEMATIC OF POWER TRANSMISSION
stead, for a waterjet n must be defined.
' hull/inlet
A reasonable choice of form for relating the
system component efficiencies to the overall pro-
The normal procedure at the Model Basin is to
measure PD in model tests and correct this to pre- pulsive efficiency is as follows:
dict the Ps of the full-scale ship. Because of Equating
RV T(1 -t)V
the variation in possible locations for measuring (6)
Ps and since PB would not correlate directly from repeated
model to full scale, it appears sensible to utilize
PD throughout this discussion. to
Propulsive efficiency ID is also, by x
definition,* equal to -
pump rsystem
xr jet rhull/inlet

RV where
%= (4) is essentially equal to
pump rjet
depending on the
where R = resistance, in general. npropeller,
A rather interesting situation exists here way the flow velocities are
in that this definition of propulsive efficiency chosen;
is not the definition of "propulsive efficiency" by definition is proportional
used by many workers in the field of waterjet nsystem (rS)
to the ratio of internal
propulsion. The expression most commonly found in ingestion and ducting pressure
the waterjet literature is equal to losses to the free stream dynamic
TV pressure; and

Ps
which characterizes the
where Ps = shaft horsepower = PD + shafting losses nhull/inlet (nh/i)
effect on powering per-
formance of the interaction of
the inlet and hull, and which
* ITTC Standard Symbols, National Physical Lab
herein will be defined as
Ship Report 77, September 1965. (1-t) where

5
 R
(1-0 = 'T since the propulsor produces drag over (V. - V)

and above the bare hull drag.

V
P
= V + 3
2
-
v
2
+JV.

Now if and
T =T
T(1-t)V/550
- npump x njet x nS x nhii (7) Therefore
PD
T(1-t)V/550 pgQH/550 V
X ns x (1-0 (8)
PD PD V+--
2
V.
where v
+
2 2
T = craft thrust,
V = craft velocity, and indicating that ns is chosen to be independent
AV =v -V of the external intake and jet conditions.
jet
But equivalence of the left-hand and right-hand
sides of the equality can better be visualized
if the pump efficiency
Since
T V /550
nhull/inlet
= (1-0 (9)
pgQH/550
is written as P P

nDx
PD PD
The result is
Solving for ns
npump
n.jet x n
system
x (1-0
waterjet
(10)
T(1-t)/550
PD = The determination of true np for a waterjet-
n
S
- T V /550 propelled craft requires a series of experimental
P P V
(1-t) tests of bare hull, appended, and self-propelled
(V. - V)
PD 3
conditions. This will be discussed later under
V + the section on model and prototype testing. How-
2
ever, in regard to propulsion efficiency, the
references pertaining to experimental evaluation
T(1-t)/550 (boat tests)(Refs. 3, 14, 15, 16, 17) provide data
PD
on
nT. Only Reference 16 attempts to correct jet
(T V /550)(1-t) thrust to effective thrust with the reduction of
P P
PDV, V
2 +2
V

_j_
thrust by inlet drag. Reference 18 is a report
on a water channel test of a stationary waterjet
propulsion system which also provides nT results.
nT is inadequate to completely describe the
Cancelling like forms
performance of a marine craft for the following
reason. Conceivably, the magnitude of propulsor
TV
P P thrust for a particular propulsor can be large in
V. comparison to the thrust of a second propulsor and,
V
T
J consequently, PT would be high. However, a sig-
nificant percentage of the propulsor thrust may be
Now for a simple pump (ducted propeller) required to overcome the increased hull resistance
which the propulsor itself adds to the bare hull
resistance. Thus, it is possible to have a high
propulsor PT but, at the same time, a high Ps to
propel the craft at design speed. Although the
resulting nT might be comparable with that of
another propulsor or propulsion configuration, the
P required could be considerably larger. This
S

conclusion was borne out in waterjet system com-

puter trade-off studies at Boeing.(Ref. 19*)
Consequently, if one is comparing various propul-
sion system installations on a particular craft,
the most meaningful comparison parameter is P.

V Vp Vi In several of the reports, an attempt is made

to calculate a propulsive efficiency for a water-
PUMP VELOCITY SCHEMATIC jet installation either as a product of pump, jet,
system, and hull interaction efficiencies, or as

* For further interesting information on this sub-

ject, refer to discussion of Reference 14 by
Dr. C. Kruppa.

6
 a product of external, internal, and jet effi-
ciencies. As far as overall waterjet propulsion
system installations are concerned, momentum con-
siderations are used in the majority of cases for
C= 12
T
p -1°V A
performance prediction (References 3, 4, 14, 2 p
19, 21-28). since

Use of Ideal Propulsive Efficiency (Ty Tp =Ap x 1

p(V.2 - V2)
2 j

Consideration of n, can provide insight into then

the ideal performance of a particular waterjet TV 2
which - -
system in stages of preliminary design. nI P V.
The derivation of n1, based on momentum 1 +
V
theory with the assumption of one-dimensional flow Now
and referring to the figure below, is as follows: 2
n - (13)
1 + 1 + CT

which indicated that n, depends only on the pro-

peller load coefficient:

The expression for Ideal Jet Efficiency n1,

Equation (12) indicates that a maximum efficiency
exists for a specified system loss at a particular
value of pump head or of the velocity ratio. If
SCHEMATIC OF WATERJET INSTALLATION
for high jet propulsion efficiency, a low Av/v is
adhered to, one must be satisfied to pump a large
quantity Q (rate of flow in CFM or GPM), because
T = o(JAv. A high Q through a pump requires either
high flow velocity or large flow passages. Thé
latter is advantageous as far as keeping pump pres-
sure losses low; however, large pump dimensions
mean a high fluid weight in the pump. Thus, com-
promise, adjusting to optimum conditions for a
If it is assumed that V = specific pump application is required.
Vcraft = Vinlet water,
n/ is defined as:
Real System Propulsive Efficiency
power out
nI - power in It can be seen from the derivation of Equa-
tion (12) that ai
is dependent on the ratio of jet
work per unit time by thrust velocity (nozzle exit velocity) V. to ship velo-
work per unit time by ideal pump - city V. If the jet efficiency isjcalculated for
the case where the thrust and velocity developed
PO (T x V)550 are again a measure of the power out, but where
the power in is increased to overcome real system
PI PI
loss, and if no assumption about the internal
o Q Vi (Vi - vi) system head loss is made, the following approach
can be taken:
1 2
PQU -"1/ J .21 Total loss = inlet duct loss + exit duct loss +
nozzle loss; h = hi + he
ButV.=V
1
and V. - V = AV The pump output power P,ump is:
1 2 1
w1
2 2
P Q VA v = -mV = - (V. - V ) + Wi + W
pump 2 2 g 3 h he
I 1 pQ (12 + 2VAV4 AV2 - V2) where w/ = weight of water/unit time.
Therefore
VAV H (V. - V) V

AV2
n.jpr - g
(17.2
1

v.2 4_ 2 gh)
n
I system
VAV + g j
2

Ideal Jet Efficiency

2 VAV 1 2 (Vi - V) V
(12)
nI 1 AV
2 VAV + AV2 1 +
V 2 - V2 -F 2gli V.- 2 1/2 2gh
The ideal jet efficiency can also be con-
V2 - V2 V2
veniently expressed in terms of the propeller
thrust coefficient defined as

7
 2 (V. - V)
J
V 2 (k - 1) Hatte-Davis (Ref. 19)
n. (14)
V.2
k
2
+
2gh
- 1 k2 ( 12 (DLF1 L.
.7
HL = L 2
--- +2gh - 1 V2 k-1) 2g
V V2
2 (k - 1)
n.
= real jet efficiency JP'Hatte-Davis k2(1+K2) - 1 + W1)2 DLF
where k = VJV = jet velocity ratio.
(17)

where K2 = nozzle loss coefficient, and

DLF = duct loss factor.

Although any estimated or assumed system The Hatte-Davis expression (Ref. 19) for nipr
losses should be verified by experimental deter- is based on an approach wherein the inboard losses
minations, the establishment of probable ranges
are not lumped together and are not made propor-
of waterjet efficiency can be looked at by making tional to either inlet velocity or jet velocity,
preliminary estimates of component losses, and as is the case of the Levy or Johnson approaches,
toward this end, it is interesting to make a com- constraints whith are considered unrealistic.
parison of expressions for waterjet system effi-
Thus, it is suggested that for jet efficiency of
ciency of real systems as proposed by:
a real system, Expression (17) should be used in
preference to the others.
Joseph Levy (Ref. 21) v.2
Assuming H = K A type of plot of jet efficiency versus velo-
A 2g
city ratio for various values of the sysem loss
coefficient KL, which is familiar in jet propulsion
2(k - 1)
n. (15) technology (Ref. 26) is shown below (Figure 1).
- k2
k (1
(l + KA) - 1

I0
\\ EQUATION [15] WITH KA=0
KL
I

I
i
01

0203 \\
04
110. vi
05 \ SYSTEM
All ,

\\
LOSSES
---
-
o INCREASING
1

\\
eill=111
.

03
\ i

where lc = 04
r , \
_/1111111111 \I
V = craft velocity,
V. = jet velocity relative to craft,
2

LOCUS OF OPTIMA
\ \\
!
.

HL = system head loss, and

\\
KA =
!I_ o e
\
v 2
pv (Vi-V)
2g v OR
V
V. Johnson (Ref. 24) FIGURE I-EFFECT OF SYSTEM LOSSES
Assuming HL =
V2 AV
K.13
2g ON OPTIMUM
V
2(k - 1)
njpr (16) Once the n. is obtained, it must be multiplied
Johnson jpr
k2 - 1 + KB by in order to yield the propulsive effi-
npump
ciency of the overall propulsion system. The
accuracy of prediction of the propulsive efficiency
by the above methods can be no better than the

8
 accuracy of the loss coefficients used in the
calculations.
Comparison of Ideal Propulsion and Ideal Pro-
peller Efficiencies
One other interesting area pertinent to this
discussion is the relational-lip of Ideal Propulsive
Efficiency and Ideal Propeller Efficiency. It
is interesting to note that the uppermost curve of
Figure 1 is a plot of Ideal Propeller Efficiency
(propeller without viscous and rotative losses).
By simple momentum theory
1 (12)
n -
1 +12 --
AV
V
repeated
By referring to Figure 2, it can be seen that
this can be written as
FLOW
Fig 2- PROPELLER VELOCITY SCHEMATIC
1 1
or propeller
1 AV 1 W
1 +
2 V
1+ 2
a
.-7-
efficiency
nI can also be derived from a considera-
propeller
tion of the velocity vector diagram for a blade
element (Ref. 70).
Some confusion may exist in reference to mag-
nitude of comparative hydrodynamic performance of
propellers and waterjets as applied to high-
speed hulls. Certain statements existing in the
literature (Ref. 4) imply that propeller effi-
ciency drops off at high speed while waterjet
efficiency increases. Such arguments tend to
neglect the fact that supercavitating propellers
whose hydrodynamic efficiencies do not degrade
with increased speed should be utilized in the
supercavitating speed range. It is well known
that the performance of a subcavitating propeller
will fall off at high speed, and knowledgeable
designers would not attempt to use it at high
speed. The actual reason for performance of some
supercavitating propellers to be less as speed
increases is that optimum blade geometry has to
be sacrificed due to structural problems in
overstressing the material. No positive indica-
9
tion has been given to show that "long life" high-
speed pump impellers will not face the same prob-
lems.
Surniar
This then is an attempt to show how thrust
efficiency nT compares to np as a performance
parameter and, further, to explain why nT is so
often found in use in the waterjet literature
(although it is usually misnamed). Its limitations
should be recognized, however, and the extent to
which predictions of "propulsive efficiency"
based on simple momentum ¡et efficiency calcula-
tions tempered with estimated system losses should
be carefully controlled.
Some type of analytical treatment can be
applied to a prediction of performance of each
major component of a waterjet system, i.e., the
pump, inlet, etc. Some of the references present
analyses (in varying degrees of complexity) of
the performance of system components and compare
the results with experimental data; e.g., Refer-
ence 20 on impellers.
By far, however, the bulk of the available
theoretical work included in the present litera-
ture relies on simple momentum considerations of
ideal jet efficiency and, further, real system
efficiency by introduction of system losses ob-
tained from experimental, empirical, or "crystal
ball" sources.
The inherent limitations in the use of thrust
efficiency, even when measurement of the variables
included in
nT is very accurate, should be recog-
nized. Further PT magnitudes can vary depending
on whether thrust is jet thrust (often calculated
from measured momentum variables of mass flow and
jet and inflow flow velocities) or actual effective
propulsion reaction thrust. The authors of Ref-
erence 17 attempted to measure reaction thrust
using pump-mounted load cells in their boat-testing
program.
In summarizing the discussion of the problems
involved with the efficiency of propulsion, the
following points appear to be significant:
Meaningful propulsion efficiency evalua-
tion for waterjets should, as in the case of more
conventional propulsion, involve determination of
nD nD is given by Equation (10) and
waterjet
by Equation (9). When
nhull/inlet interaction
circumstances require the determination of the pro-
pulsion system component efficiencies, as in the
case where performance improvement or research is
the goal, rip broken down in this way is a satis-
factory parameter.
91) provides more definitive information
than does nT in a performance comparison of two
different propulsors applied to a particular hull.
A familiar example here is the comparison of a
waterjet with a conventional propeller. If R is
chosen to be the bare hull towed resistance (i.e.,
without any propeller system appendages or, on the
other hand, waterjet inlet or exhaust ports),
then a ratio of ns turn out to be simply a ratio
of Ps's at any particular speed. As pointed out
earlier, a comparison of n, for the two systems
would not be a valid indication of relative pro-
pulsion efficiencies.
Ideal jet efficiency and ideal propeller
efficiency are shown to be mathematically equiva-
lent. In both cases, corrections must be made
for losses in order to achieve the actual effi-
ciency of a propulsor. Since the waterjet, by
design, has more sources of losses than the open
propeller, it is generally less efficient.
Accurate predictions of waterjet pro-
pulsion efficiency will generally not be obtained
by applying estimated or empirical system loss
performance data to a jet efficiency figure
calculated by simple momentum theory.
THE WATERJET PUMP
The pumping machinery is a very important
component of a waterjet system. Proper design
of the pump requires not only a thorough under-
standing of the general characteristics of various
type pumps but, in addition, requires the water-
jet propulsion pump design to be in accord with
the design of all the other components of the pro-
pulsion system. The scope of this report permits
only a brief coverage of the subject of pumps
for waterjet application. An attempt is made to
put forth the major considerations of pump
requirements and characteristics (which are
treated in References 2, 21, 22, 23, and 24) along
with some discussion of performance criteria.
There is much published literature on pump research
and application. The references cited herein do
not form a complete list, but are given with the
intention of guiding the reader to pump literature.
The function of the pump in a waterjet system
is to accelerate the surrounding fluid medium
or increase the energy of the flow, thereby pro-
ducing thrust. This, of course, is also the func-
tion of an open or ducted propeller.
From the section of the paper on propulsion
efficiency, it will be remembered that the optimum
jet velocity ratios corresponding to practical
waterjet system efficiencies are relatively low.
Thus, a pump having characteristically high mass
flow rate and low head performance is a major
requirement for efficient operation. However, a
high-speed pump will keep the duct size and weight
of the waterjet small.
The types of pumps (broadly classified under
turbo-machinery) utilized by various experimenters
and propulsion system designers of waterjet systems
include:
centrifugal (radial flow) - high head,
mixed flow - intermediate head, and
axial flow (propeller) - low head.
Waterjet systems may employ one or more pumps for
each separate ingestion and discharge ducts.
Several pumps used in series or in a multi-stage
pump cause the same mass flow to be handled by
each stage, but the head increases with each
10
succeeding stage, and rpm is lower than that re-
quired by a single stage. In a parallel pump
design, each pump develops the same head but the
flow is shared. These pumps could be of the same
type as a single large pump but would have a higher
rotative speed. Parallel pump arrangements usually
require complex plumbing systems.
The basic pump type can be based on the
required head and flow rate which are determined
from the thrust-speed requirements of the craft.
However, certain design innovations are usually
required to adapt a design to specifically conform
to a waterjet propulsion application. One major
consideration here is the establishment of off-
design conditicos which will affect the cavitation
performance of the pump. Pump cavitation becomes
a major problem at two operating conditions for
hydrofoil and planing-type hulls: (a) at or near
takeoff (Figure 3) when the pump impeller is turn-
ing at a high rotative speed and the total inlet
static head is low due to a low ram head, and (b) at
cruise or very high planing speed when the impeller
tip speed is at its highest. This second condition
corresponds to the conventional subcavitating pro-
peller limiting speed condition, but in the water-
jet case, control of the local pressure at the Dump
can delay cavitation inception.
SL.
Fig 3- TYPICAL THRUST - SPEED RELATION
The operating requirements of waterjet pumps
for high-speed marine vehicle applications result in
their cavitation parameters falling in the same
range with cavitation characteristics of space
rocket turbo-pumps. Consequently, work has been
done in the development of waterjet pump impellers
very similar in design to rocket pump inducers.
It should be noted, however, that rocket pumps
have limited life. This is not to say that all of
the existing axial or mixed flow pumps now being
used in waterjet systems employ inducer type
impellers. The Buehler "turbopower" units and
the Hamilton waterjet (from which both the Buehler
and the British version Dowty-Hamilton designs
were evolved) are examples of axial flow pumps
employing multi-blade impellers, single and multi-
staging being available. On the other hand, inducer
type rotors are being developed by Curtiss-Wright
(Ref. 29) and Pratt-Whitney (Ref. 30), Division
of United Aircraft. In addition, other roc,ket
pump manufacturers are experimenting with either
subcavitating or fully-cavitating inducer designs,
especially suited to high-speed waterjet propul-
sion. The Aerojet General Corporation has developed
a type of waterjet propulsion pump in which the pump
casing or volute is made also to function as the
jet nozzle with the idea of direct conversion of
mechanical energy to jet kinetic energy with
minimum conversion to potential energy first
(Ref. 31).
A good percentage of the pump experimental
research is being complemented with theoretical
pump design approaches. The basic analytical
methods follow either a classical approach in
which momentum relations are utilized (see Ref-
erences 2, 22, and 31) and textbooks (References
13, 32, 33, 34, and 35), or a procedure involving
lifting-line or lifting-surface theory. Certain
simple cavitation analyses can be made by apply-
ing cascade techniques (References 30, 36, 37,
and 38) to a classical solution. For a more de-
tailed consideration of blading and internal flow,
however, lifting-line (Ref. 37) or lifting-surface
(Ref. 20) approaches are useful.
between the pressure rise and the rate of flow
must exist if dynamic similitude of the hydrodynamic
pump action is maintained from prototype to model.
In pumps, pressure rise is usually spoken of in
terms of head.
However, viscosity cannot be neglected in the
case of pumps; it is a more important considera-
tion here than in the case of open propellers. The
ability of a pump to develop thrust T can be
thought of as being achieved through the pumphead
rise H and the volume flow rate Q. The head is
dependent on the density p and viscosity u of the
pumped fluid, the volume flow Q, the impeller
diameter d, and rotation speed N. By treating the
product gH (g being acceleration due to gravity)
as the dependent variable and assuming

Experimental work is being done on pumps, gH = fl (p , u, Q, d, N) (Ref. 13)

especially designed for waterjet propulsion or
on types whose characteristics make them suitable dimensional analysis, as used above, reduces this
for possible waterjet application. As can be function to the simpler dimensionless relationship:
determined by considering Table 2, actual experi-
mental pump hydraulic performance is reported in gH f [_a_ pNd2"
References 14, 15, 20, 29, 31, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 2 2 2 3 '
JA.
d Nd IN
42, and 43. In addition, certain ones of these
references contain cavitation data on the pump These three dimensionless groups are termed head
performance (References 14, 15, 29, 37, 38, 40, coefficient (Kb), flow coefficient 0, and Reynolds
41, 42, and 43).
number, Re, respectively. The choice of certain
Most of this testing has been performed in performance parameters in propeller and pump work
pump cavitation loop facilities in which impeller rests mainly on convenience. In propellers, V and
scaled models are used in the prediction of im- T are easy to measure, whereas in pumps, Q and H
peller performance. Such facilities usually pro- are more readily determined. For a propeller, a
vide a means for visual observation of cavitating brief review of the performance parameters usually
phenomena. Several large-scale static pump test used may be in order.
stands capable of supporting fairly high-power
prototype waterjet pumps are now in operation; T = KTpN2d4
e.g., at Aerojet General Corporation (Ref. 31)
in Azusa, California, and at Pratt-Whitney Divi- and
pN2d5
sion in West Palm Beach, Florida. 2T'N Ktorque
PS - 550
It was stated previously that good waterjet
propulsion pump design will vary from stationary
n _ PT _ KT J
type pump design (Ref. 32, 35, 44) due to a dif- propeller K 27
PS torque
ference in the basic requirements of the two
machines. It is possible that, in like manner, where
the ideal terminology and performance coefficients V(1 -w)
utilized for many years in pump technology are not Nd
ideal or optimal for the technology of waterjet
On the other hand, slightly different performance
propulsion pumps (Ref. 33). In addition, values
coefficients turn out to be the most useful for
of performance coefficient limits published in
pump performance evaluation:
reference sources, e.g., Standards of the Hydrau-
lic Institute (Ref. 45) ,should be reanalyzed
in light of new pump technology. A short analysis pump hp 1:..

based on the pump and waterjet pump performance pump = Ps

Ps
parameters, dimensional analysis, and a comparison
with those coefficients used in propeller tech- p pg0H
nology follows.
P 550

At corresponding points in the full-scale (or 27N Torque

large scale) and model flows, the flow should be P -
S 550
geometrically and dynamically similar (Ref. 46).
Relating the pressure differences through a simple where Torque = pN2d5.
Ktorque
pump to the pertinent variables, it is assumed
that significant pressure differences in the pump Now Pp and Ps can be related to the dimensionless
are produced by mass forces of the fluid, and the
head, flow (as derived from the dimensional analy-
following relationship between the variables is sis), and torque coefficients, respectively, just
obtained (Ref. 32).
as in the case of a propeller. Thus
Nd3
= --- p POH pQ gh
p V2 Q P550 550

Thus, it is apparent that a definite relationship where gH = KHN2d2 and Q =0 Nd3

11
Therefore to pump head rise. Unfortunateiy, it is usually
used in a form which has not been made dimension-
PO Nd3 KHN2d2 PO KR N2d5 less, a factor causing some confusion in pump
Pp =
550 550 research work. Despite this, it is a very useful
parameter for comparing performance of different
Likewise
pumps or of pumps with their models. Specific
27N K jN2d5
torque speed involves only the pump operating conditions
Ps - 550 by means of eliminating impeller diameter between
the head and flow coefficients. By the provision
Therefore, dividing Pp by Ps, that rotational speed be a linear variable, spe-
cific speed can be obtained (Ref. 32) as:
P PO KH N3d5
mn1/2
pump Ps 550- Ns - (22)
H3/4
This form is not dimensionless but, by utilizing
550 gH as the term in the denominator instead of H,
a dimensionless form of specific speed is:
27N Ktorque oN2d5 1/2
NQ
dimensionless N - (23)
S
KH (gH)3/4
OKH 0
(21)
K 2r Addison (Ref. 33) suggests that tLe dimensionless
npump 27Ktorque torque form of specific speed be called characteristic
shape number to distinguish it from the more com-
where
mon form, and the word shape is appropriate be-
gh cause modelling of the pump requires geometric
0 = -QT similarity or, in other words, retention of pump
Nd- "H N2d2 shape.
Thus, it can be seen by comparing (19) and (21)
that By substituion of the coefficients 0 and KH
KT
into (23), Ns can be written as:
(19)
npropeller K 27
torque repeated 1/2
0
KH NS - , 3/4
0 ,H
(21)
nwaterjet pump 27
Ktorque repeated If it would serve any useful purpose, a
characteristic shape number could likewise be
Later it will be shown that n can be written
pump defined for propellers as:
in a form which when multiplied by the jet nozzle
1/2
efficiencyn.is physically equivalent to
NS -
For propeller performance evalua- KT3/4
npropeller.
tion, KT and KQ are usually plotted against J.
but the need for such a parameter is not apparent.
For a waterjet pump, Km and KQ could be plotted
Another point of interest, alluded to earlier,
against 0 or against V,/V, the jet velocity ratio which arises when comparison of propeller and pump
if the pump is running in a moving craft. performance efficiencies are attempted is exempli-
fied by the case of a ducted propeller for which
The major deviations in the use of these efficiency has been calculated by, first, a pro-
specialized performance coefficients occur be- peller efficiency philosophy and, second, by a
cause pump and propeller engineers utilize the pump efficiency philosophy. The difference occurs
performance variables which are most easily meas- in the use of different velocities in the expres-
ured in their respective tests. Many variations s ion
in parameters could be derived from the basic TV
variables as measured. np = 550 'D

Pump designers for many years have used a For the propeller V = V, speed of propeller ad-
parameter termed "specific speed" which originally
vance; for the axial flów pump, V = Vd, velocity
was introduced by a German, R. Camerer, in 1915 inside the duct.
for describing the hydraulic type of water tur-
bines. Each of the three types of pumps mentioned Since the induced velocity inside the duct
above covers a range of specific speeds Ns, and causes the pump flow velocity to exceed free-
attains its maximum efficiency at a point some- stream velocity, the "apparent" efficiency of the
where in thi, range, efficiency dropping off on pump will be higher. Figure 4 shows a set of
both sides of this particular specific speed. comparative efficiency curves for a ducted pro-
Geometrically similar pumps of different sizes peller (Ref. 47), calculated by the two methods
will have similar head flow performance character- and showing a significant difference in magnitude.
istics if operated at the same specific speed
(assuming viscous effects are small). Ns is a Note that n_and
propeller pump
are only
n
number which is proportional to impeller rotative different by the difference in Va (speed of
speed and rate of flow, and inversely proportional advance) and Vd (speed of flow at propeller disc).

12
 Vd =V
a
+wa
2
TVd
T [V
a
+ 111.]
2
npump - 550 550
where
S S
wa = total axial induced velocity component
or A V.
npropeller Va

'propeller
. TVa
550
(27) pumpAV
+ - V
a 2

Ps where

Va
-
AV njet
V +
a 2

Cavitation will play an extremely important

As pliMUMEAW MOM AS PROPELLER
IMM111111111111
iiSEMPUEUMEEMENIIMMEIS.
raesidtaallsomeemsobramiolsimmul
magmemininsommanutowlimmem
ifietinsunimiassimarrailoss
111111MIMMEMIERVINIMINIMMENIMEMNIIIMMILIME
111111111111IPMESIMMINNI1M11111111MMIEN1111
1110NOTAININIMEME011111111111111111M
EIIMENIPIMMUNIIIIIMIIM11111111111111111111111
11111/MISONEVINEMEM111111111111=11111111
11111111111111111111111111111§11111
WIROMME11111111MMEMINNEIHME111111111111111111111
MIV/211MEIME1111111111=111101111Z1111111111
.1
FIGURE - EFFICIENCY OF A DuCTE0 PROPELLER CALCULATED BY 121 METHODS
role in waterjet propulsion pumps. Cavitation may
affect the pump hydraulic performance as severe
cavitation will cause pump erosion and degradation
of pump performance. Because waterjet propulsion
pumps will, at times, be required to work at rela-
tively low suction heads, cavitatIon of the pump
impeller will be a problem (Ref. 37). One advant-
age which the axial flow pump possesses is that
multi-staging of impellers can be used to reduce the
tendency for the main load-carrying impeller to
cavitate. The technique of utilizing an in-
ducer stage in which the static pressure is
increased with very little kinetic energy
increase has been used to provide a sufficiently
high suction pressure to the main flow accelerat-
ing impeller stage to prevent blade cavitation.
A comparison of cavitation inception criteria
for pumps (Ref. 35) and propellers now follows.
Since pumps are usuaily used to produce a
1, 1.0 1.1 pressure rise through the impeller, the Thoma
cavitation parameter (aThoma) defined as

anet suction head

Thoma - pump head produced (30)

is in general pump usage. Here, het suction head

H (or npsh) = hatmospheric + hdepth +

sv

y.2
2g
in feet of water (31)

in which V = the velocity in the flow approaching

the pump. The Thorne parameter is dimensionless,
and if its constancy indicates cavitation similar-
ity, then increased pump head would require increas-
ed suction head.

In propeller work, the cavitation parameter

or cavitation index normally used is defined as

H1
a - (32)
V2/2g

where H1 = (absolute pressure at shaft centerline -

vapor pressure of water) and V can be either free-
stream velocity or the inflow velocity at the center
section of the propeller. This approach is taken
since propellers inherently are not used to pro-
duce pressure rise (potential energy) but rather
kinetic energy.

For cavitation effect on propeller performance

KT, Kq (torque), and efficiency versus J curves are

13
obtained at various values of a from tests con-
ducted in a cavitation tunnel. These tests are
in addition to the open-water performance tests.
In pump procedures, a single cavitation
parameter is used to relate the inlet flow con-
ditions to the pump speed and hed rise. This
parameter is a direct extension of the specific
speed Ns, and is defined as
1/2
NQ
S -
(gHsv)3/4
where H has replaced H. S is termed suction
sv
specific speed and, when defined in this way,
appears to be a valid dimensionless parameter.
Note that the Thoma cavitation indext is
an expression which is dependent on the pump
itself; specifically, it is the ratio of the net
suction static head supplied to the pump to the
pumping head actually developed. Thus, at can
be seen to be equal to the ratio of Ns and S or
Gt =
In contrast, the propeller cavitation index
a is an expression dependent on the condition of
the flow; specifically, it is the ratio of the
static head to the dynamic head of the free-stream
flow.
However, a can be expressed in terms of VR
(resultant). The use of Va makes
Po Pv
a -
R 1 2 cruise. From a takeoff mode cavitation considera-
pVR
analogous to pump at.
Summary
In summary, the points pertaining to per-
formance evaluation of waterjet pumps which should
be reviewed are as follows:
Pump efficiency must be multiplied by
p. before direct comparison can be made with
3 this velocity ratio is relatively low (pressure
conventional propeller efficiency.
Pertinent performance parameters for
waterjet pumps will include flow rate 0, head
coefficient KB, and torque coefficient K
characteristic shape number (nondimensional
specific speed) and a nondimensional form of
suction specific speed. Pump-flow variables such
as flow rate and head will continue to be measured,
since they are more directly attainable than the
variables commonly measured in propeller testing.
Cavitation number can be defined in
various ways (this variation usually arising in
propellers because of choice in where velocity
is measured), but for propulsion pumps will
probably be most meaningful if it is based on the
ratio of suction head H to head developed by
sv
the pump H.
WATERJET INLET
This section and the following section of
the paper deal with the intake of and the internal
flow of water in the waterjet system. Waterjet
propulsors require optimization from the inlet to
the exhaust nozzle. As pointed out previously, it
does not particularly pay to strive for a high
system efficiency through low jet velocity unless
system losses are also minimized (refer again to
Figure 1). The attainment of low loss or high
(33) efficiency flow transmission components is a prime
goal. The system component losses which are in-
volved consist of inlet/diffuser (which can run
from 10 to 30 percent), internal ducting (2 to 10
percent), and nozzle (1 to 3 percent).* These loss
values are usually expressed as percentages of the
ram head V2/2g.
The inlet or scoop location depends on the hull
and waterjet propulsion system configuration.
Most hydrofoil waterjet foilborne systems incor-
porate ram-type inlets mounted in the pod at the
bottom of the strut (Ref. 24). Planing boat and
displacement craft usually employ flush or scoop
intakes in the hull bottom. Schemes have been
proposed for side or bow located inlets (e.g.,
see U.S. Patent Office Patent disclosures
2,884,889 and 3,188,997). The major design loca-
tion considerations appear to be in keeping thE
vertical distances which produce elevation losses
short, keeping the inlet in "green" water to pre-
vent aeration, providing sufficient water flow
to the pumps to produce the required thrust, and
preventing or delaying the inception of cavitation.
Good inlet system design requires low internal
losses and high resistance to cavitation during
the takeoff mode and low external drag during
tion, the critical parts of the inlet are the
scoop (water entrance) and the transition from
the inlet to the diffuser duct. The scoop
obviously must capture the free-stream flow effi-
ciently under a range of operating conditions
between takeoff and cruise.
During takeoff, the ratio of inlet to free-
stream velocity is high (pressure levels in the
scoop are low), and internal cavitation is the
primary concern. During cruise, on the other hand,
levels in the scoop are thus relatively high),
and resistance to internal cavitation is therefore .
high. But in the cruise mode, susceptability of
external lip cavitation may be a significant fac-
tor.
The net effect of cavitation in and around
the inlet is two-fold. Cavitation can produce sig-
nificant erosion (cavitation damage) of the inlet
material; however, the more important consideration
* The magnitude of the loss coefficients stated
here are estimates representative of a range cover-
ing typical planing hull, CAB, and hydrofoil water-
jet systems. A sharp bend just behind the inlet
and long vertical strut duct, as is required for
a hydrofoil craft, produce higher losses.
14
 is degradation of pump performance due to excessive
inlet/diffuser head loss and, ultimately, complete
choking of the flow which starves the pump.
From a momentum exchange standpoint, the
relationship of thrust required and inlet area is;
T = PA. Vi (Vi - Vi)
where
Ai = Ks di
.1. 111111"
V.
Letting m w-1- (jet velocity ratio)
vi
T = PA. Vi (mVi - V i)
or
T = PA. V.2 (m - 1) (34)
For a fixed geometry exhaust nozzle, m is
fixed, thus A. and V., which are interdependent,
are the only controllable parameters for varying
the thrust.
Variable geometry inlets could be used to
assure sufficient flow to the pump at low ram-head
speeds (takeoff) and allow the pump to work at its
best point of design over a fairly broad range.
However, the mechanical complexity of such an
inlet in a sea water environment and cavitation
problems of the fairing appear to be significant.
Definitive evaluation of inlet performance
involves the determination of: (1) how efficiently
the water can be "captured," over what range of
velocities inlet cavitation will not significantly
degrade this "capturing," and (2) how much the hull
drag is affected by the presence of the inlet. A
brief analysis of the pertinent parameters required
in model scaling of the hydrodynamic forces on sub-
merged bodies is given later under the section on
model testing.
Now from a consideration of what useable work
is available from the literature, it is noteworthy
that examples of both older published empirical
information reviewed for waterjet inlet application
and some original new analytic approaches to the
problem exist. The theoretical work, for the most
part, involves attempts to predict the effects of
the flow field impinging on the inlet by calculat-
ing the pressure distribution in the external and
internal areas adjacent to the inlet lip. These
particular analyses do not yield the inlet loss
coefficient but serve to aid in lip and entrance
angle design.
Methods currently in use are based on
15
solutions to the potential flow problem, both
linearized and nonlinearized techniques now exist-
ing. A twq-dimensional method litilizes a distribu-
tion of sources on the mean camberiine of the lip
(See Ref. 48). A more general result applying to
the nonlinear problem can be achieved with a dis-
tribution of sources along the surface of the model.
An example of this is the Douglas-Neumann type of
approach applied to arbitrarily shaped inlets (Ref.
22, 49, and 50).
When the pressure distribution is available
from one of the above techniques, it is very use-
ful in affirming the character of the streamline
flow and shows whether smooth or sharp peaks exist
in the pressure distribution which could indicate
separating flow. However, viscosity effects are
not included as part of the potential flow solution
and viscous effects must be considered by correc-
tions, based on empirical data, being made to the
potential flow results.
It seems practical to also utilize the portions
of existing empirical data which are considered
reliable on marine condenser scoops (Refs. 23, 24,
51-54) and aircraft oil cooler scoop testing (Refs.
55 ane 56), specially in the preliminary inlet
designs.
It is possible that some inlet designs (when
considered integrally with a particular hull f.l_ow
field) could be low in internal loss but have high
external drag effects. A certain amount of experi-
mental work is required in determining the net
performance of such designs. References 14, 19,
22, 23, and 24 are valuable in pointing out means
for system performance prediction using existing
empirical data.
Practically all of the inlet studies carried
out so far have been slanted toward hydrofoil inlet.
The biggest present need is for comparable studies
for flush planing hull scoops and ram or flush CAB
sidewall-type inlets.
The amount of ram recovery or captured free-
stream dynamic pressure through the inlet can be
determined by measuring the characteristics of the
water approaching and leaving the inlet. An inlet
with poor flow will experience a large energy or
head loss.
2
1
2g -s
where Hs is the static head, which is atmospheric +
depth head. This should be measured before and
after the flow passes the inlet lip and turn/vane
(if turn/vane exists).
Experimental data (Table 2) obtained in
relatively recent testing specifically regarding
waterjet propulsion system inlets can be found in
References 14, 16, 18, 22, and 57. The waterjet
propulsion system reported on in Reference 14 employ
dual wake intakes in order to provide a more uniform
inflow to the pump. The work reported by Lockheed
in Reference 22 was obtained from hydrofoil craft
ram-type model tests in the Lockheed Underwater
Missile Facility (LUMF) at Sunnyvale, California
(variable-pressure towing basin). The data of
Reference 57 were obtained from scale-model inlet
tests of a strut-type inlet in the Hughes Aircraft
(Tool Division) free-jet facility at Los Angeles.
 The quantities or variables normally measured
in experimental inlet studies include: craft velo-
city V, inlet velocity Vi, inlet geometry (lip,
angle, size), guide vane geometry, static pressute,
pressure distribution, and velocity profiles. From
these data, the following typical parameters are
derived:
pressure loss coefficient, velocity ratio (V./V),
geometry, drag coefficient, pressure distribútion,
velocity profile, critical cavitation number (ac),
and net positive suction head (npsh).
A method of displaying inlet performance is to
plot the inlet loss coefficient K,
(as a percent-
age of free-stream velocity head) versus cavitation
number for a family of inlet velocity ratios
V.
This produces characteristic
.
vfree-stream
"break" curves of the type described in Reference
19 (see Figure 5).
TEST I
TEST II
Vi
V -al
VI
+ + V
-0,
CAVITATION NUMBER e
Fig 5- INLET INTERNAL PERFORMANCE
Some inlet data instrumentation was avail-
able for the boat testing reported on in References
3, 14, 15, 16, 18, and 58.
These reports include
a presentation of the data acquired.
Note again
that the Hydronautics tests (Ref. 18) are from
stationary model tests with moving flow.
Summarizing the areas discussed in this sec-
tion points to the following high points:
The waterjet hull inlet is a critical
area in regard to both external and internal flow
performance.
Analytical methods exist which can
greatly aid in the design of lips, inlet angles,
etc., in predicting pressure distribution.
Inlets for craft which operate from a
displacement to a planing condition may require
variable geometry designs to accommodate both
takeoff and cruise requirements.
Takeoff - internal inlet can choke the
pump due to cavitation.
Cruise - external inlet can cavitate,
thereby increasing drag.
A good inlet should provide adequate
flow, have low KL, and be cavitation resistant.
Definitive inlet testing requires holding of
16
Froude and cavitation numbers simultaneously.
Empirical condenser scoop and aircraft oil
cooler scoop data are useful during preliminary
design.
A quantity of hydrofoil (ram) inlet data is
now available, and the need for CAB or planing
boat-type hull inlet data is evident.
WATERJET DUCTING
In a waterjet propulsion system, a certain
amount of ducting must be installed tc move the
water from hull inlet to pump and from pump to
exhaust nozzle. Hydrofoil boats with waterjet
systems utilizing strut-pod inlets and deck-
mounted pumps require a relatively extensive duct-
ing arrangement. On the other hand, small planing
boat installations can have very short connecting
ducting, and most commercial waterjet propulsors
incorporate inlet, diffuser, pump casing, and
exhaust nozzle in only two or three castings.
Captured air bubble craft will require waterjet
ducting systems which are slightly more extensive
than for planing boats but less than those for
hydrofoil craft.
A number of system layout studies aimed at
optimizing system designs have been made for
specific type hull waterjet installations by Hydro-
nautics for CABS (Ref. 59) and Pratt-Whitney Divi-
sion for hydrofoil craft, air-cushion craft, and
large displacement-type ships (destroyers)(Ref. 60).
In addition, Lockheed has published some system
layout work (Ref. 22) and Reference 24 by Johnson
of Hydronautics contains some hydrofoil craft duct-
ing system layouts. Kim, in Reference 23, treats
the problem of the tradeoff of benefits of single
ducting versus multiple ducting systems, the rela-
tive importance of bends, straight lengths, vanes,
etc.
The function of the duct is to deliver the
correct quantity of water to the entrance of
the impeller efficiently (with minimum pressure
loss) and with a reasonably uniform velocity dis-
tribution, and to exhaust the water efficiently.
The efficiency of the ducting system, as in any
piping system, is dependent on the length of the
pipe, number and type of transitions, and pipe
roughness. In general, a duct system should be
light-weight (including weight of water) and have
low hydrodynamic loss. Considerations of low
weight and vibration (structural and internal
hydrodynamic) will not be dwelled upon here. The
hydrodynamic losses which will be discussed here
involve friction losses at internal ducting walls,
mixing losses (pressure loss and friction loss)
in areas where transitions such as enlargements,
contractions, and turns exist, and velocity pro-
files at sections approaching the impellers and
stator vanes. An example of a condition which
might cause significant problems is that of the
impeller shaft of an axial-type pump passing
through the supply duct causing nonuniformity to
the impeller inflow.
The flow of an incompressible fluid inside a
filled pipe or duct produces certain hydrodynamic
forces. The significant forces in this case are:
inertial, gravity, friction (viscous), and
 pressure. Surface tension as characterized by
Weber number and compressibility by Mach number
can be ignored for water flow in waterjet piping
systems. It is common practice to use the follow- V [1 - am] 1/2
T 1/2
ing dimensionless parameters associated with the
-
above forces: vm
inertial pVZ Po Pv
R - - , Reynolds number where a -
e viscous m 2

inertial v2
, Froude number
Fn - gravity
gZ Po Pv
a -
P 2
V
inertial 1
C = -
P pressure pressure coefficient 1 2
p V
and if a = a (equality of cavitation numbers)
m
Po - p
, pressure coefficient which is Froude scaling.
1 2
Then V /V
pm = (T)1/2
pV
2

where i = characteristic dimension; for pipes In the preliminary design stage of waterjet
is the pipe diameter, and systems, use can be made of published empirical
data on pressure loss coefficients of straight
p = local static pressure. ducting, turns or elbows, vanes, nozzles, and other
transitions. References 13, 22, 23, 24, and 34
The aforementioned dimensionless parameters are good sources of this type of data. Waterjet
provide a basis for establishing dynamic similitude ducting losses are included in the system perform-
of the flow in models of ducting systems. The ance measurements obtained during the boat tests
geometric similarity between a prototype and model described in Reference 14 (British). References
should extend to scaling the roughness of the 50 and 61 by Gibbs and Cox, and Reference 60 by
internal duct wall. Nondimensionally, this would Arcand of Pratt-Whitney utilize published experi-
make relative pipe roughness (e/d) equivalent for mental ducting loss data in arriving at predictions
model and prototype. Relative to the viscous and of system efficiency. Johnson, in Reference 24,
pressure forces which are produced, gravity forces suggests some ranges of magnitude for system loss
are of minor consequence in the flow of fluid coefficients which are apparently based on pub-
through a filled pipe. lished empirical data. The data available in
Consequently, Froude
number can usually be ignored in model studies these references are summarized in Table 2. It
of this type. However, in certain instances can be seen by studying such loss data that fric-
Froude number may be of significance. Although tional resistance is more significant in internal
this parameter is most often associated with free waterjet systems than in the case of an open or
surface gravity effects on flow about bodies, it even conventional ducted propeller.
should be remembered that to have the correct
pressure coefficient or cavitation number over the In summary, it appears that the ducting per-
vertical extent of a model, Froude scaling must formance problem is less critical at the present
be maintained. Thus in cases where the vertical time than that of the inlet. Published empirical
dimension of the body is large relative to the loss data for piping and transition ducting can
depth of immersion, it may be necessary to con- be used in making estimates of losses during system
sider Froude number in order to have the proper layout design. Performance tests of complete inlet
scaling of the pressure coefficient. Con- and ducting systems, or models thereof, should
sidering the diagìam below and setting C definitely be conducted when high propulsion system
of model and prototype equal: efficiency is a requirement. Details of such test-
ing are discussed below in the section on waterjet
propulsion testing.

WATERJET PROPULSION TESTING

Performance Considerations
Experimental determination of the performance
of either waterjet components or entire waterjet
propulsion systems can be accomplished by applica-
tion of the proper experimental techniques to tests
of the prototype or scale model. In cases where
prototype testing is impractical, or undesirable,
model experiments will generally produce satisfac-
tory performance data if geometric and dynamic
AP similitude are maintained. The type and scope of
C = 2-
1 2 - C -
1
Apm
2
the performance testing on a particular propulsion
Pprototype 7 pVp Pmodel pV system will depend on the intended use of the data
2 m
Z, obtained. The requirements for most performance
If P = P and H = TH
m
where T= r-- evaluations will fall into one of the following
1, m P Rm categories:

17
Type of Study Requirements
Performance Determination of the horse-
power required to propel a
particular craft at certain
speeds. Also comparison of
two or more propulsion
system designs.
Design Determination of the per-
formance of various com-
ponents of a system in
order that the design of
components may be improved
so as to ultimately pro-
vide improvement in over-
all system performance.
Research Determination of perform-
ance characteristics
of system components in a
systematic program of
experimentation, but in
which the components are
not related to a particular
design or system.
Performance testing of complete propulsion
units under full-scale speed and load conditions
finds wide application in the range of low horse-
power waterjets. On the other hand, high-powered
units requiring high efficiency and reliability
necessitate the expense of constructing models
and using specialized testing facilities such
as variable-pressure water channels, high-speed
towing basins, and cavitation tunnels. Several
static waterjet test facilities (Ref. 31) have
been put into operation by industry. Regardless
of whether testing is accomplished on a prototype
or model, certain performance parameters presented
in the previous discussions on pumps, inlets, and
ducting are required to characterize performance.
Table 1, which appears below, is intended to
present the pertinent parameters which
characterize hydraulic performance and to
list the measurements required in evaluating
such parameters for the components of a
waterjet system.
Table I should be used as a testing guide.
Straightforward performance evaluations (study
Type 1) on protot3pe craft may require only a
limited number of measurements such as ship
speed, payload, shaft horsepower, and fuel con-
sumption. On the other hand, performance evalua-
tions aimed at the achievement of high perform-
ance designs (study Type 2) will require the
acquisition of most of the measurements and para-
meters listed in Table 1. In most cases, such
measurements can be made while testing components
or systems either as prototypes or scale models.
In general, experimental data are more difficult
to obtain in dynamic testing than in static
testing. However, all of the suggested data have
been obtained successfully in tests of proto-
types and models of waterjet-propelled craft.
These include photographic data on cavitation
phenomena at the hull inlet.
The use of an accurately measured jet velo-
city for calculation of waterjet thrust from
measurements of tt-e system mass flow rate is, in
general, a satisfactory means for obtaining
thrust. The additional measurement, during
18
trials, of the propulsor reaction thrust by means
of, for example, pump support load cells is helpful
in cases where very precise performance determina-
tion is required. Assurance that the direction of
the jet reaction is collinear with the path of the
boat is sometimes in question. In addition, it
should be kept in mind that waterjet thrust will
generally have to exceed towed hull drag; by an
amount equal to the additional drag induced by the
propulsion system flow.
Model Testing
The principle of model testing is based on
the prediction of prototype performance from models
by judicious application of various scaling para-
meters. The previous sections on pumps, inlets,
and ducting contain the development of the scaling
parameters which should be considered in the
evaluation of each component when modelling. In
some cases, it is not possible to simultaneously
maintain equivalence of all the scaling coef-
ficients which might be applicable to a particular
component.
Pump models should be tested at the specific
speed Ns, suction specific speed S, and Thoma
cavitation number of the prototype to assure
cyt
that dynamic similitude at corresponding points in
the model and full-scale flows is achieved. How-
ever, experience in pump testing indicates that
scale effects can produce significant correlation
problems if the physical size of a model is very
small relative to the prototype (Ref. 33).
Model testing of inlets can be satisfactorily
accomplished by considering one or more scaling
parameters, depending on the design and application
for the inlet. The full-scale boundary layer
existing at the inlet should be modelled when
definitive model experiments are conducted. It
was shown that similarity of the pressure
coefficient and thus the cavitation number at all
points of the inlet flow will require Froude scaling
in addition to maintaining the cavitation number of
the prototype. This is important when the vertical
dimension of the inlet is large relative to the
depth of submergence or dynamic head, or when it
is desired to scale the pressure gradient in a
diffusing inlet. The internal inlet flow depends
primarily on testing above a critical Reynolds
number. In internal flow, it is apparent that the
duct wall frictional stress T. is dependent on
Reynolds number and relative pipe roughness coef-
ficient (e/d).
Eventually complete systems or subsystems must
be built and tested. Sometimes, components such
as the inlet and the supply ducting are tested
alone (Refs. 19 and 22), and in other cases the
entire waterjet system is performance tested in
an open-sea test boat. Reference 22 by Lockheed
presents results of inlet and ducting performance
measured on one-tenth scale models of subcavitating
and supercavitating hydrofoil boat ram induction
systems tested in LUMF basin. Indications are that
the inlet and turning losses are high relative to
duct losses for this type of ingestion system.
Reference 19 by Boeing describes cavitation inlet
testing on one-half scale model ram-induction
systems on the hydrofoil test craft LITTLE SQUIRT.
Ducting losses are included in these measurements.
 TABLE 1

Type Testing Measurement Range Derived Function

Performance
Parameters

Pump static net positive suction Design range Flow coefficient (0), Statis pump per-
head (Hsv)*, static head coefficient (KH), formance and
pump head, flow rate, mechanical
torque coefficient (Kg),
rpm, shaft torque, reliability,
impeller inflow, static nimpeller' npump' cavitation break-
thrust, velocity dis- specific speed (Ns), down
tribution. Also, if
suction specific
pump intake pressure is
speed (S), Thoma
controllable, cavitation
cavitation number (ad
effect on performance,
cavitation breakdown
Pump Hsv, pumphead, flow rate, Design rpm Same as above Overall system
dynamic rpm, cavitation observa- range, range performance and
tions under transient of inlet velo- reliability
intake flow conditions city ratio under real en-
(Vi/V), range vironmental
of exhaust conditions
nozzle areas
Water hull- Head loss (pressure drop), Hi-Suction/Low Inlet velocity ratio Optimization of
inlet dynamic cavitation inception head at take- (Vi/V), cavitation inlet geometry
speed, inlet velocity off to maximum number (a), inlet loss to provide re-
ratio (V./V), inlet drag, ship speed or coefficient (KLi) quired flow, low
inlet préssure distribu- cruise and dash internal losses,
tion, visual cavitation condition low drag, high
observations, pre-diffu- cavitation re-
sion and boundary layer sistance
ingestion
Internal Head loss, flow velocity Over speed Duct loss coef- Optimization of
intake ducting profiles, cavitation range ficient (Ku) size and geo-
observations metry for pump
inflow velocity
profile and
minimum duct
losses
Internal Head loss Over speed Duct loss coef- Optimization of
exhaust range ficient (Ku) size and geo-
ducting metry for mini-
mum duct losses
Nozzle Head loss Over pump 7. Optimization of
speed range size and geo-
or jet velo- metry for opti-
city ratio mal nozzle-pump
(V/V.) over matching
J '
range of
nozzle exit
areas
Net positive suction head (He) is equivalent to the total static head at the pump entrance.

Extensive instrumentation must be installed in
the ducting system to separate the various losses
produced by the inlet, the diffuser, the pump,
and the other components of the system.
Testing a Water-jet System
There are a number of alternate methods of
performance testing a complete waterjet propulsor,
which vary in technique and scope. In addition
to the criterion of study type mentioned above,
choice of methods depends on the answers to such
questions as what performance criteria are de-
sired, how large the hull is, what power range
the pump operates in, and, as in most endeavors, time
and economics available to particular propulsion
system development. Perhaps the first choice to be
made is that of deciding to test a model rather than
the prototype hull installation. In general, model
testing allows closer control of test conditions
but requires that proper scaling procedures be
implemented. Modelling is often undesirable if the
prototype system is itself small in size and power,
and involved in low-budget development programs.
But considerable model testing should be performed
in cases where the propulsion system is relatively
large and must meet stringent requirements of

19
performance as in important military craft applica-
tions.
For really definitive propulsion performance
determination, resistance and propulsion tests
must be run separately. In general, this requires
some type of towing tank facility (Ref. 3). A
normal resistance test should be conducted with-
out appendages called for by the propulsion system
at various trim angles, corresponding to the anti-
cipated propelled trim. A second resistance test
aimed at establishing the static effects of the
waterjet hull openings on drag could be run with
all propulsion system appendages in place, but
with the propeller or impeller not rotating, re-
peating the trim angles of the first test. Fin-
ally, a propulsion test should be run to ascertain
the overall effective trim and resistance which
the craft experiences under the action of all
drag and lift forces produced by the hull, the
propulsion system, and the interaction of these
forces. Testing should include effects of turning
and sideslip on waterjet performance. In the case
of small planing boats, it is possible to test the
prototype craft in a towing basin over the actual
range of design speeds. From the standpoint of
achieving an ideal propulsion analysis, this type
of testing involving the prototype craft is ideal
if all pertinent parameters are measured. How-
ever, the self-propulsion testing of a waterjet
prototype craft in open-sea conditions (which is
the case for a great percentage of actual installed
waterjet performance determinations)(Refs. 3, 14,
16, and 17) usually does not furnish sufficient
information, mainly because it is difficult to
separate resistance and propulsion forces. It
should be realized that it is much more difficult
to obtain detailed performance data on waterjet
systems than on propeller systems since the re-
quired appendages can be removed easily in the
latter case. Further, the conducting of bare hull
resistance tests and the determination of the pro-
pulsor thrust add to these difficulties. As
stated earlier in the section on efficiency, if
the goal is to compare propulsion efficiencies of
two different propulsors, a comparison of shp's
should suffice.
Some difficulty exists when attempts are
made to separate dynamic testing of the propulsor
and hull. Testing complexities will vary depend-
ing on whether a test is being conducted to pre-
dict the overall performance of a waterjet-pro-
pelled model which is free to trim and heave or
to characterize the propulsor perfumance, in
which case the hull (or portion of the hull) is
restrained in trim and heave. From the section
on efficiency, it was concluded that a definitive
performance criterion, nil , is:
waterjet
nD
waterjet pump
xxnjet system
x (1-t)
= "mockup."*
nT(1-0
Any good prediction of the performance must include
a reasonable estimate of (1-t). References 3, 4,
14, 19, and 21 through 26 which contain perform-
ance data include calculations of nT but not rip.
The experimental work which has been done,
as listed in Table 2, includes the hull-inlet
sybsystem which has been investigated by the
20
References 3, 19, and 22. Actual prototype craft
installations have been tested and the results re-
ported in References 3, 14, 16, and 17, all of
which contain static and dynamic test results,
except Reference 3 which contains only dynamic
results. Reference 18 presents an example of test-
ing a unit in a stationary condition in a flow
channel. The boat tests reported in References
14, 16, and 17 are relatively complete in the
measurement of dynamic waterjet performance.
Experimental Procedures
The following are examples of methods of
determining hydrodynamic propulsion performance
characteristics of installed waterjet systems,
listed along with the type of study for which the
procedure is applicable.
Design. Test a waterjet-propelled hull
model having both hull and internal pumping system
scaled to the same linear ratio. This procedure
is often impractical because of the expense in
complete modelling of pumps. In addition, although
scaling hull speed by Froude number and machinery
speed by specific speed are compatible as far as
producing the proper scaled internal-flow velo-
city, the range of model ducting Reynolds number'
will be lower than full scale and must be main-
tained above 1 x 105 (based on pipe diameter) in
order to keep the model internal-flow pressure
drop reasonable.
Design. Test a hull model having the
proper external propulsion system characteristics
of the inlet. This procedure is recommended for
propulsion tests of the hull inlet/diffuser com-
ponent. It requires the use of a "sucker" pump
which establishes the correct scaled flow velocity
at the waterjet inlet and means to maintain the
full-scale cavitation number as well as to simulate
the full-scale boundary layer. LITTLE SQUIRT
(Ref. 19) tests and tests of the hydrofoil craft-
type inlets in the LUMF facility utilized this
technique.
Design. Test a prototype craft at full-
scale speeds in a towing tank and measure towed
and propelled performance separately. This method
has the advantage of alleviating scaling problems.
However, for most testing tanks, it is limited to
boat hulls no greater than about 20 feet in length
and 8- to 9-foot beam, and to waterjet-system horse-
powers of about 200 to 300.
Design or Research. Test a prototype
waterjet propulsion system mounted on a "mockup"
of a portion of the prototype hull which is fixed
in trim and heave. Such a test could be run in a
towing basin or a circulating free-surface channel.
An example of the latter is reported in Reference
18. This procedure requires that the hull-inlet
flow conditions be known and simulated on the
* A very important consideration is involved.in
testing waterjet ingestion systems in hull models or
mockups mounted stationary in flow channels. Unless
the transverse hull dimension is small compared to
channel width, it is doubtful that meaningful mag-
nitudes of the added hull drag from interaction
of the induced flow by the waterjet system will
be obtained.
 Performance. Test a prototype installa- self-propelled mode for a waterjet propulsor.
tion in open sea and measure Ps and PT (by jet
flow). Most of the published data available in Experimenters might be encourated to
this study pertaining to installed propulsion attempt full-scale testing in order to alleviate
performance were acquired by this method. It the problems of modelling. However, full-scale
is the cheapest and easiest test procedure. Ad- testing provides significant measurement diffi-
vantages include the fact that there are no scal- culties such as separating resistance and propul,
ing problems; disadvantages are that there is less sion factors.
control of weather and test conditions, and it is
not possible to separate xtsistance and propulsion A type of "open-water" propulsion test
forces from these measurements. Hence it is more for a waterjet propulsor could be run with a
difficult to improve performance. suitable hull simulation inlet. It requires test-
ing a prototype waterjet over a range of trims,
Performance or Design. Test a prototype boat speeds, inlet velocity ratios, and yaw con-
craft in open-sea conditions and measure thrust ditions in order to provide adequate performance
reaction and inlet drag, in addition to the other data from which extrapolation can be made when
usual pertinent quantities. This approach would actual hull dynamic characteristics become known.
provide significantly more data for determining
rip than would Method 5. (See References 16 and Several waterjet test stands have been
specifically built for testing a complete propul-
17.)
sor under simulated inflow conditions, prior to
dynamic testing.
Performance. Test a prototype system or
component on a hull on which auxiliary propulsors GENERAL AND FEASIBILITY LITERATURE SURVEY
such as engine/propellers or aircraft deck-mounted
jet engines can very effectively be used to help
A large portion of the existing waterjet pro-
propel the hull so that the water pump can be
pulsion literature deals with general considera-
tested at various combinations of thrust and ship
tions of and feasibility studies for the applica-
speed. This provides performance data on the pump
tion of waterjet systems to various types of marine
or inlet of a general nature with less dependence
craft. At the same time, considerable emphasis in
on the hull than for a fixed thrust/speed character-
the area of military ship and boat designs has
istic test setup.
recently been placed on feasibility studies which
attempt to consider all significant engineering
In summary, the significant points of this
aspects of a design, integrally with the intended
section are:
mission of the craft. As in many associated areas
of technology, it is obvious that the availability
Model testing or testing of waterjet
of high-speed computers has encouraged designers
propulsion system components in cavitation or other
and planners to conduct more studies of this type.
specialized facilities becomes feasible during
Certainly, feasibility studies which consider
preliminary design of systems requiring high
mission, structures, propulsion, etc. are necessary
efficiency.
at some point in the technological development
process. Consequently, without well thought-out
Modelling of entire installed waterjet
sound scientific-type feasibility considerations
propulsion systems is made difficult, or impossible,
for specific applications, the full effectiveness
if requirements include scaling of Froude, cavita-
of the waterjet propulsor cannot be realized.
tion, and Reynolds numbers simultaneously.
The waterjet propulsion systev is a special-
The inlet and critical hull section can
purpose propulsor which is probably superior to
be model tested independent of the rest of the
other types for some specific applications, but
waterjet propulsion system if an auxiliary
with the passing of time, "tradeoff" analyses
"sucker" pump is used.
become more critical to good system application.
Thus the reports and papers on waterjet propulsion
If Froude and cavitation numbers are
dealing with application feasibility studies are
maintained, proper C distribution of the model
worthwhile, but:
inlet and diffuser Pwill result.
Systematic theoretical and experimental
Internal flow scaiing should entail
work now needs to be done on system design and
holding C and Reynolds numbers simultaneously
performance evaluation.
for scaling pressure and viscous forces.
Feasibility and general studies need
Shear stress scaling depends on the
factual, verified scientific evidence for perform-
Reynolds number and relative roughness (e/d)
ance factors such as loss coefficients, efficiencies
effects on the dynamic pressure pV2).
of systems, etc.
For installed waterjet propulsion systems,
Indeed, in a final analysis, a system may or may
a definitive test of performance requires separa-
not be "feasible" for a particular application
tion of resistance and propulsion forces.
depending on the actual system efficiency, and it
is unlikely that this can be determined by "guess
A waterjet propulsion system may create
work." Some of the papers are inherently limited
a more significant overall effect on hull per-
in value since they contain unproven overly-
formance than does a more conventional propulsor.
optimistic or overly-pessimistic performance coef-
Thus resistance measured in nonpropelled drag
ficients; however, practically every reference
tests is less indicative of the actual dynamic
resistance which the hull experiences in the makes some contribution to the technology.

21
References 22, 23, 24, and 61 relate to studies
of feasibility of applying waterjet propulsion
to certain mission craft. A much larger number
of the references were found to contain informa-
tion on general considerations for application
of waterjet propulsion to various types of craft.
These reports include References 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9,
19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 50, 58, and 60 through 67.
A brief summary of each of these reports is con-
tained ir the annotated bibliography list at the
end of the paper.
CONCLUSIONS
In the Introduction a statement of the scope
of this paper included:
A critical survey of the pertinent tech- -
nical literature with emphasis on the significant
problems known to exist.
A discussion of theoretical and experi-
mental techniques required for the determination-
of performance of components and complete water-
jet systems.
A review of the state of the art regard-
ing the knowns and unknowns of waterjet perform-
ance. Recommendations for the use of performance
parameters and techniques for evaluating perform-
ance.
An annotated bibliography of the refer-
ence material pertinent to the technology of
waterjet propulsor.
Certain conclusions drawn from the survey,
which pertain directly to the above goals, are
set forth below:
Waterjet propulsors are a special type
of marine propulsive device. They possess certain
advantages over conventional propellers, including
the elimination of underwater appendages, the
elimination of complex right-angled transmission
systems in certain craft, and in general, a freer
choice of propulsion location.
The disadvantages of waterjets as com-
pared to conventional propellers include generally
higher weight, more horsepower to perform a par-
ticular powering function, and by nature of the
hull inlet, they provide an additional area of
potential cavitation problems.
Hydrodynamic performance of waterjet-
propelled craft should be based on determination
of propulsive efficiency, nip, which is defined as
PE RV
x nsystem x n hull/inlet
= = n x
pump njet
PD PD .
where
nhull/inlet = (1-t) = ,-r-
Precise determination of nip is difficult
and is not necessary for comparing hydrodynamic
performance of two or more competitive propulsors
cin the same hull, in which case shaft horsepowers
Ps should be compared. However, high rip becomes
critical in designs wherein the ratio of fuel
weight to gross weight is high, as in long-range
ocean vehicles.
22
Momentum theory has been used to show that
high ideal jet efficiency requires a low ratio of
jet velocity to craft velocity as well as low
system (inlet and ducting) losses. The calculation
of real jet system efficiency by simple momentum
theory is not an accurate approach to the deter-
mination of system performance.
Certain misconceptions pertaining to
various efficiencies have been noted in the litera-
ture which tend to confuse proper performance com-
parisons. These include the misuse of propulsive
RV
efficiency (n = - ) with thrust efficiency
D PD
TV
(n = - ) as well as of pump efficiency (n pump )
T
Ps
with propeller efficiency (np). Actually
np
=n pump x
njet
.
As in the field of propeller technology,
the choice of performance measurements and para-
meters tends to depend greatly on the relative
ease with which these terms can be obtained. It
is recommended that good waterjet parameters
include dimensionless: flow coefficient 0, head
coefficient KH, torque coefficient K specific
suction
speed or shape number N ,
'dimensionless
specific speed Ss , and for pumps,
dimensionless
Thoma cavitation number at*
The design of specialized waterjet pro-
pulsion pumps is needed to provide pumps which con-
vert the mechanical energy of the prime mover
directly to kinetic energy with little increase of
potential energy, as is found in conventional civil
engineering pumps. Considerable efforts are being
made to develop waterjet pumps with rocket-inducer
impellers due to the comparable range of cavitation
numbers required of pumps for these two applications.
Considerable research is urgently needed
in the area of waterjet inlet technology. This
need focuses on the requirement for hard (experi-
mental) data for flush inlets of the planing boat
type and semi-flush/ram inlets designed for high-
speed CAB ships, such data to include effects of
yaw and sideslip on inlet performance.
Good inlet design encompasses: providing
of adequate flow, having low internal loss coupled
with low hull drag, and having high resistance to
Inlets for craft which plane from an
cavitation.
initial displacement condition must perform satis-
factorily at takeoff during which internal lip
cavitation is likely and at high-speed cruise at
which external lip cavitation can cause high drag.
The use of variable geometry inlets may alleviate
the design problem.
Although certain craft application
designs necessitate extensive water ducting for
systems requiring high overall efficiency, careful
consideration must be given to minimization of
ducting. Considerable published empirical data will
aid in this respect in preliminary design.
The determination of waterjet performance
of a jet-propelled hull requires special considera-
tion. A waterjet may create a more significant
effect on hull performance than does a propeller.
As in the case of conventional propulsion, a
definitive performance evaluation (breaking down
losses, etc.) necessitates the separation of
resistance and propulsion forces. Depending on
the size and power range of a particular craft,
definitive evaluation may be accomplished by
model-scale or full-scale testing.
It is felt that satisfactory modelling
of the hull inlet-diffuser subsystem can be
achieved if a suitable auxiliary suction pump
is used to provide internal inlet suction. This
pump should be operated to provide a flow rate
Q = A V where A4 /A4
'model 'prototype
= 1/A and V
im
/V = 13/7 .
A type of "open-water" propulsion
test of a waterjet propulsion system could be
run with a suitable hull simulation inlet. It
requires running over a range of trims, boat
speeds, inlet velocity ratios, and yaw conditions
in order to provide adequate performance data
from which extrapolations can be made when hull
dynamic characteristics become known.
Several commercial waterjet propulsion
test stands have been specifically built for
testing a complete propulsor under variable
simulated inflow conditions, prior to dynamic
testing.
Two basic shortcomings were found to prevail
within the existing waterjet literature. First,
a lack of experimental data and synthesized design
methods was noted and, second, a number of design
parameters were found to be loosely defined.
Suitable progress in the improvement of waterjet
propulsion performance will require extensive
research and development work in the areas of
propulsion system and hull design. This work
should be built upon the proper use of performance
parameters and evaluation techniques. It is hoped
that the attempt made here to survey the state of
the art will provide some guidance to workers in
the field of technology of waterjet propulsion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Wm. B.
Morgan for his interest and his numerous helpful
suggestions offered during the writing of this
paper. The author is also grateful to Mrs.
Shirley Childers for the typing of the manuscript.
LIST OF REFERENCES AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Taggart, R., "Special Purpose Marine Propul-
sion Systems," ASNE Journal, Vol. 71 (Aug 1959).
Interesting historical summary of marine
propulsors.
Papir, A. N., "Axial Pumps of Waterjet Pro-
pulsion Systems," Shipbuilding Publishing House
(translation), Leningrad (1965).
(Russian). An extensive coverage of axial
pumps of waterjet propulsion system. Paper
23
outlines the problem of waterjet propulsion
and then treats pump to comply. Considers
momentum theory, blade design, cavitation,
modelling and pump testing, pump parameters,
proper drive system, rotor forces, and
lattice.
Schuster, S., et al., "On Certain Problems of
Waterjet Propulsion," DTMB Translation 306 (Aug
1962).
Lecture. History of and design principles
of waterjet propulsion. Survey of intermit-
tent water propulsion systems. Considerations
of model testing discussed and a curve of
results for a model test presented. Graphs
of several European waterjet installations with
sparse static and dynamic performance results.
Engel, Cochran, and Delao, (Buehler Corporation),
"Use of Axial Flow Pumps for Marine Propulsion,"
SAE, Detroit Meeting (1962), Paper No. 4420
(Jan 1962).
Contains statements of the relative merits
of waterjet propulsion when compared with
propellers. General performance curves and
conclusions are presented. Good discussion
of waterjet history and boat testing pro
cedures are included. Some of the problems
still facing waterjet propulsion development
are listed.
Cobb, B., "Jr., "River Patrol Boat for Viet-
nam," Yachting (Dec 1966).
Historical note on the development of this
important craft.
Smith, M. S., "Tomorrow's Water Craft will
Use Water Jets - How and Why," Great Lakes Section
of Society of Small Craft Designers (Apr 1965).
A short, interesting discussion of waterjet
propulsion of small craft. The paper makes
reasonable statements on the advantages and
disadvantages of waterjets.
Wechsler, L., "Where Are Marine Power Plants
Headed?" SNAME Paper No. 20, Spring Meeting
(May 1966).
Paper discusses extent to which power plants,
transmission systems, and propulsors limit
speed of: 100-ton Gems, 100-ton hydrofoils,
5000-ton CABS, 5000- and 10,000-ton displace-
ment ships; claims state of the art can pro-
vide machinery needed in next 10 years if
developmental work is done on turbines,
reduction gear, propellers, and pumps.
Sheets, H. and Mantle, P., "Air Cushion Craft
Propulsion," AIAA Paper No. 66-731, Los Angeles,
California (Aug 1966).
Electric Boat Company engineers discuss ad-
vantages of various propulsion devicds for
air-cushion craft.
Gabrielli, G. and von Karman, T., "What Price
Speed," Mechanical Engineering (Oct 1950), p. 775.
This interesting paper presents a graphical
 representation (Karman-Gabrielli line) of
minimum power requirements for given maxi-
mum speeds of a wide range of vehicles.
Rossell, H. E. and Chapman, L. B., "Prin-
ciples of Naval Architecture," SNAME Publica-
tions, Vol. II (1955).
Authoritative textbook on naval architecture.
A useful reference containing standard
definitions of performance parameters.
Saunders, H. E., "Hydrodynamics in Ship
Design," SNAME Publications, Vols. I and II
(1957).
Authoritative textbook on ship hydrodynamics;
valuable reference book.
Kuchemann and Weber, "Aerodynamics of Propul-
sion," McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York
(1953).
A textbook containing a complete treatment
of propulsion analysis momentum methods.
Vennard, J. K., "Fluid Mechanics," Fourth
Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York
(1963).
Textbook containing empirical hydraulic
loss data and procedures for the treatment
of duct losses. Classical pump theory.
Gasiunas and Lewis, "Waterjet Propulsion:
A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation
into Propulsion of Seacraft by Waterjets," British
Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 178,
Part I (1963-64).
Runs two prototypes in open water and measures
gross performance and comparison between
test results. P.C. is looked at. A stimu-
lating discussion by several noted British
engineers is included.
Delao, M. M., "Experimental Results on Low
Speed Waterjet Propulsion Systems," (Buehler
Corporation), AIAA Paper No. 66-718, Los Angeles,
California (Aug 1966).
A Buehler pump built for hullborne propul-
sion of a Navy hydrofoil craft is described.
Static and dynamic experimental performance
tests on the 16 1/2-inch diameter pump
designed for the 9-knot craft were conducted.
Specifications included a direct 2500-rpm
drive, 175-horsepower, specific speed
above 26,000, suction above 21,000. Problems
of flow choking and head reduction by cavita-
tion were experienced. The design approach
is given with test results for 5- and 7-
bladed rotors that were tested.
Price, H., "Development Testing of M-185
Aquajet in the Penn-Yan Boat," Curtiss-Wright
Corporation (WAD) Report No. 2 of Project XE-726
(17 Jan 1963).
The report describes Curtiss-Wright Penn-
Yan boat waterjet tests. It appears to be
a good experimental analysis of the perform-
ance of a 25-ft boat at speeds in excess
of 34 mph. Several inlet designs were
24
tested (single and dual). Static and under-
way tests were conducted, including a powering
comparison with a propeller. Engine ratings
ranged from 188-238 horsepower for these
tests. A discussion of the practical problems
encountered, including: hydraulics, hull/pump
interaction, weeds, and instrumentation.
The measured horsepower data are poor, as
stated by the authors.
Aschauer, G. (Twin Disc Clutch Company),
"Waterjet Propulsion Tests," (Three reports:
October 1962 - Apr 1963).
Cooperative testing was conducted by the Twin
Disc Clutch Company and Sewart Seacraft Inc.
Experimental tests were run on a commercial
waterjet propulsion system (conventional and
much-modified). A three-volume report
covering tests of September 1962, November
1962, and April 1963 was written. These
appear to be the same type of tests as re-
ported in Reference 16. The present setup
included thrust-load cells mounted under
the pump mounts.
Contractor, D. N., "Experimental Investiga-
tion of a Waterjet for Shallow Draft Boats,"
Hydronautics Report TR 516-2 (May 1966).
Appears to be a good treatment of a small
boat WJP installation in a "mock" test of a
U.S. Army 1-ton payload, 20-knot boat.
Dimensional and nondimensional performance
curves are presented covering inlet condi-
tions, drag, thrust, trim, effect of inlet
vanes and reverser, SHP, and RPM. Recom-
mended boat installation and design. Tests
conducted in Hydronautics high-V channel.
Hatte, R. and Davis, H., "Selection of
Hydrofoil Waterjet Propulsion Systems," AIAA
Paper No. 66-732, Los Angeles, California
(8-10 Aug 1966).
Hydrofoil boats - selection method for a
waterjet propulsion system - recommendations
for waterjet propulsion system selection
criteria. Discussion of trade-offs and
system considerations. Considerable experi-
mental 1/2-scale model hydrofoil inlet data,
acquired on Boeing's LITTLE SQUIRT, are
known to exist. Discusses ducting loss and
problems facing waterjet propulsion inlets
and describes LITTLE SQUIRT.
Dumov, A., "Calculation of Pressure Head
Characteristics of Axial Helical Impellers,"
Foreign Tech. WPAFB, FTD-TT 63-497 (Jun 1963).
Russian method of calculation for design of
axial-helical impeller, pressure head
characteristics and rate of flow from impeller
configuration, lifting-line theory used in
internal hydraulic calculations; short
experimental correlation test.
Levy, J. (Aerojet-General), "The Design of
Waterjet Propulsion Systems for Hydrofoil Craft,"
SNAME Presentation, Southern California Section
(May 1964).
Discusses the duct losses. Optimization
process for general waterjet propulsion
 installation; paper considers in general:
struts, ducts, scoops, velocity ratio,
nozzle depression angle, possible pump
configurations, and states: "Propulsion
pumps, unlike civil engineering pumps,
require output as kinetic energy." .
Discusses thrust versus speed and cavitation.
Brown, J. and Traksel, J. (Lockheed),
"Waterjet Propulsion Study," Report LR-17885
(Parts 1 through 5) (1963).
Analytical study (internal flow) for pump
selection. Experimental design study
(Byron Jackson) in a loop facility. Ex-
tensive system design procedure; feasibility
studies and system layouts for hydrofoils
and large displacement ships. Empirical
duct data presented. Analytic computer
pressure distribution study. Inlet flow
tests, analytic and experimental. Con-
sidered lip design. Enclosed cavitation
facility ram inlet tests (LUMF).
Kim, H.C., "Hydrodynamic Aspects of Internal
Waterjet Propulsion," Marine Technology (Jan
1966).
Gives condenser scoop data and discusses
inlet parameters and wake intake. Empirical
curves presented and recommendations for
applying the data to-examples of waterjet
ducting systems discussed. Looks at
application to large, ocean displacement
vessels (shown to be less efficient than
propeller); author gives a practical design
procedure.
Johnson, V., Jr., "Waterjet Propulsion for
High-Speed Hydrofoil," AIAA Paper No. 64-306,
Washington, D. C. (Jun-Jul 1964).
Good discussion of duct losses and other
system losses. Design procedure for water-
jet propulsion on hydrofoil craft. An 80-
knot, 500-ton craft example. Interesting
pump discussion, practical considerations
of size, speed, cavitation, single and
double suction; discusses off-shelf state-
of-the-art pumps and hydrofoil waterjet
propulsion configurations.
Traksel, J. and Beck,W..,"Waterjet Propulsion
Marine Vehicles," AIAA Paper No. 62-245, San
Diego, California (Mar 1965).
Optimization study of a waterjet propulsion
system using internal and external energy
balance. Discusses mission, payload,
thrust vectoring, waterjet propulsion
system design for hydrofoil based on Ref. 2.
Gongwer, C. A. (Aerojet-General), "Influence
of Duct Losses on Jet Propulsion Devices,"
Vol. 24, No. 6 (Nov-Dec 1954).
This paper shows the effect of system losses -
on. njpr
Kilgore, U., "The Propulsive Coefficient for
Jet Systems," Great Lakes Section of Society of
Small Craft Designers (Apr 1965).
25
Discusses P.C. in general terms.
Jackson, S. B., "Some Considerations of Jet
Propulsion of Ships," Shipbuilder and Marine
Engine Builder (May 1960), pp. 324-327.
General waterjet propulsion considerations.
Winslow, L. (Curtiss-Wright), "Report on Per-
formance of PBI Pump," Report 700-14 (Oct 1961).
Pump "loop" tests of PBI waterjet pump
impeller (M-185 WHP). Good tests of head,
flow, impeller efficiency, and cavitation.
Unit run at 78 horsepower.
Arcand, L., "Parametric Study Seajet 12-1
Pump Design," Pratt-Whitney, Report FR-1950
(Jul 1966).
Theoretical parametric pump study, internal
pump geometry and blading, generates curves
of pump flow-head performance with cavita-
tion effects.
Aerojet-General Corporation, "Experimental
Tests on Waterjet Propulsion Pumps," von Karman
Center Report UW-65403 (Jan 1965).
Testing done on Aerojet-General's waterjet
propulsion test stand (Report 2798, Jan 1964).
"Hydrocket" and "nozzle pump" were tested,
hydraulic theory presented, and performance
tests varying relevant parameters: flow rate,
suction pressure, velocity distribution,
speed, torque, thrust (test stand reaction),
etc. Includes experimental curves.
Wislicenus, G., "Fluid Mechanics of Turbo-
Machinery," Vols. I and II, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
(1947), Dover Publications (1965).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical pump
theory.
Addison, H., "Centrifugal Pumps and Other
Rotodynamic Machines," Third Edition, Chapman-
Hall Ltd., London (1965).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical
pump theory.
Hunsaker and Rightmyer, "Engineering Applica-
tions - Fluid Mechanics," McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1947).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical
pump theory. Gives empirical data and ways
to treat duct losses.
Stepanoff, A. J., "Centrifugal and Axial Flow
Pumps," John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York
(1948).
Textbook. Refers to existing classical pump
theory.
Acosta, A. J., "Hydrodynamics of Turbo
Machines," California Institute of Technology,
Report 79.9 (Nov 1965).
Summarizes experimental study, intent to
understand turbo-machinery flow, and uses
 results in developing design theory;
cavitation tunnel was built. This paper
and its references (1,2,3,4,5) considered
cavitating inducer, scaling, and cascades.
Series should add considerably to pump
technology.
37. Stripling, L. and Acosta, A. J., "Cavitation
in Turbo Pumps," Transactions ASME (Sep 1962).
Good experimental study along with an
analysis of cascade flow representing a
simple cavitation model. Estimates of
cavitation loss and cavity shapes made;
model tests done at Rocketdyne. Conclusions
contain pointers on blade profiles and
suggestions for better performance.
38. Wong, G., et al (Rocketdyne), "Suppression
of Cavitation and Unstable Flow in Throttled
Turbo Pumps," Journal of Spacecraft, Vol. 2,
No. 1 (Jan-Feb 1965).
Theoretical and experimental check on
method to suppress cavitation and unstable
flow in throttled turbo-pumps. Critical S
increased by 20 to 50 percent. (Critical S
is 2 percent loss in pump head due to
cavitation.) High energy fluid bled from
turbo-pump discharge and injected upstream
of inducer. Uses water in testing.
39. Hale, M. R., "Design of Ducted Impellers
Using Vortex Line Analysis and Optimizing Com-
puter Techniques," University of Adelaide,
M. E. Report R 65/2 (Mar 1965). "Hydrojet
Ducted Propulsion System - Impeller Induced
Vibratory Pressures and Performance Character-
istics," Thesis, University of Adelaide (1967).
Design of ducted propellers using vortex
line. Computer program included.
40. Guinard, F. and Acosta, A., "Experimental
Study of Axial Flow Pump Cavitation," California
Institute of Technology Report E-19.3 (Aug 1953).
41. Jekat, W. K. (Worthington Pump), "A New
Approach to Redesign of Pump Cavitation, the
Hubless Inducer," ASME Paper No. 66-FE-8, Denver
(Jan 1966).
Similar to Reference 37 except on a
"hubiese' (inside-out) inducer.
42. Jekat, W. K., "R and Incidence Effects
on Inducer Cavitation,' ASME Paper No. 66-WA/FE-31,
New York (27 Nov - 1 Dec 1966).
Follow-up on Reference 41 in presenting
additional experimental results.
43. Miller, M. J. (Crouse and Sandercook),
"Summary of Experimental Investigation of Three
Axial Flow Pump Rotors Tested in Water," ASME
Paper No. 66-WA-FE-24, Winter Meeting (27 Nov -
1 Dec 1966).
Experimental work on rotors downstream of
an inducer.
44. Addison, H., "Pump User's Handbook," Isaac
Pitman and Sons Ltd., London (1958).
26
Textbook. Refers to existing classical
pump theory.
45. Hydraulic Institute, "Standards of Hydraulic
Institute."
Handbook of empirical pump data.
46. Laverne, M. E., "New Similarity Parameter for
Jet Pump Cavitation," ASME Cavitation in Fluid
Machinery, Winter Meeting, Chicago (7 - 11 Nov 1965),
A dimensionless similarity parameter for a
jet pump is derived. (Uses a high velocity
jet injection versus rotating impeller.)
Similarity parameter includes cavitation and
is analogous to S.
Van Manen, J. D., "Propellers in Nozzles,"
International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 1,
No. 1 (1954).
Ducted propeller efficiency shown to vary
with definition of efficiency.
Rasmussen and Chisholm, "Calculation of
Pressure Distribution of Inlets for Hydrofoil
Craft Waterjet Propulsion Systems," TM 55-21-17,
LMSC/805078 (Apr 1965).
Analytic, inlet parameters studied, Smith-
Pierce, pressure distribution. Reference
Douglas Aircraft Report ES 26988 (Apr 1958).
Hess, J. L. and Smith, A.M.O., Douglas
Aircraft Engineering Report 1528, 17th Meetting
of ARS (Nov 1962).
A practical method for the calculation of
two-dimensional distribution of bodies in
fluids.
Doyle and Hynes (Gibbs and Cox), "Procedure
for Preliminary Design of Waterjet Propulsion
System for Hydrofoil Ship," G&C M-66-2 (Mar 1966).
Inlet data generated by Reference 2 are
tabulated here. Includes Lockheed's
waterjet design procedure.
Dudley, S. A., "Flow Characteristics of Main
Condenser Injection System Based on Ship Board
Tests," New England Section SNAME Paper (May 1958).
Compilation of accumulated condenser scoop
inlet test data.
Hewins, E. F., "Condenser Scoop Design,"
SNAME Transactions, Vol. 48 (1948).
Dated but valuable inlet design reference.
Weske, J. R., "Investigation of Suction Con-
denser Scoops, Based on Model Tests, Journal
ASNE, Vol. 51, pp. 191-213 (1939).
Valuable condenser inlet model study which
includes effect on hull drag.
Schmidt, H. F., "Theoretical and Experimental
Study of Condenser Scoops," Journal ASNE, Vol. 42,
pp. 1-38 (1930).
 A dated but interesting study.
Frank, J. L., "Pressure Distribution and Ram
Recovery of NACA Submerged Inlets at High Sub-
sonic Speeds," 'MCA RM A-50E03 (Jul 1950).
This report presents ram recovery and mass
flow ratios for NACA submerged inlets for
aircraft air ingestion. Plots of pressure
distribution over the ramp and the inlet
extreme given. Angle of attack was 0.2 to
1.2 deg, M 0.3 to 0.875. Maximum ram
recovery ratios were at M = 0.6 to 0.8.
Nichols, M. R. and Pierpont, P. K., "Pre-
liminary Investigation - Submerged Air Scoop
Utilizing Boundary Layer Suction for Increased
Pressure Recovery," NACA TN 3437 (Apr 1955).
Results of low-speed tests of a submerged
inlet consisting of a convention air scoop
in a dimple in an aircraft fuselage.
Boundary layer control systems tested showed
performance increase. Discusses instability'
in twin internally coupled inlets.
Hinch and McJones (Hughes Tool Company),
"Hydrostreak Water Scoop Study," Hughes Tool
Report HTC 62-42 (Jul 1962).
Static experimental study in which ram
inlets are subjected to free-stream jet.
Data include drag, pressure coefficient,
and inlet velocity ratio.
Delao, M.M., "Practical Consideration of
Waterjet Propulsion," Buehler Corporation, SAE
Vancouver No. 650630 (Aug 1965).
Simple momentum theory and interesting dis-
cussion on practical waterjet propulsion
considerations, experimental curves compare
WJP's, conventional, and supercavitating
propellers. Uses a term "overall pressure
ratio" and concludes that WJP's have more
cavitation control.
Contractor, D., "CAB Inlet Layout Study,"
Hydronautics TR 656-1 (Sep 1966).
Conceptual design layout to optimize ducting
for a large CAB ship.
Arcand, L., "Evaluation Study of Waterjets
for SES, Destroyers, and Hydrofoils," Pratt-
Whitney Report GP-64-126 (Jan 1965).
General layout studies for hydrofoils, CABS,
destroyers, and planing boats. Analytical
curves of gas-turbine water-pump installa-
tion presented.
61. Doyle, J. P. (Gibbs and Cox), "Study of
Propulsion Transmission System for 500-Ton,
60-Knot Hydrofoil," Report M-62-19 (Nov 1962).
Comparison study of the feasibility of hydro-
foil propulsion (500-ton, 80-knot) by:
waterjets, 90-deg drives, MARJET, air props,
gas turbines, electric motors, chain drives,
tape drives, inclined shafts.
27
Arcand, L., "Waterjet Propulsion of Small
Craft," Pratt-Whitney Report FR-1813 (Apr 1966),
Also presented to SNAME, Florida Section, Spring
1966.
Study of waterjet propulsion application to
small planing boats up to 50 feet and 40
knots, gives design procedure for power
requirements.
Dunne, J., "Hydrofoil Propulsion System and
Design," Hydrofoil Symposium No. 2G, SNAME,
Seattle (May 1965).
Hydrofoil propulsion systems, machinery pro-
pulsion plant, general discussions on various
forms it can take. Papers states that "pump
model testing may be very costly."
Meyers, G. R., "Observations and Comments
on Hydrofoils," Hydrofoil Symposium No. 2A,
SNAME, Seattle (May 1965).
Relates Boeing's hydrofoil experience mainly
in regard to structure, propulsor, hydro-
dynamics, and automatic control. LITTLE
SQUIRT's model-test bed is described -
110 hours of foilborne operation in May 1965.
Thurston, S. and Amsler, R., "A Review of
Marine Propulsion Devices," AIAA Paper 65-482, ".
San Francisco, California, Meeting (Jul 1965).
A good general treatment and review of
major marine propulsors, including
waterjet.
Hale, M. and Norrie, D. H., "Hydrojet Pro-
pulsion Reduces Vibration," Engineering (Jul
1964).
Adelaide University, Australia, Mechanical
Engineering Department. This study considers
the vibration advantages of waterjet pro-
pulsion. Discusses system loss and effi-
ciency. Relates vibration with hull forms.
Taggart, R., "A Development Program for an
Improved Hydraulic-Jet Propulsion Device,"
Trelor Contract, ASNE Journal, Vol. 71 (Aug 1959).
U.S. Army Transportation Corps contract
prompted the author to do a development
program study for waterjet propulsion. Paper
lists practical problems including hull
design. Includes considerations for design
of hull duct, impeller machinery, and control
systems, and recommends brief experimental
program for tests of hull model, duct model,
and impeller.
"Hydrojets are Here to Stay," Rivers and
Harbors (Feb 1961).
A spirited, but naive, presentation of
purported success of a device called "hydro-
jet." It does not appear to be very factual.
Lorenz, E., "Comparison between Two Methods of
Marine Propulsion," Great Lakes Section, Society
of Small Craft Designers (Jun 1963).
 This short paper by a Michigan Wheel
Company representative compares a
waterjet installation with a conven-
tional propeller installation and presents
very limited data indicating superior
efficiency of the propeller system.
70. Lerbs, H., "The Present Status of Theoretical
Research on Ship Propellers with Respect to its
Technical Application," David Taylor Model Basin
Translation 243 (Jan 1952).

TABLE 2

1111111
Summary of Experimental Waterjet Work
16666s6 Ms 123452 7flIOLLl2t3441324I1tI 19 20 1 22 3 24 25 26 27 209304233343533333339401424344434447193043233343336 57 se 59 eo 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 SO 69 70

DIIIIIIIMICKIMUDOEMENIEEMMINOCEMOINEMIIMERIONEMIENIMIEMOIMOMILIM

IIIMEME11
1111111111EMEGEEEMOMMINEMME
aM11111111110010111M13111111MIIIMIMMOODEMEIMMI1111111111111111011111111111
1111111111113111131111111MINEMINEINIMEMMINMEMIIMIIIII
..,........-,. , .
r"-- .,,,c->. ,
^-., 13911
11191111111111MMIIIIIMMEN
011111111111111111111111
.1011................................................................O
i ".
SKP

011111111111111110
MIIMMIIMMEM1111111111111111111111111111
13OEIDENIMM1111101
MMMMMMEIMIMIEIIIIIMIIMMMMOIOIIIIMEEEIIMOMMMMMEMMMIIEMMMEIMMIIIMMOMMIIMIMIIMEMIIMIIO

IIIIIIIIIIIIIMAIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMI IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII41111111111
i :::. MIIIMIIIIIII1111:1111111111.11
1113000EIIIIINIM111101111111111.11111101
MEIIMI1111111111111110131:1131311111111111111111111111
.r.
SUP

1110111111111111=1131301
111011111111XIMOOMINMIIIIIIINIMMIIIMMINIMMIIMMIEMMENEENIIIMM
11101111111111190000M111111111111111111111111131
NIEMIIIIIMIIIIIMODEIE113M111111111111111111
.1146146 C66.14.46 5644.4, 4St -tsp. 141141.

28
No. 61-361

WATER JET PROPULSION

by

D. N. CONTRACTOR
and
VIRGIL E. JOHNSON, JR.
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland

Paper No.
67-361

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

venicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
ond Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without perrnission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

5.08
 WATER JET PROPULSION
D. N. Contractor, Research Scientist
and
Virgil E. Johnson, Jr., Chief Engineer
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated
Laurel, Maryland
Abstract
The status of water jet propulsion in the marine field
is reviewed. A brief review of the design principles is
presented so that an optimum choice of water jet param-
eters may be made. The procedure for the proper selection
of the type of pump for a given application is described.
The application of water jet propulsion to three different
types of water craft is presented. The first application is
related to the propulsion of a 20 foot planing boat, the
Ski-Barge, at a speed of 20 knots and with o payload of
one ton. The results of an optimization scheme are given
whereby certain appropriate design parameters are se-
lected so that minimum power is required to propel the
boat. The results of experimental tests on a water jet unit
are presented and discussed. The second application is
related to the propulsion of a 500 ton, 80 knot hydrofoil
craft. The advantages of a system previously proposed by
Johnson are presented. The final application is related
to high speed captured-air-bubble vehicles. The problems
associated with propelling these craft by water jets are
presented and possible solutions suggested.
Introduction
Water jets have, in recent years, been used exten-
sively as the main propulsion system for a wide variety of
water craft. They have been used in small pleasure craft,
high speed coastal patrol boats and have been considered
for propelling hydrofoil craft and "captured air bubble"
vehicles. As the cruise speed of water craft continue to
increase, water jets will be used more frequently, as their
efficiency becomes comparable to that obtained by con-
ventional or supercavitating propellers. Water jets are
preferred over propellers when the boat has to meet certain
specifications. For example, it may be required that the
boat be capable of operation in shallow waters and hence
the thrust producer must not protrude below the keel .
Water jet systems with flush inlets have been known to
operate successfully in very shallow waters. If the boat
is required to operate in weed-infested waters, a chopper
operating at the water jet inlet can make this possible.
For the propulsion of small pleasure craft, that operate
close to swimmers, water jets are chosen for their obvious
safety. In a craft that has to be extremely maneuverable,
water jets can be used very effectively. Maneuverability
can be achieved either by directing the main jet at any
angle to the boat centerline or by having auxiliary side
jets for turning the craft. Another special requirement
that can be met with water jets is the reduction of the
radiation of underwater noise. A cavitating propeller
produces noise that can be detected at considerable dis-
tances from the boat. The noise of a water jet, being of
a quadrupole nature, will not radiate as efficiently and
hence is quieter than a cavitating propeller.
1
Current reasons for water jet propulsion not being
adopted more extensively are its relatively low overall
efficiency, the cost of the unit and its weight and space
penalties. Current water jet designs have indicated that
efficiencies of 40-50 percent are easily attainable. There
are reasons to believe that the efficiency can be increased
by proper design of the inlet and matching of pump and
water jet parameters. The cost, size and weight of the
water jet unit can also be reduced with proper design and
development. We believe that the best water jet systems
have yet to be developed. This future development will
determine whether water jets will be reserved for special
applications or will find more common and extensive usage.
Figure 1 shows three different geometric configura-
tions in which water jets are currently used. Each layout
has its own advantages and limitations. Figure 1(a) is a
common design for boats operating in shallow water. Such
a layout can have high efficiencies and can operate in
weed-infested areas if a weed chopper is located at its
inlet. With a slight sacrifice in efficiency, a small,
light-weight, outboard unit of this type can be designed
for small craft. Figure 1 (b) shows a system in which
maneuverability of the craft is of prime concern. The
frame in which the guide vanes are held can be swiveled
to direct the jet in any direction. The system in Fig-
ure 1(c) illustrates one way in which a hydrofoil boat can
utilize water jet propulsion. The design of water jet
systems for high speed hydrofoil craft has been presented
in considerable detail in Reference 1. A prime reason for
considering water jet systems for the propulsion of a high
speed hydrofoil craft (as opposed to supercavitating pro-
pellers) is that the complex right angle gear drive required
for the propeller system is eliminated.
Review of Design Principles
Thrust
The thrust developed by a water jet system is equal
to the change in momentum of the water entering and
leaving the jet system. The momentum of the water
entering the system may be expressed as
2
dA
A.
where
p is the density of water,
A. is the area of the stream tube entering the
.
inlet, and
 V. is the velocity of the water in the stream Energy Equation
tube.
The energy equation for a streamline passing through
The momentum of the water leaving the system may be the pump is:
expressed as
HR+H-H
L
-h =H.j s
[4 ]

fpV.2 dA
A. In the equation above, HR is the total head re-
covered by the inlets and is equal to the total head Ho of
where
the approaching flow minus the head loss of the inlet. The
V. is the jet velocity, and total head of the approaching flow Ho can be written as
is the area of the jet.
V2
Thus the net thrust of the boat is ho +C2 2g

A.
fpV.2dA - f
Ai
pVi2dA [1]
where

'A. dA
C2 2 r
VdA
In most cases, the jet velocity is uniform over the A.
area of the jet and hence the first term of Equation [1]
pQV., here Q is the discharge. If the flow
wbecomes

and ho is the static pressure of the approaching flow.

approaching the inlet is also uniform and equal to the
boat speed Vo, the second term becomes pC)Vo and If the approaching flow has a uniform velocity Vo, then
Equation [ 1 ] can be simplified to the following C2 is unity. The head loss of the inlet is obtained from
equation:
experimental data and is expressed as R (V2/2g), where
Thrust T = pQ(V.
j - Vo ) = pA.V. (V. -V ) jj j o R is a coefficient that depends on the geometry of the
inlet, the ratio of inlet velocity Vi to boat speed Vo,
V
and on the velocity distribution of the approaching flow.
= pA.V.2 i - v!)-)
V.
[ 2] Thus,
JJ

y2 y2
o
However, the inlet of the water jet system may be H =ho+C
R 2
°
2g 2g
located in a place where the boundary layer along the
hull may have a substantial thickness. In this case, the
momentum of the inflow to the system can be written as Or
V2
Cl pOV0 , HR =ho + (C2 -
R)
2g
[5]

In Equation [ 4] , HL is the internal head loss

where
f V2dA
that occurs in the water jet system and is expressed as
A.
(V02/2g) or as K2 (V.2/2g). In the design of a water
VdA jet system, it is generaily convenient to let
A.
HL = KI(V02/2g). H is the total head developed by the
Equation rl 1 can now be rewritten as pump and H. is the total head of the jet and is equal to
V.2/29 when discharging into the atmosphere. In water
T = pQ (V. - CThrust, Vo) = pA.V.(V. - C1 Vo) jet systems for hydrofoil boats the water has to be lifted
JJJ from the inlet to the centerline of the pumps. This
vertical distance is represented by hs. Substituting these
= pA.V.2
ji (1 - C 1 V . values into Equation [ 4] we get,

2
 Thus, it can be seen that the overall efficiency of
V2 V.2
a water jet depends on the following quantities; the pump
ho + (C2 - R) + H - K1 zg - h =
2g s efficiency q , the loss coefficient K, the velocity ratio

[ 6]. -
V.2 V2 0 j
A'. and the velocity distribution of the flow approaching
the inlet. In order to study how the efficiency varies with
H = h -ho + 2g
- (C2 - R -
these parameters, Equation [91 is presented in Figure 2
s zg
for different values of the loss coefficient K. Curve 1
Or
V.2
shows how 171 varies with 0V N., for K = 0.
j This curve
H - (C2- R - K1) +h shows that even under ideal conditions the efficiency q
2g 2g
will be 100 percent only when VA'. = 1.0. The overall
0 j
efficiency hi is obtained by multiplying q by the pump
where
efficiency n. The remaining curves show the effects on
h =h -h . Ti of varying values of K from 0.1 to 1.0. In Figure 2
it can be seen that .r71 reaches a maximum value at a

Overall Efficiency
j
particular value of 0V /V.. At low values of V N.,
the curves for different values of K essentially coincide
0 j
with each other, indicating that q is only a function of
The overall efficiency n is defined as the ratio of
N. and q and is independent of the loss coefficient
output energy to input energy. Thus, o
K. At high values of V AL, is a function of both
0 J
/V. and K.
TV
o
0j
- [7]
pgQH
p
The optimum value of and the value of VA'.
0 j
at which it occurs, is obtained by differentiating Equa-

Substituting for T and H from Equations [3 1

0 j
tion [ 9] with respect to (V /V.) and equating the result
and to zero. Thus,
[6] , we get

o 1

[10]
2
V
° ( 1 -C V) nopt. VV.
J opt. +
V V 1

- - [8 ]
2
V From Equation [101 , it can be seen that the
1 - (C2-R -K - 2 V. locus of points of optimum efficiency is a straight-line as
o
shown in Figure 2.

The influence of the inlet operating in a boundary

When the flow ahead of the inlet is uniform and the layer flow on the overall efficiency is difficult to as-
velocity is equal to Vo, Equation [81 can be simplified certain precisely. However, its influence can be com-
to the following equation pared to that of a propeller operating in a ship's wake,
and the overall efficiency of the propulsion system can be
expected to increase.
( V )
2 Vo1
V.
- In the consideration of the overall efficiency of the
water jet, one additional factor has to be taken into ac-
"r1
J._
[91
V 2 count. This factor is the interaction of the water jet sys-
{1 - (1-K ) ( ) tem with the boat. The thrust T required of the water jet
system is made equal ta the resistance R of the boat at the
J
design speed. The resistance R is generally obtained from
where tests on a model of the boat. When the tests are conducted,
the model does not have a propulsion system in it. The
K =R + K1 + 2gh/V 2 .
presence of a propulsion system in the boat may increase
or decrease the resistance of the boat at the same speed.
Whether such an interaction between a water jet system
and the boat occurs and what the magnitude of the inter-
action will be, is not yet known, Detailed tests on a
model with a water jet propulsion system in it, will reveal
this influence. Obviously, such tests are extremely im-
portant to the development of detailed design methods.

3
Pump Selection
The head and discharge requirements of the pump
required in a water jet system must be obtained from the
thrust and speed requirements of the boat. The general
layout of the water jet system is decided upon from the
special requirements of the btsat such as shallow-water
operation, maneuverability, inboard or outboard con-
figuration, etc.. An initial value of the loss coefficient
K, is estimated from the layout. The optimum value of
j
V /V. is obtained from Equation [10]
o
and from a
know[edge of Vo, the design jet velocity V. can be ob-
J
tained. Equation [21 can then be used to determine
A. and Equation [6] to obtain the pump head H. The
pump discharge Q is equal to A.V.. These values should
JJ
be used to re-evaluate the loss coefficient K. If it is
different from the assumed value, the procedure should
be repeated.
The head and discharge requirements thus derived
can be met by a single pump or by multiple pumps in
parallel or series. The type of pump most suitable for a
given application depends on the value of a parameter
called the specific speed
N V-Q-
N '
H3/4
where
is the pump speed in RPM,
is the discharge in gallons per minute, and
is the total head developed by the pump in
feet of water.
The following ranges of N, specify the three types of
pumps generally used.
Centrifugal PuMps, N, < 4,000
Mixed-Flow Pumps, 4,000 < N, < 10,000
Axial-Flow Pumps, N, > 10,000
The rotational speed N of the pump is generally
dictated by the available drive. In general, this speed
is kept as high as possible so that the diameter of the pump
required to develop the required head and discharge is
small . An upper limit on the rotational spe.ed is imposed
by cavitation considerations. One method of selecting
the maximum rotational speed such that cavitation does
not occur in the pump is to maintain the suction specific
speed N a certain critical value. The suction
specific speed N defined by the following equation
N - NVQ
ss
(NPSH)3/4
4
where
NPSH Net positive suction head,
= Total head of flow at the entrance
to the pump.
It has been the experience of pump designers that
when pumps are designed to operate at N 8,000,
they are likely to cavitate resulting in vibration, noise,
impeller damage and a drop in the efficiency. By careful
design, this critical value can be raised slightly. The net
positive suction head should not generally be determined
when the boat is operating at the cruise condition. This
consideration results because the net positive suction head
is lower during boat speeds which are lower than the
maximum or cruise speed. Thus, most displacement type
boats require a large thrust under static conditions or very
low speeds to accelerate quickly to their design speed.
Since the NPSH is a minimum under static conditions, the
pump should be designed to operate at its maximum rpm
without cavitation occurring in the pump under this low
value of the NPSH. Certain high-speed craft, for ex-
ample, hydrofoil craft and captured-air-bubble vehicles,
have cruise speeds considerably above the speed at which
a ''hump" occurs in their speed-resistance curve. It is
essential in the design of propulsion systems for such craft
to provide adequate thrust at the 'take-off' speed and
hence the pump is designed to operate cavitation-free
under these conditions.
Application of Water-Jet Propulsion to Small Boats
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated has designed and
tested a water jet system to propel the Ski-Barge, a 20
foot, shallow-draft boat at a speed of 20 knots while
carrying a one-ton payload. This project was sponsored
by the U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development
Laboratories, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia under Contract No.
DA 44-009-AMC-893(T). The speed-resistance curve of
this craft indicated that at 20 knots, the required thrust
is equal to one sixth of the total displacement. Thus for
an estimated displacement of 4800 pounds, the propulsion
system should deliver a thrust of 800 pounds. The aim of
the design was then to deliver 800 pounds of thrust with
a minimum power requirement. This required an optimiza-
tion procedure to be initiated whereby a design with
minimum weight and maximum efficiency could be
determined.
The optimization procedure involved carrying
through a large number of designs, in which certain im-
portant parameters were systematically varied. The design
with the minimum horsepower requirement was then se-
lected as the optimum design. The important parameters
that were varied are listed below:
Number of water jet units in parallel ,
Number of stages used in each water jet
uni t,
Design barometers of water-jet components.
 Width to depth ratio of inlet,
Ratio of inlet velocity V1 to boat
speed V.,
Ramp angle of inlet.
Use of multiple parallel units instead of a single
water jet unit results in an Obrall weight reduction.
Pump rpm can be increased when using multiple units
while keeping the suction specific speed constant. Thus
smaller pumps can be used and the gear reduction between
the engine and the pumps can be smaller. The reduction
in weight of the water jet units must be balanced against
the increase in engine weight that might occur due to the
use of multiple engines.
Multi-staging, the practice of using pumps in series
influences the geometry, weight and efficiency of the
water jet system. It influences the geometry of the system
since two or more axial-flow pumps may be used instead of
a single mixed-flow pump or two or more mixed-flow pumps
can be used instead of a single centrifugal pump. In gen-
eral, multi-staging has a tendency to increase the overall
weight of the system and in the particular studies of the
Ski-Barge, multi-staging required more power for the some
mission.
The variations, that can be studied in the optimiza-
tion procedure of the design parameters of the water jet
components are limitless. the influence of the water jet
inlet on the overall performance is particularly significant.
For the Ski-Barge, it was determined from the optimization
studies that the following inlet design required a minimum
of power:
Width to depth ratio = 2.0
Inlet to boat velocity ratio =1.0
Ramp angle =15°.
The final design of the water jet unit for the Ski-
Barge is shown schematically in Figure 3. The design con-
sists of four water jet units, two on each side of the boat.
Two marine engines are to be used as the prime movers,
each engine being coupled to two water jet units. De-
tails of the machinery layout in the boat are shown in
Figure 4. These water jets have been designed to provide
enough thrust to propel the boat at 20 knots. Under static
conditions, a total thrust of 1400 pounds will be available.
A reverse thrust capability is obtained by deflecting the
jet through an angle of 150° - 180°. In this manner, a
reverse thrust of 70-80 percent of the forward thrust will
be achieved. The weight of water jet propulsion systems
can range in general from 5 to 15 percent of the total dis-
placement of the boat, the lower figure being applicable
to large boats. The weight of the propulsion system for
the Ski-Barge is about 12 percent of the boat's displace-
ment. Details of the preliminary design of these units
are presented in Reference 2.
The need for testing models of water jet systems can-
not be overemphasized. In the design of the water jet sys-
tem, the loss coefficients of the components are not always
available and engineering judgments mus4 be made. Pump
characteristics are known only from experiments conducted
5
under laboratory conditions. When the pump is in the
water jet, the inlet to the pump is different from the lab-
oratory test conditions and hence its performance will be
altered. Because of these uncertainties, it is advisable to
test a model of the prototype in a water channel.
Accordingly, one of the water-jet units designed for
the Ski-Barge was fabricated, installed in the Variable
Pressure, Free Surface Water Channel at HYDRONAUTICS,
Incorporated and tested for its performance characteristics.
A general description of the High Speed Channel at
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated, and its capabilities is
given in Reference 3. The details of the tests of the water
jet unit for the Ski-Barge are presented in Reference 4.
A schematic drawing of the experimental set-up in the
channel test section is shown in Figure 5. The following
quantities were measured to evaluate the performance:
Net thrust of the water jet, T.
Channel velocity V.
Jet velocity V. and jet area A.
Pump rpm
Torque on pump shaft.
These quantities were measured with the model op-
erating under three different conditions. First, the per-
formance of the model under static conditions was studied.
Second, the performance of the model at different channel
speeds was evaluated. Finally, the static reverse thrust
performance of the model was measured.
When a boat is operating under static conditions,
the efficiency of its propulsion system is, of course, zero.
Thus, another parameter must be used to compare the per-
formance of different systems. Such a parameter is CM,
the figure of merit, defined as:
T3/2
Cm - 12
NrpA P
where
T is the thrust in pounds,
p is the density of water,
A is some representative area, e.g. pump area,
and
P is the power absorbed.
This parameter is independent of the rpm of the pump ex-
cept for Reynolds number effects, but will vary when the
geometry of the system is changed. Changes in the jet
area can be considered to be changes in the geometry of
the system and the figure of merit Cm can be used to
determine the optimum jet area. The figure of merit for
the water jet unit tested ranged from 0.6 to 0.7 for dif-
ferent jet areas. At the optimum jet area, the unit was
capable of delivering 400 pounds of thrust at 2320 rpm
and absodoed 28 hp. The same parameter Cm is used to
evaluate the static, reverse thrust capability of the unit.
 The area of the jet and the inclination of the jet
to the keel of the boat were changed systematically and
the jet area and inclination that resulted in the maximum
value of Cm were selected as being optimum. Thus, it
was found that the optimum jet area was 12.0 sq. ins, and
that the optimum inclination was 20 degrees with the
keel of the boat. The figure of merit Cm was calculated
to be 0.53, when operating at the optimum settings. Thus,
it is possible to achieve up to 80 percent of the forward
thrust in the reverse direction.
By far, the largest number of tests were conducted
under dynamic conditions, that is, with water flowing in
the channel at velocities up to 20 knots.
The performance characteristics of water jets are
presented in much the same way as for propellers. Thus,
a thrust coefficient, a power coefficient and overall ef-
ficiency are defined in exactly the same way as for pro-
pellers, and these parameters may be examined for various
values of the advance ratio. The advance ratio may be
o o j
defined as V/nD or V / v.. The use of Vo/V. as the ad-
j The inlet of the water jet unit is of the flush type
vance ratio is more desirable, since the curve of efficiency
versus V /V. provides some indication of the pump ef-
o j
ficiency and the loss coefficient of the system.
The test program for the water jet unit was con-
ducted over a wide range of variables. The procedure
adopted was to maintain the channel velocity at a constant
value Vo and to increase the pump rpm from 1000 rpm to
2500 rpm in steps of 250 rpm. At each rpm, the thrust,
torque and jet velocity were recorded. These tests were
repeated for channel velocities from zero to 35 fps in
steps of 5 fps. This procedure was repeated for several
jet areas, with and without vanes in the inlet of the water
jet, and with and without any trim of the boat.
Providing a water jet system with a variable area
nozzle is the most effective method of operating a water
jet system at its peak performance for different operating
conditions of the boat. Thus, for the cruise condition,
there is one area of the jet for which the overall efficiency
is a maximum. However, this same jel area will in gen-
eral, not be the area which produces a maximum value of
Cm under static conditions. Generally, a larger ¡et
area is required under static conditions than during cruise.
Figures 6 and 7 present the performance character-
istics of the water jet unit for the Ski-Barge. Figure 6
shows how the thrust and power coefficients vary with
V /V.. For small changes in the jet area, the thrust and
o j
power coefficients do not change significantly. However,
for large changes in the jet area, say greater than 35 per-
cent, the thrust coefficient will decrease and the power
coefficient will increase. Figure 7 shows how the effi-
ciency varies with V /V. for different jet areas. It can
o j
be seen in Figure 7 that there is one jet area which results
in the maximum efficiency, and this area should be chosen
j
for cruise operation. The value of Vo /V. at which this
maximum efficiency occurs can be used to obtain V. and
the pump speed at which that jet velocity can be achieved
can be obtained from the curves of V/nD versus V /V..
o o j
The absolute values of the thrust and power under these
conditions can then be calculated from the thrust and
power coefficients at the same value of V /V..
o j
As explained previously, the overall efficiency of a
water jet unit operating at a small value of V A/.
o j
(soy 0.2) is dependent only on the pump efficiency and is
independent of the internal loss coefficient. Hence, a
knowledge of the measured overall efficiency enables the
pump efficiency to be estimated. It is to be expected that
this efficiency will be lower than the efficiency measured
in a laboratory test because of the non-uniform inflow
conditions to the pump when operating in a practical water
jet unit. Knowing the pump efficiency, the loss coef-
ficient may be estimated from the peak overall efficiency.
These values are helpful in determining whether the water
jet unit is performing according to design expectations.
since the Ski-Barge is designed to operate in shallow water.
In order to improve the flow into the inlet, a series of
vanes were installed to direct the flow properly into the
inlet. These vanes were adjustable and both static and
dynamic tests were conducted with the vanes set at dif-
ferent angles. Under static conditions, the optimum vane
angle was 150 to the horizontal and under these conditions,
the figure of merit Cm increased by 15 to 20 percent above
the value obtained without vanes. Under dynamic con-
ditions, the efficiency of the system increased 2-3 per-
centage points above the efficiency without any vanes.
Thus it can be stated that vanes in the inlet improve the
performance of the craft.
A few tests were conducted with the model at a 20
trim. These results indicated that a slightly higher thrust
and efficiency were obtained at 2° trim than at e trim.
A better performance is to be expected since the losses in
the inlet decrease with increasing trim.
The tests on the water jet unit showed that all design
criteria were met for the different operating conditions of
the boat.
Application to High-Speed Hydrofoil Craft
In the design of a water jet propulsion system for
large, high speed hydrofoil craft, certain special problems
are encountered and the following section deals with pos-
sible solutions to those problems. The problems relate to
keeping the efficiency as high as possible while minimizing
the weight of the propulsion system. As explained in a
previous section, the peak efficiency depends on the loss
coefficient K and the pump efficiency. The pump effi-
ciency for large hydrofoil cr rrt can be expected to be 85-
90 percent because of the high Reynolds number at which
they operate. Obviously, the loss coefficient K must be
as small as possible. It should be recalled that the value
of K is not just due to the energy loss in the system but also
6
 includes the term 2gh/V.2 where h is the height of the
centerline of the pumps above the free water surface. In
the case of high speed hydrofoil craft operating in sea
states as high as 6, h can be large and this height con-
tributes to a larger K and lower peak efficiency. Despite
this increase in the value of K, an examination of the
minimum losses that occur in such a system indicate that
an overall efficiency of approximately 60 percent is en-
tirely possible.
The weight of a water jet system can become ex-
cessive and is a handicap that must be overcome. The
weight of the system consists of the weight of the water in
the system, the weight of the pumps and ducting and the
weight of the reduction gears between the prime mover
and the pumps. The weight of the water in the system can
be reduced by decreasing the path of the water from inlet
to outlet consistent with maintaining a low loss coefficient.
There are several known methods of reducing the weight
of pumps and these methods must be used to the maximum
extent to minimize the weight of water jet systems. These
methods will now be discussed. First, use of an aluminum
alloy for fabrication will reduce the weight, without
sacrificing stre'ngth. The use of multiple pumps in parallel
is a well known method of reducing the weight. For ex-
ample, a single double-suction centrifugal pump is pre-
ferred to two, single suction centrifugal pumps. This
weight reduction is partly due to the fact that when pumps
are used in parallel, the total discharge is divided between
the number of pumps. Because of the lower discharge, the
pump speed can be increased to maintain the same suction
specific speed. Furthermore, it is known that pumps that
operate at higher speeds will be smaller to deliver the same
head and discharge. Increasing the rpm of the pump also
reduces the weight of the reduction gears between the
prime mover and the pumps.
The design of a water jet system for a hydrofoil craft
as shown in Figure 1(c), though simple, will be very heavy.
If the methods of weight reduction enumerated in the last
paragraph are to be utilized, a new system would have to
be designed. One such design has been presented by
Johnson in Reference 1. The design described in Reference
1 is for a 500 ton, 80 knot hydrofoil craft. An anal ysis of
a water-jet system similar to that in Figure 1(c) reveals
that its weight would be about 150 tons. This weight is
prohibitive and to be practical should be reduced to 5-10
percent of the total displacement of the craft. This novel
design presented in Reference 1 and shown schematically
in Figure 8, consists of placing multiple, double suction
pumps in the struts connecting the hydrofoils to the hull of
the craft. All the pumps are located in the struts and have
a common shaft parallel to the strut. The inlets to the
pumps are located near the leading edge of the strut and
the discharge is directed back through the trailing edge of
the strut. The drive shaft terminates in a right angle gear
box at the top of the strut. This design of a water jet sys-
tem has several advantages from the point of view of ef-
ficiency and total weight. The efficiency will be high
because the overall loss coefficient K will be small . Since
there is little or no static lift, the NPSH will be high and
for the same suction specific speed, a higher pump speed
and hence a smaller pump diameter can be used. The path
of the water from the inlet to the outlet is reduced to a
7
minimum and hence the weight of 'on-board water is
very low. Deflection of the jet by means of flaps is easy
to accomplish to maneuver the hydrofoil craft. Because
of these outstanding features, such a design concept or a
similar one merits the consideration of everyone interested
in high speed hydrofoil craft.
Application to High Speed 'Cab' Vehicles
In recent years, considerable interest has been given
to the design of high speed 'Captured Air Bubble' vehicles.
Water jet propulsion is a strong contender for the propulsion
of these vehicles. HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated has
made a series of conceptual design studies of water jet
propulsion systems for a 'CAB' vehicle. These studies
were made for the David Taylor Model Basin under Con-
tract number NI 67-413(X) and the details of this work are
reported in Reference 5. The particular 'CAB' vehicle
for which these studies were made has a displacement of
4000 tons and is shown schematically in Figure 9. The
water jet propulsion system is designed to fit into the two
side skegs of the vehicle. Six marine, gas turbine engines
were selected as the prime movers to drive six pumps. The
design requirements for these pumps were estimated on the
assumption of a certain loss coefficient and overall ef-
ficiency. It is anticipated that these pumps would each
be about 5' in diameter. The purpose of the studies con-
ducted by HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated was to deter-
mine whether the assumed loss coefficient was realistic,
to indicate the design problems and to suggest solutions.
The layout of the three water jet systems and the gas
turbine engines in each skeg was also considered to be a
problem. The hydrodynamic problems that must be solved
for this "CAB" vehicle will now be discussed.
Inlet Design
In the design of water jet propulsion systems for high
speed water craft, special attention should be given to the
design of the inlets because the inlet loss is higher than the
loss in any other component, and at high speeds, the inlet
is likely to cavitate. The inlet must be designed in such a
way that it provides enough water for the pumps under all
operating conditions of the ship, with a minimum loss of
energy and without cavitation occurring anywhere in the
inlet. Another requirement of a satisfactory inlet is that
it should add as little drag to the ship as possible.
There are two operating conditions of the ship that
are critical in the design of inlets: (a) the cruising con-
dition and (b) the take-off or "hump resistance" condition.
The inlet should perform satisfactorily under both con-
ditions. Two types of inlets have been considered for the
'CAB' vehicle. The first is the submerged or flush type and
the other is the scoop type. Each of these inlets is de-
scribed in the following section along with advantages and
disadvantages of each.
Submerged or Flush-Type Inlet
This type of inlet has been studied in considerable
detail for use in aircraft engines and Reference 6 is a de-
tailed report on its experimental performance. The vari-
ables that influence the performance of a flush inlet are
the ramp angle a, the width-to-depth ratio w/d, the
planform of the inlet and the ratio of inlet to approach
velocities VI/V. An examination of a large amount of
experimental data reveals that an inlet with a curved
diverging planform, a 50 - 70 ramp angle and a w/d
ratio of 3-5 offers optimum performance. The loss coef-
ficient of such an inlet is shown in Figure 10, as a func-
tion of V1/V. In order to check on the possibility of
cavitation occurring in the inlet, the measured pressure
distributions must be examined. For the 'CAB' vehicle
under consideration, the minimum allowable pressure
coefficient
hv -h a -h
p des.
- lip of the submerged inlet and an adjustable lip is the
vo
2g
has been calculated to be -0.12 during cruise and -0.5
during take-off. There are two regions in a flush inlet
where negative pressures are to be expected. The first
location is along the inner surface of the ramp and the
second is on the lip of the inlet. By selecting a small
enough ramp angle, the minimum pressure coefficient
C along the ramp can be made greater than -0.12.
Pmin
It is a much more difficult task to keep the lip from
cavitating.
For a given ramp and lip geometry, the pressure
distribution on the lip changes radically with the velocity
ratio VIA/0. Thus, the lip will cavitate on the outside
surface for low values of V1/4'/0 andan the inside for
large values of V1/V. It should also be noted that the
flow into the inlet is not two-dimensional and hence
there is a variation of pressure along the width of the in-
let. For the cruise condition, the ratio V1/V0 is se-
lected to be the one for which the loss coefficient is a
minimum. From Figure 10, this ratio is 0.5. An ex-
amination of the pressure distribution on the lip at
VIA/0 = 0.5 (see Figure 11) reveals that cavitation will
occur along the outside surface of the lip. In order to
eliminate this cavitation, the shape of the lip will have
to be modified. When this is accomplished, the inlet
will operate satisfactorily during cruise. However,
during take-off, the same inlet will operate at a VI/V0
ratio of 1 .0, since Vo during take-off is generally only
half of Vo during cruise and since V1 remains constant.
Under these conditions, the lip will begin to cavitate
along the inside surface. To avoid this cavitation,
either of two methods may be employed. First, the lip
incidence may be changed so that the stagnation point
lies exactly at the leading edge of the lip. Figure 11
shows how C varies with lip incidence for flush
Pmin
inlets. The second method is to decrease the value of
VIA/0 by a slight change in the geometry of the inlet.
These changes in geometry and performance can best be
studied by experiment.
8
Scoop-Type Inlets
Scoop inlets have been used in the past in ships
ta supply water for condensers and in airplanes as the
main air-induction system for jet engines. Performance
data of scoop inlets for specific applications are available
in technical literature such as References 7 and 8. A
more general report similar to Reference 6 on submerged
inlets is not known to exist for scoop-type inlets. The
inlet loss of a scoop inlet is much lower than that of a
submerged inlet and this is one of its advantages. How-
ever, the drag of a scoop inlet depends on the shape and
length of the fairing behind it and will in general be
larger than the drag of submerged inlets. The problem of
cavitation occurring on the scoop is similar to that on the
solution to that prob1em. The final choice of inlet must
be made only after experimental studies of both internal
loss and external drag are conducted on both types of
inlets.
The conceptual studies conducted revealed that
the losses can be kept low enough so that an overall ef-
ficiency of 60-65 percent can be realized. The problems
that must be faced include the proper choice of the inlet,
cavitation-free design of inlet and perhaps of the jet
nozzle, and the arrangement of the systems in the skeg.
The overall weight of the system can be kept between 5
and 10 percent of the displacement of the craft.
Conclusions
It has been shown that water jet propulsion sys-
tems are particularly suited for certain applications,
e.g. shallow-water craft and high speed craft. Water
jet systems for small craft currently have overall ef-
ficiencies of approximately 50 percent. This efficiency
can be increased to 60 percent for large, high-speed
water craft. Some development effort has to be made
to reduce the overall weight of water jet systems. This
effort has to be directed towards the development of
low weight, multiple, parallel pumps. For high speed
craft, the design of cavitation-free inlets and nozzles
may present some problems.
The problems associated with water jet propulsion
are not insurmountable. A program of experimental re-
search can make water jets an efficient, light-weight
and practical form of marine propulsion.
References
Johnson, V. E., Jr., "Water Jet Propulsion for
High Speed Hydrofoil Craft," AIAA Paper No.
64-306, First AIAA Annual Meeting, Washington,
D. C., June 29 - July 2, 1964.
2. Contractor, D. N., "Design Study of Water Jet
Propulsion Systems for Shallow Draft Boats,"
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Report 51 6-1, April 1965.
Johnson, V. E., Jr., and Goodman, A., "The
HYDRONAUTICS Variable-Pressure, Free-Surface,
High-Speed Channel ASME Symposium on
'Cavitation Research Facilities and Techniques,'
1964.
(o)

Contractor, , D. N . , 9'Experimental I nvesti gati on

of a Water Jet Propulsion System for Shallow Draft
Boats,'' HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical
Report 516-2, May 1966.

Contractor, D. N., ''Conceptual Design Studies V

of Water Jet Propulsion Systems for 'CAB Vehicles,"
HYDRONAUTICS, Incorporated Technical Re- (b)

port 656-1, September 1966.

Mossman, E. A., and Randall , L. M., "An

Experimental Investigation of the Design Variables
for NACA Submerged Duct Entrances," NACA RM
A7I30, January 1948.

Hewins, E. F., and Reilly, J. R., "Condenser

Scoop Design," Trans. SNAME, p. 277, 1940.

Watson, E. C., "Some Low-Speed Characteristics (C)

of an Air Induction System Having Scoop-Type

Inlets with Provisions for Boundary-Layer Control ,"
NACA RM A51F15, August 28, 1 951. FIGURE 1 - GEOMETRIC CONFIGURATIONS OF WATER JETS

1.0
CURVE I
K=0

0.8

K = 0.1

0.6
C

K 0.

/ LOCUS OF PTS.
/6./1- OF MAX .
02

02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

VeNi

V
FIGURE 2 - PLOT OF n- VERSUS .-N ° FOR WATER JET SYSTEMS

9
 DIFFUSER OUTLET
/6-1/2" DIA. NOZZLE DIMEN.

ligra
DIFFUSER INLET SHAFT HOUSING 4" X 3"
3" X 6"

SHAFT TO
4"

,dilrIENIESM1111*-A
R =4-1/2" GEAR BOX

PUMP DETAILS: INLET LENGTH =1.5. -.14- DIFFUSER LENGTH = 1.5' -44- PUMP AND NOZZLE = 1.5'
INLET TIP DIA. = 6-1/2"
OUTLET TIP DIA. = 8" 4.5'
SPEED = 2300 RPM
HEAD =41.5 -H20 ELEVATION SIDES ADJUSTABLE TO CHANGE
JET VELOCITY IN MAGNI TUDE
DISCHARGE = 1700 GPM
AND DIRECTION
PROPULSION SYSTEM DETAILS:
VVV. =1.0
w /d =2.0
3"
= 1 5°
SHAFT HOUSING---''
611

PLAN

FIGURE 3 - DESIGN DETAILS OF FOUR-JET PROPULSION SYSTEM FOR THE SKIBARGE

NOZZLE PA E COMP. UNPAGIS El

PROFILE CIECEEZCIM
Et,

13121S11
lo) EII=2: 1101
13122SCIIIIIMICI
EICTUMMEME1111
1210=12231IN
I . nI/
,W.ct ED4EC,U.7/. ,,,[1:

El
ENGINE LOOP -GSOLNE
P CA SOLI

FIGURE 4 - MACHINERY LAYOUT IN SKI-BARGE

10
 RIGHT ANGLE SCREW JACK
GEAR ROX (2) ( TO CHANGE SUPPORTED ON TOP OF
TRIM ANGLE) HIGH SPEED CHANNEL

POWER DRIVE TO
75 H.P. MOTOR TO MANOMETER
FRAMEWORK TO
SLUICE GATE SUPPORT WATER JET
TOTAL HEAD TUBE
THRUST AND FOR JET VELOCITY
TORQUE GAGES
BAFFLES

LINEAR
BALL BEARING

PITOT-STATIC TuBE FOR

FORWARD VELOCITY

CHANNEL BOTTOm

FIGURE 5 - SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT

I-2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

02 04 06 08 1.0
/6.

FIGURE 6 - PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATER JET UNIT FOR THE

SKI-BARGE. K AND K VERSUS V /V
2 P2 o j

11
 PUMPS
PLENUM /JET DERECTION FLAPS

PLAN VIEW

HULL

32 PUMP UNITS

JET DEFLECTION FLAP

WATER ROM
SCOOP INLET

02 0.4 06 08 ELEVATION VIEW SECTION

BACK VIEW
Vo/V.
AT STRUT CENTERLINE

FIGURE 7 - PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATER JET FIGURE 8 - MULTIPLE IMPELLER PUMP ARRANGEMENT WITH PUMPS IN STRUTS
UNIT FOR THE SKI-BARGE. EFFICIENCY AND OF HYDROFOIL CRAFT
V /nD VERSUS Vo /V.
o j

r- A

AFT FLAP
AIR BUBBLE

ELEVATION
L- A

SECTION A-A

FIGURE 9 - SCHEMATIC DRAWING OF 4000 T "CAB" SHIP

12
0.5

Vi
d
a
CURVED DIVERGENCE; :J., = 0.4

RAMP ANGLE a <1 Vo

0.4
0 5°

0.3

0.2

0.1
0
..,
6
z
o
u

,5
'-'

,..,
ca

>
.
o 02 0.4 06 08 1.0 12 4

/Vo

FIGURE 10 - VARIATION OF INLET LOSS FOR FLUSH INLETS

CURVED DIVERGENCE ; g = 4.0

C CRUISE CONDITIONS
P

-0.2

LIP INCIDENCE
-0.4 (ROTATING ABOUT
POINT A)
C de,. AT TAKE-OFF
0-5°
Oe
-0.6
\ OUTSIDE SURFACE
---- INSIDE SURFACE

-0.8

-1 2
o 02 04 06 08 10 1.2 1 4 1.6

V1/Vo

FIGURE 11 - VARIATION OF C p min

. WITH LIP INCIDENCE FOR FLUSH INLET

13
No. 61362

THE WATER-AUGMENTED TURBOFAN ENGINE

A NEW CONCEPT IN MARINE PROPULSION
by

W. RICHARD DAVISON and THOMAS J. SADOWSKI

United Aircraft Research Laboratories
East Hartford, Connecticut

Paper No.
67-362

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given ta author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
5.08
 THE WATER-AUGMENIED TURBOFAN ENGINE - A NEW CONCEPT IN MARINE PROPULSION
W. Richard Davison and Thomas J. Sadowski
United Aircraft Research Laboratories
East Hartford, Connecticut
ABSTRACT
This paper describes a novel lightweight propul-
sion scheme, based on the injection of large amounts
of water into the fan discharge duct of an aircraft-
type turbofan engine, for use in high-speed surface
effect ships. Theoretical design and off-design
performance estimates for this water-augmented tur-
bofan engine are presented for boat speeds from 25
to 100 knots. In addition, thOeffect on ideal
performance caused by variations of injection water
flow rates as well as the reduction in ideal per-
formance caused by two-phase flow losses are indi-
cated. The results show.that in many marine vehicle
applications the slightly lower performance of the
water-augmented turbofan engine, relative to more
conventional propulsion systems, is more than
compensated for by its extremely low system weight.
INTRODUCTION
With speed becoming increasingly important in
air and land transportation, it is only natural
that some of the impetus for higher speeds would
eventually find its way into the field of marine
surface vessels. This increased emphasis on high-
er speeds has forced the marine architect to resort
to unconventional ship designs (such as the captured
air bubble, hydrofoil, and planing types) cavable
of attaining cruise speeds up to 100 knots. (1,2,3)
Of equal importance to the development of new ship
designs, however, has been the development of light-
weight propulsion systems which not only must be
matched with these new designs to operate efficiently
over a wide range of speeds,but which also must
attain this operation with a high degree of reli-
ability. Two of the most frequently mentioned pro-
pulsion systems which have evolved from studies of
advanced marine vessel systems are the waterjet and
supercavitating propeller, each driven by a shaft-
turbine engine. In many applications, however,
these propulsion systems are plagued with the dis-
advantage of high weights, i.e., the waterjet pump
components and the supercavitating propeller blade
and gearbox, which tend to offset the attractive
features of the lightweight shaft-turbine engine.
From time to time lightweight aircraft-type turbo-
jet and turbofan engines have been suggested as
potential propulsion systems for high-speed marine
systems, but unfortunately their characteristically
high jet exhaust velocities result in low propul-
sive efficiencies which preclude their direct use
in marine vessels over the speed regime under
present consideration.
1
Studies of methods to improve the performance of
turbojet and turbofan engines were initiated at the
United Aircraft Research Laboratories more than
three years ago. It was believed that if the mass
flow of a turbojet or turbofan engine could be
increased with no accompanying increase in fuel
flow the thrust and propulsive efficiency could be
improved. Previous studies have proved that jet
engine thrust can be substantially augmented by
injecting water into the compressor inlet and
burner. This is done to boost thrust on present-
day aircraft, particularly during hot-day con-
ditions. However, each of these methods requires
the use of high-purity water, since the use of
water containing large amounts of contaminants
(i.e., dissolved salts) severely limits engine life.
Therefore, the object of the present approach was
to determine what performance improvements would be
attained if water, divided into small particles by
mechanical forces, were injected into and mixed
only with the engine exhaust air. Theoretically,
the exhaust air should exchange its momentum and
energy with the injected water, exhaust velocities
should be reduced, and propulsive efficiency should
increase. In addition, the water, whether contain-
ing contaminants or not, should contact no moving
engine parts, and therefore the system should be
suitable for operating indefinite periods of time.
The results of these detailed studies conducted at
the United Aircraft Research Laboratories are the
subject of this paper.
CONCLUSIONS
Theoretically, the design thrust of turbofan
engines incorporating a 4.0-to-1.0 bypass ratio and
a 1.5-to-1.0 fan pressure ratio can be increased by
amounts varying from 380% at 25 knots to 90% at 100
knots when water taken directly from a ramscoop is
injected at high rates of flow into the fan dis-
charge airstream.
In general, the water weight within a water-
augmented high-bypass-ratio turbofan engine and its
inlet system is a small portion of the total weight
of the marine vehicle within which it is installed.
Low system weight coupled with good perfor-
mance makes the water-augmented turbofan quite
competitive with the waterjets and supercavitating
marine propellers driven by shaft-turbine engines,
particularly in hydrofoil and planing boat ap-
plications.
 PROPULSION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Early evaluations indicated that water injected
into the relatively high-temperature exhaust gas of
a turbojet causes the net thrust to decrease
because the water vaporizes in the hot exhaust gas,
absorbs energy in the form of latent heat of vapor-
ization, and thus subtracts from the available
energy in the exhaust which is recoverable as use-
ful thrust. Similarly, water injected into the
exhaust of a mixed-flow turbofan engine results
only in a small thrust increase.(4) This single,
most important fact essentially eliminates turbo-
jets and mixed-flow turbofan engines from consider-
ation as potential marine propulsion systems using
the momentum exchange water-injection concept. An
alternate system is the turbofan engine where the
fan and the gas generator flow streams are dis-
charged through separate exhaust nozzles.
WATER MANIFOLD
r SPRAY NOZZLES
MIXING DUCT
INLET
Low'rn
PREssuRE
BURNER
0M-PRES;TR
NG DUCT
HIGH PRESSURE COMPRESSOR
RAMSCOOP
BOTTOM HULL LINE
WATER
iNLET
FIG. I- SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF A HYPOTHETICAL HIGH-BYPASS-RATIO
TURBOFAN ENGINE WITH FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION
A schematic diagram illustrating the use of
water injection in a turbofan engine with separate
exhaust streams is shown in Fig. 1. The fan dis-
charge duct (comprised of the mixing duct and the
exhaust nozzle) is necessarily larger than those of
a conventional turbofan engine because of the in-
creased mass flow and the reduced velocities of
the two-phase air-water mixture. A ramscoop water
inlet, through which the injection water enters
the system, is located below the water level. A
duct leads from this inlet to a water manifold
surrounding the engine, and appropriate water-
injection nozzles extend from this manifold into
the fan discharge duct as shown. No pump is in-
cluded in this system, since its use would not only
add mechanical complexity and weight but would also
result in performance levels no different from
those produced by a shaft-turbine-driven waterjet.
PERFORMANCE ASSUMPTIONS
The characteristics of the gas generator selected
for the study were assumed to be those for the
Pratt & Whitney JT3-type engine.(5) It was further
assumed, for the majority of calculations made,
that the bypass ratio of the fan was 4.0-to-1.0,
and its pressure ratio 1.5-to-1.0. Wherever
possible, however, the results are presented in
ratio form, so that the conclusions reached are not
limited to this particular engine.
The design point performance studies were con-
ducted for a speed range from. 25 to 100 knots.
Engine net specific thrust was calculated as a
function of the mass ratio of water to the gas gen-
erator airflow. This ratio was systematically in-
creased until a continuous decrease in specific
thrust was obtained. J13-type gas generator mixing
calculations were based on the use of property data
from the Gas Tables and Steam Tables. 6,7)
A ram pressure recovery (RPR) factor, defined as
the fraction of the dynamic pressure head (created
by the forward velocity of the vehicle) recovered
In the ramscoop water inlet, of 0.70 was used for
all cases. This factor, although low by aircraft
practice, is presently representative of the frac-
tion of the free-stream dynamic pressure head that
is recovered after water has passed through the
ducts and elbows of the water inlet system. (8,9)
The total pressure in the water inlet ducts was
FAN EXHAUST NOZZLE
assumed equal to the free-stream static pressure
plus the pressure recovered from the inlet kinetic
energy. No pressure losses due to elevation cor-
L-0WruPARBEZURE
rections were included in this analysis, since
HIGH PRESSURE TURBINE
these corrections are usually small relative to the
FAN EXHAUST NOZZLE
total pressure of the inlet water and are also a
function of vehicle design.
--
In all cases it was assumed that the fan dis-
charge air velocity is diffused to Mach 0.20 by the
time it reaches the water injector location. It was
also assumed that the injected water and the fan dis-
charge air are thoroughly and ideally mixed within
the mixing duct before reaching the discharge nozzle
inlet plane. Further, it was assumed that kinetic
and thermal equilibria are attained in the mixing
duct before the exhaust nozzle inlet plane. Thermal
equilibrium was not assumed to be attained within
the fan exhaust nozzle, but rather, the air temper-
ature drop was assumed to be 10 F greater than for
the water. However, kinetic equilibrium of the
mixture was assumed within the exhaust nozzle.
Both specific thrust and system propulsive ef-
ficiency were calculated at each water-injection
rate. Specific thrust is defined as the total
engine net thrust divided by the gas generator mass
flow and includes thrust losses due to the momentum
drag of the water and air captured by the water and
air inlets, respectively. System propulsive effi-
ciency is defined as engine thrust horsepower
divided by the gas horsepower available at the exit
of the gas generator. System propulsive efficiency
as defined in this paper is slightly different from
the more conventional efficiency term propulsive
coefficient (PG). Propulsive coefficient is defined
as the system propulsive efficiency divided by the
power turbine adiabatic efficiency. Power turbine
adiabatic efficiency was assumed to be 0.85. This
is primarily a bookkeeping difference resulting
from the fact that the water-augmented turbofan
2
engine produces no net shaft work output. The ad-
RESULTS BASED ON USE OF A JT5- TYPE GAS GENERATOR
ditional drag due solely to locating the ramscoop FAN PRESSURE RATIO.15-TO-1.0
inlet below the waterline was not charged to the FAN BYPASS RATIO . 4.0- TO-1.0
propulsion system, since this drag varies with
operating conditions and therefore must be con- 600
sidered separately for each particular vehicle ap- BOAT SPEED 25 KNOTS
plication. A complete list of assumptions and E
specifications used in the analysis is presented in ti 500
Table 1, while a discussion of the results obtained
from a detailed analysis of the two-phase flow be-
4.1
WATER- TO -GA S GENERATOR AIR
havior in the fan mixing duct and exhaust nozzle is 3 400- PAASS RATIO CORRESPONDING
TO ONBOARD VATER WEIGHTS
presented in Appendix I. OF
co 50 KNOTS A - 5,000 LB
Comparative performance levels and weights for B-KpooLe
-7..!
(SEE TEXT)
shaft-turbine-driven waterjets and supercavitating
marine propellers used tu evaluate the water7aug-
mented turbofan are based on published data.°-°, 11)
m 200
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
HIGH-BYPASS-RATIO TURBOFAN
X 100 - WITHOUT WATER INJECT ION
The following section contains a detailed dis-
cussion of the theoretical design performance char-
acteristics of the water-augmented turbofan engine Z.3

I i I
at speeds from 25 to 100 knots, the off-design per- a 1

400
1

formance of this propulsion system at 50 knots, and
the results of an illustrative hydrofoil boat ap-
plication. In addition, discussions of the per-
formance characteristics of gas-turbine-driven
waterjets and supercavitating propellers used in
marine vessels similar to those considered for the
water-augmented turbofan engine are presented.
Engine Design-Point Performance
The theoretical design-point specific thrust of
the water-augmented turbofan engine is shown in
Fig. 2 as a function of water-to-gas generator air
mass flow ratio and vehicle speed. The maximum
values of specific thrust are 576, 341, and 192 lb
thrust/lb/sec of gas generator air for vehicle
speeds of 25, 50, and 100 knots, respectively.
These values compare with the dry engine specific
thrust ratings of 121, 118, and 106 lb thrust/lb/sec
500 600
U) 0 00 200 300
WATER-TO-GAS GENERATOR AIR MASS FLOW RATIO-LB/LB
FIG.2-PERFORMANCE VARIATION OF A TURBOFAN ENGINE
WITH WATER INJECTION RATE AND BOAT SPEED
of gas generator air, respectively. The shapes of
the curves illustrated are typical of design-point
curves which would occur at other speeds. The
initial increase in thrust results from the in-
creased mass flow through the fan duct. As the
water-to-air mass flow ratio increases, however,
diminishing returns are experienced, and the spe-
cific thrusts eventually decrease from their re-
spective maximum values because of the increasing
influence of the inlet water momentum drag. It
should be noted that the high levels of thrust can
be partially attributed to the fact that little

25, 50 and
Boat Speeds
100 knots
Compressor Pressure Ratio 13.8
Compressor Efficiency (polytropic) 90%
Fan Bypass Ratio 4.o
Fan Pressure Ratio 1.5
Fan Efficiency (polytropic) 90%
Turbine Efficiency (adiabatic) 85%
Nozzle Velocity Coefficient (exhaust) 0.98
Inlet Air Temperature 60 F
Inlet Water Temperature 60 F
Static Pressure in Mixing Duct 21.2 psia
Water Ramscoop Pressure Recovery Factor (RPR) 0.70
Wáter-to-Fan Air Exhaust Nozzle Velocity Ratio 1.0
Temperature Difference Between Air and Water
at Exit of Fan Exhaust Nozzle 10 F
Mixing Duct Drag Coefficient O

TABLE 1 LIST OF ASSUMPTIONS AND SPECEFICATIONS USED IN

ANALYSIS OF WATER- INJECTED TURBOFAN ENGETES

3
 FAN BYPASS RATIO 4.0 -TO-1. 0 Since the inlet water duct would most likely be
FAN PRESSURE RATIO 1.5-T0-1.0 a fixed-geometry design sized for a particular boat
SYSTEM PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY PROPULSIVE speed, some performance compromises will have to be
COEFFICIENT X POWER TURBINE EFFICIENCY made to operate the water-injected turbofan engine
CALCULATIONS BASED ON USE OF P IS WA J13-TYPE GAS GENERATOR
over a range 6f boat speeds. For example, if the
water-inlet duct were sized to handle the water
50
flow corresponding to maximum specific thrust at 50
knots, this duct would be approximately 4 times too
large to handle the water required for maximum spe-
**** 40 cific thrust at 100 knots (see Fig. 2). Conversely,
)- WiTH FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION
a duct sized at 50 knots would be only the size
o
2
la
/ necessary to handle the water flow necessary to
5
iiu. 30 // achieve maximum specific thrust at 25 knots. In

w / this illustration the factors of approximately 4

w
/ and
Zri
-1 20 i to-gas generator air mass flow ratio required to
D
a. 1 attain maximum thrust varies approximately as the
0
cc
a
/ reciprocal of boat speed (see Fig. 2).
WITH NO WATER INJECTION
2 i
w 10
>.
0 -, I I I I
0 20 40 60
BOAT SPEED - KNOTS
FIG. 3 SYSTEM PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCIES OF A
HIGH -BYPASS-RATIO TURBOFAN ENGINE
(less than 1%)of the injected water is vaporized
in the relatively cool (approximately 160 F) fan air
stream. The exhaust flow, therefore, consists
primarily of liquid water droplets and air. The
fluid dynamic behavior of the two-phase flow is
similar to that experimentally observed in the two-
phase flow studies reported by Elliott.(12)
The theoretical system propulsive efficiencies
corresponding to the points of maximum specific
thrust are shown in Fig. 3 as a function of vehicle
speed. It can be seen that the system propulsive
efficiency increases at a decreasing rate with in-
creased boat speed but is still considerably better
than that of the same turbofan without water aug-
mentation as shown in the lower curve. The results
show that the maximum theoretical propulsive effi-
ciency is greater than 42% at 50 knots and over 46%
at 100 knots.
Onboard Water Weight Considerations
The results presented in Fig. 2 indicate that
relatively large water flow rates are necessary to
attain maximum system performance. This is partic-
ularly true at 25 knots where the water flow rate
necessary to attain the maximum theoretical specific
thrust of 576 lb/lb/sec of gas generator airflow
exceeds 80,000 lb/sec while the onboard water weight
(within the engine and inlet ducts) exceeds 45,000
lb. These extremely large onboard water weights
would, in all likelihood, preclude operation near
the points of maximum thrust, especially at speeds
below 50 knots.
result because water flow into a fixed-area
duct varies directly as boat speed, while the water-
In the
design of a particular boat and propulsion system
combination, the weight of onboard water may be a
critical factor, and therefore the inlet water duct
areas will probably have to be determined for water
flow rates less than those corresponding to maximum
SO 100
attainable specific thrust at a given speed. In
this situation, the engine performance would be
compromised (relative to the maximum attainable
specific thrust), but the diameter of the inlet
water duct could be made smaller, and the weight of
onboard water would be significantly decreased.
The extent of this weight-performance compromise is
discussed more thoroughly in the following section.
Off-Design Engine Performance
Two examples illustrating specific compromises
between engine performance and onboard water weight
are shown along with the curve of maximum thrust in
Fig. 4. Each of these curves corresponds to the
performance of a single engine system with variable
exhaust nozzles and fixed-geometry inlet water and
mixing ducts, each of which is sized for a 50-knot
design speed. Because of these design criteria
limitations, the performance of each of the systems
illustrated is less than the maximum attainable
thrust throughout the entire speed range. The
points A.and B in Fig. 2 illustrate the degrees of
specific thrust compromise involved at a speed of
50 knots. The water-injection rates selected
correspond to onboard water weights of 5000 and
10,000 lb, which in combination with an assumed
10-ft-long inlet water duct, result in inlet water
duct diameters of 2.4 and 3.4 ft, respectively.
These are nominal dimensions, since it is recognized
that the ramscoop inlet, capable of handling large
rates of water flow, is a critical area which may
require special attention during the development
and testing of the propulsion system. Although the
amounts of water within a system with fixed-geometry
inlet water and mixing ducts may vary somewhat with
speed, these slight variations of total onboard
water weight are of minor importance. The water-
handling capability of each system was based on the
use of a ramscoop capture area ratio of 1.0, and at
all speeds, no variations were considered in engine
aerodynamic design or operation.
 FAN BYPASS RATIO - 4.0- TO -1.0
FAN PRESSURE RATIO - 1.5- TO -1.0
JT3 - TYPE GAS GENERATOR
ENGINES INCLUDE VARIABLE EXHAUST NOZZLES
INLET WATER DUCT LENGTH - 10 FT
600
MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE WITH
500 FAN DUCT WATER INJECTION
CD 3t
-.J
400
cr cr
0
co ce
zw 300
I-
ONBOARD WATER WEIGHT.
x lopoo LB
200 5000 LB
11-
o
o.
100
20 40 60 80
VEHICLE SPEED - KNOTS
FIG. 4 - OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE OF HYPOTHETICAL
HIGH -BYPASS-RATIO TUROFAN ENGINES
WITH WATER INJECTION
The off-design water-augmented turbofan perfor-
mance levels shown in Fig. 4 indicate that at ve-
hicle speeds lees than 50 knots the performance of
the water-augmented turbofan engine is reduced
relative to its maximum thrust capability. The
results also indicate that at a fixed vehicle speed,
the weight of onboard water increases much more
rapidly than does the corresponding specific thrust.
This can be illustrated by another example. At 25
knots the theoretical specific thrust associated
with a system that is sized (at 50 knots) to accom-
modate only 5000 lb of onboard water is 335 lb/lb/
sec, while the specific thrust of an engine with
ducts sized to accommodate 10,000 lb of onboard
water is 375 lb/lb/sec. This corresponds to a per-
formance improvement of approximately 12% for a
100% increase in water weight. Notwithstanding the
compromises that must be made, the general results
indicate that sizable thrust augmentation levels
still can be realized over the entire vehicle speed
range with relatively minor penalties due to the
weight of onboard water. This effect is further
emphasized in a later section of this paper where
it is shown that the onboard water weights for tur-
bofan engines, designed to attain slightly less-
than-maximum performance through the use of fixed-
geometry inlet water and mixing ducts, are a small
portion of the total vehicle displacement.
Performance Variation with Bypass Ratio
Results of associated studies have shown that
VEHICLE SPEED -50 KNOTS
w 400
WATER AUGMENTED THRUST
(MAXIMUM VALUES)
Cr
I-
xxo 300 U-1 L,
1- 1-
cr oc;,
w
z
ow 200
DRY ENGINE THRUST
o
o 2 3 4 5
1
BYPASS RATIO
FIG. 5- MAXIMUM SPECIFIC THRUST ATTAINABLE AT VARIOUS
BYPASS RATIOS WITH A JT3 -TYPE GAS GENERATOR
the performance of the water-augmented turbofan
varies considerably with bypass ratio. This
100
variation is shown more clearly in Fig. 5 where
the maximum theoretical specific thrust is pre-
sented as a function of turbofan bypass ratio for a
marine vehicle speed of 50 knots. Upon review of
the data presented in this figure it appears de-
sirable to select a high bypass ratio in order to
attain higher specific thrust levels and propul-
sive efficiencies. The increase in specific thrust
is due not only to the use of water injection but
also to the increase in dry thrust with bypass ratio
as shown by the lower curve in this figure. The
results shown in Fig. 5 were calculated for engines
using a JT3-type gas generator as described pre-
viously. However, it is interesting to note what
approximate theoretical thrust levels might be
attainable if fan duct water injection'were adapted
to turbofan engine models now in production or
development, namely the Pratt & Whitney JT3D-,
JT8D-, Ja9D-, TF30-, and TF33-type engines.
Vehicle Applications
A smooth-water hydrodynamic drag curve and a
turbofan installed thrust curve are shown in Fig. 6
for an illustrative 76-ton hydrofoil ship. The
available thrust curve shown in Fig. 6 corresponds
to the estimated total thrust output of a water-
augmented turbofan engine with 10,000 lb of onboard
water and is based on data from Fig. 4 and Appendix
I. Although the hydrodynamic drag is estimated for
a hypothetical hydrofoil ship, the data used to
generate this curve were based on that by Gill.(13)
The intersection of the thrust and drag curve in-
dicates that this ship should be capable of attain-
ing a maximum smooth-water speed of approximately
69 knots. Thrust requirements at take-off were
based on an assumed requirement of a 40% margin of
available thrust over take-off drag to allow for
sea state conditions.
5
 ONBOARD WATER WEIGHT- 101)00 LB
The performance of a waterjet propulsion system
HYDROFOIL BOAT DISPLACEMENT- 76 TONS
TURBOFAN USES JT3 -TYPE GAS GENERATOR installed in the hydrofoil ship whose drag curve is
70 shown in Fig. 6 was also estimated in order to com-
pare it with the water-augmented turbofan engine.
The design thrust of the waterjet system at 69
-J 60 knots was specified to be the same as that of the
o water-augmented turbofan. The waterjet pump is
estimated to weigh 8400 lb, the shaft-turbine engine
z 50 11,800 lb, the water within the pump and its ducts
20,000 lb (essentially double the dry system com-
8 ponent weights), and the total system weight,
4o
42,220 lb.(14, 15) By comparison, the dry weight
of the water-augmented turbofan engine is estimated
4 to be approximntely 9800 lb. Upon adding the on-
g
board water to the turbofan weight the total system
weight is approximately 19,800 lb. A weight break-
CC 20 down for each propulsion system is shown in Table 2.

The payload fraction and range characteristics

10 of the illustrative 76-ton hydrofoil ship propelled
either by a water-augmented turbofan engine or by a
waterjet driven by a shaft engine are shown in Fig.
o 7 for a cruise speed of 69 knots. Since this point
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
of engine operation is beyond the point of maximum
BOAT SPEED -KNOTS thrust with an onboard water weight of 10,000 lb
(see Fig. 6), the propulsive efficiency of the
water-augmented turbofan was estimated to be only
FIG.6- HYPOTHETI CAL HYDROFOIL BOAT DRAG AND WATER-
AUGMENTED TURBOFAN INSTALLED THRUST

Water-Injected Turbofan

Component Weight - lb

JT3-Type Gas Generator 4,200

Power Turbine (4 stages) 1,866
Fan (4.0-to-1.0 Bypass Ratio, 1.5-to-1.0 Pressure Ratio) 195
Fan Mixing Duct (13 ft long, stainless steel) 1,470*
Water Inlet Duct (10 ft long, stainless steel) 360*
Spray Nozzles 200
Subtotal 8,891
Supports, etc. (10% of subtotal weight) 889
Total Dry System Weight 9,780

System Weight with Onboard-Water Weight of:

2500 lb 12,280
5000 lb 14,780
10000 lb 19,780

Gas-TUrbine-Driven Pumpjet

Component Weight - lb

FT3-TUrbine Drive 11,800

Pumpjet (dry) 8 400
Subtotal 20,200
Supports, etc. (10% of subtotal weight) 2,020
Total Dry System Weight 22,220
Weight of System with Onboard Water (20,000 lb) 42,220

* Based on use of 1/8 in. sheet thickness

TABLE 2 ESTIMATED WATER-INJECTED TURBOFAN AND PUMPJET WEIGHTS

6
 DISPLACEMENT -76 TONS results serve to emphasize that onboard water con-
CRUISE SPEED-69 KNOTS
ONBOARD WATER WEIGHTS. stitutes a relatively small fraction of the total
TURBOFAN - 10,000 LB
WATERJET -20,000 LB displacement. Although the hydrofoil ship selected
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCIES.
TURBOFAN - 36% was relatively small, a similar advantage is shown
WATERJET -50%
HYDROFOIL DRAG SHOWN IN FIG. 6 when multiple units of the water-augmented turbofan
engine are compared with waterjets driven by shaft-
0.5
turbine engines in larger hydrofoil ships.

The total machinery weight of a gas-turbine-

driven supercavitating marine propeller system
capable of propelling the same hydrofoil ship
illustrated in the preceding example is estimated
WATER AUGMENTED TURBOFAN
o to be over 40,000 lb. This weight estimate is
o based on a gearbox weight of 2 lb/hp,(11) an
I- optimistic figure relative to the rather severe
0.2
service and extended lifetime required of a hydro-
u.
WATERJET
o foil ship. Although model tank tests indicate that
o a PC of 0.70 to 0.75 can be attained by super-
52 OA
a cavitating propellers, installed PC will probably
be no greater than approximately 0.65 (correspond-
ing to a propulsive efficiency, as defined in this
paper, of approximately 0.55). The payload fraction
1 1 1 1

100 200 300 400 500

RANGE-NAUTICAL MILES for this system is close to that of the waterjet,
'out still far below that of the water-augmented
FIG. 7 -PAYLOAD CAPABILITY OF HYDROFOIL BOATS
turbofan when installed in the illustrated hydro-
foil ship example.

36%. The assumed waterjet design point propulsive CONCLUDING REMARKS

efficiency is 50% at 69 knots. In this example the
increased waterjet propulsion system weight appears The results of this analysis show that the
to influence payload fraction more than propulsive thrust of a water-injected high-bypass-ratio turbo-
efficiency, and therefore throughout the entire fan theoretically can be increased by up to 280%
range the payload fraction for the waterjet-pro- relative to the thrust of this engine without water
pelled hydrofoil ship never equals that of the injection when it is installed in a boat with a
hydrofoil ship propelled with the water-injected design speed of 50 knots. Although the amount of
turbofan engines. The component weights of the water that must be injected is considerable at the
hydrofoil ship propelled with a water-injected tur- points of maximum thrust, lower water-injection
bofan engine containing 10,000 lb of onboard water rates will still result in sizable thrust aug-
weight are shown in Fig. 8. The curves in this mentation at this ship speed. The results presented
figure are typical of the weight fractions which in this report indicate that the specific weight
were allocated to the various boat components. The of a water-augmented turbofan engine is approxi-
mately 0.33 lb weight/lb thrust at a speed of 50
knots. This appears to be quite attractive relative
PROPULSION ONE WATER AUGMENTED TURBOFAN to the specific weights of waterjets (0.70 lb wt/lb
WITH 37,800 LB THRUST clopoo LB ONBOARD WATER) thruSt) and supercavitating marine propellers (0.76
CRUISE SPEED - 69 KNOTS
DISPLACEMENT- 76 TONS lb wt/lb thrust).

The methods of the analyses utilized in the per-

160
-.-- DISPLACEMENT
formance and two-phase flow calculations presented
in this paper are in close agreement with each
other when the dispersed water phase consists of
PAYLOAD droplets of small diameter, viz., diameters less
oIA-120
than 40 microns. As the diameters of the droplets
CI FUEL
z increase, the two-phase flow calculations indicate
ZA
that lower values of thrust augmentation will be
D80
o ONBOARD WATER obtained. This reduction in performance is due to
ENGINE
frictional and acceleration effects between the
FOILS twm phases. But, due to droplet shattering effects,
040 _ STRUTS performance values become relatively insensitive to
OUTFITTING, AUXILIARIES,
ANO FIXTURES droplets injected with diameters greater than 400
HULL ANO STRUCTURE PAYLOAD-LIMITED microns. Therefore, to realize the full potential
RANGE
O
I I I
I I -'I of the water-augmented turbofan concept consider-
O 100 200 300 400 500 6°P able attention must be given to the development of
RANGE-NAUTICAL MILES
a successful injection scheme. On the other hand,
FIG.8 -ESTIMATED HYDROFOIL BOAT COMPONENT WEIGHTS
a relatively small price need be paid in performance,

7
approximately a 25% reduction in the theoretical net
specific thrust for the example presented in this
study, when large-capacity, present-state-of-the-art
spray nozzles are used in which mean droplet diame-
ters greater than 400 microns are obtained.
The use of a water-injected turbofan engine can
benefit the payload and/or the range of a hydrofoil
ship propelled by a waterjet or supercavitating
marine propeller. An advantage of the water-injec-
ted turbofan system not previously discussed is that
it is a low-draft system with only the water ram-
scoop inlet protruding below the hull line. In
addition, this system is one in which propulsive
engine power, although considerably reduced rela-
tive to design conditions, is still available if
the primary ramscoop inlet areas should become
congested with foreign matter. The use of this
unaugmented power may be beneficial in certain
types of landing craft where movement beyond the
beach area is required. A further subtle advantage
results from the fact that occasional air ingestion
through the water ramscoop will not unload the
turbine, as might occur in a waterjet, and thereby
cause shock loading on the pump and drive shaft
parts when the water flows through the ducting.
APPENDIX I
Two-Phase Flow Analysis
The preceding analysis of system performance was
based on a number of simplifying assumptions with
regard to the air-water flow behavior in the fan
discharge duct. The principal uncertainties of this
analysis lie in the lack of knowledge of the thermal
and velocity lags between the two phases and the
effect of droplet size and air-water injection
velocity ratio on these lags which, in turn, affect
the net specific thrust of the propulsion system.
The object of the analysis described herein is to
investigate the air-water flow behavior in a fan
discharge duct by means of an analysis which in-
cludes more detailed consideration of the effects
of momentum and heat transfer between the two phases
of the exhaust stream.
It is not the purpose nor within the scope of the
present analysis to optimize the water-augmented
Boat Speed
Inlet Air Temperature
Inlet Water Temperature
Air Velocity at Droplet Injection Plane
Water - Gas Generator Air Mass Flow Ratio
Water - Fan Air Mass Flow Ratio
Mass Flow Rate of Gas Generator Air
Flow Area of Fan Discharge Duct
at Droplet Injection Plane
TABLE 3 LIST OF ASSUMPTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS
USED IN T0-PHASE FLOW ANALYSIS
8
turbofan engine with respect to all the loss mecha-
nisms inherent in the two-phase flow behavior in
the fan discharge duct, but it means to provide an
indication of the representativeness of the results
of the system analysis presented in this paper.
Specifically, it is desired to know the relative
importance that the mean droplet diameter of the
dispersed liquid and the air-water injection
velocity ratio have on the obtainable thrust aug-
mentation of the turbofan engine. Therefore, the
specific geometry and set of flow conditions con-
sidered below are but an example and not an optimized
configuration. More extensive design considerations
may lead to a different fan discharge duct geometry
and flow conditions and, most likely, to lower per-
formance losses than estimated here.
The propulsion system considered for the two-
phase flow analysis is illustrated in Fig. 1. The
specific design conditions used in the analysis are
given in Tables 1 and 3. In addition, the length
of the mixing section and the convergent half-angle
of the exhaust nozzle of the fan discharge duct were
chosen arbitrarily to be 9.2 ft and 30 deg, respect-
ively. The length of the exhaust nozzle was chosen
to give complete expansion of the mixed stream to
atmospheric pressure. The selection of the above
conditions is believed to be representative of a
typical configuration.
The analtical study of the air-water flow be-
havior in a fan discharge duct was completed through
the use of an existing computer program which solves
the system of differential equations describing a
one-dimensional, two-phase flow model. These
equations, which form the basis for the theoretical
performance levels of all water-augmented turbofan
propulsion systems in this paper, were taken from a
paper by Bailey, et al.(16) The model includes a
momentum and heat balance based upon the velocity
and temperature differences which Occur between the
continuous gas medium and the droplets of the
uniformly dispersed liquid medium. It is assumed
that the total energy of the two-phase system is
fixed, that the gas is nonviscous except insofar as
it exerts a drag force upon the particles, that the
transfer of heat between the particles and the
adjacent gas occurs by convection, the droplets are
uniformly sized, and that each droplet has the same
50 knots
130 F
60 F
119 ft/sec
8o
20
188 lb/sec
62.9 ft2
uniform temperature. The relative volume occupied for 100-micron diameter droplets. In this case no
by the droplets is assumed to be negligible. The droplet shattering took place and both thermal and
effects of variable gas properties and particle dynamic eqUilibrium between the two phases is essen-
drag and heat-transfer phenomena, not restricted to tially achieved before they reach the exhaust nozzle.
Stokes flow, are included in the computer program. For droplets having initial diameters greater than
4o0 microns droplet shattering was normally achieved
One aspect of the flow of liquid droplets in a before leaving the duct. This would give an
flowing gas stream which is not included explicitly enhancement in performance because of the resultant
in the computer program is droplet shattering. The smaller size of the droplets leaving the duct. How-
condition at which liquid droplet shattering occurs ever, this effect was offset somewhat for droplets
is specified by a critical value o the WTber number, having initial diameters greater than approximately
viz., We = Pg (vg-vi)2 D9/20 , 6. 02, 17) Whenever 250 microns because dynamic equilibrium was not
this criterion was fulfilled within a flow calcula- normally achieved for these droplets within the
tion, it was arbitrarily assumed that the droplets mixing section of the fan discharge duct. The
took on a new diameter equal to one-fourth of their final exhaust velocities of each phase are shown
initial.value whereas all other conditions remained in Fig. 10 as a function of initial droplet diameter,
unchanged at that location. The computer calcula-
tion was stopped and restarted as required until v9, , .119 FT/SEC
the end of the exhaust nozzle was reached. PO - MICRONS

The assumptions that a truly dispersed flow

100 ---500 -- 1000
360
pattern should be developed under the flow condi- C.)

tions specified in Table 3 and that wall friction cr,

losses due to two-phase flow are negligible are

based upon approximate calculations and inferences cc 300
drawn from several sets of published experimental
data at comparable flow parameters. (12, 18, 19, 20)
The above assumptions are reasonable for the in- o
240
dicated flow conditions if the principal require-
ment of uniform liquid spray dispersion at the
droplet injection plane is satisfied.
u_
o 180
A typical result of the two-phase flow calcn1R-
tions is shown in Fig. 9. In this figure the axial
velocity profiles of the two phases in the fan dis-
o
W- 120
charge duct are shown as a function of duct length

= 100 MICRONS x 60
VIN= 2

BOAT SPEED= 50 KNOTS

250 O
AR-WATER MIXING SECTION EXHAUST O 2 4 6 -8 10
NOZZLE

AIR-WATER INJECTION VELOCITY RATIO

200
10-VELOCITIES OF AIR AND WATER PHASES LEAVING
EXHAUST NOZZLE OF FAN DISCHARGE DUCT
Vg

Ui
150
Dee, and the ratio of the air and water velocities
AIR VELOCITY, Vg Vg at the droplet injection plane, Viej. A similar
plot is presented in Fig. 11 for the net specific
thrust obtainable from the specific water-augmented
WATER VELOCITY, V,
turbofan engine configuration chosen for this study.

The results of the two-phase flow calculations

50 indicate (a) that the effect of the air-water
injection velocity ratio on performance is greatest
at the smallest droplet diameters, i.e., less than
approximately 100 microns, and (b) that the effect
1
of droplet diameter on performance is negligible
0o 2 4 6 8 IO 12
for diameters greater than approximately 400 microns.
DISTANCE FROM DROPLET NJECTION PLANE -FT
For a 50-knot ship the available pressure heat will
not allow the value of 17.1fli to be much less than
FIG. 9-AXIAL VELOCaY PRORLES OF GAS AND LIQUID
PHASES N FAN DMCHARGE DUCT 2.0 and droplet diameters much less than 400 microns

9
 DESIGN CONDITIONS SPECIFIED IN TABLE IC
BOAT SPEED 50 KNOTS
420
360
5 300 2 Paper 442A, presented to SAE, Detroit, Michigan,
0 January 8-12, 1962.
en I 3
15 240
6
z 9.
180
Q 120
DRY FAN
60
s-
o Craft. Paper No. F presented to SNAME, South-
40 100 400 1000
iNIT1AL DROPLET DIAMETER -MICRONS
FIG. II- PERFORMANCE OF WATER-AUGMENTED TURWOFAN ENGINE
can be achieved only with very fine nozzle orifice
diameters. These nozzles would be low capacity and
a prohibitively large number may be required to
produce the desired liquid flow rate. On the other
hand, large capacity spray nozzles, although they
would give relatively coarse sprays, would degrade
system performance to only a small degree relative
to 400-micron particles. This relaxes considerably
the design criteria of the liquid spray nozzles to
be used to inject water into the fan discharge duct.
Thus with relatively little effort, the thrust of
the water-augmented turbofan may be as much as 100%
greater than that of a dry turbofan engine.
REFERENCES
1. Chaplin, H. A. and A. G. Ford: Some Design
Principles of Ground Effect Machines. Section
A - Introductory Survey. David Taylor Model
Basin Report 2121A, April 1966.
2. Meyers, G. R.: Observations and Comments on
Hydrofoils. Paper No. 2a, presented to the
SNAME at Seattle, May 13-14, 1965.
Savitski, D.: Hydrodynamic Design of Planing
Hulls. Davidson Laboratory Report No. 1000.
Stevens Institute of Technology.
Davison, W. R.: Thrust Augmentation of Turbo-
jet and Turbofan Engines by Water Injection
into the Exhaust. UA Research Laboratories
Report D-110278-6, July 27, 1965.
) Military Turbofan Installation Handbook, JT3D
Engine. Installation Engineering, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn., April
1959.
Keenan, J. H. and J. Kaye: Gas Tables.
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York 1956.
Keenan, J. H. and F. G. Keyes: Thermodynamic
Properties of Steam. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York, 1950.
8. Engel, W. N., R. L. Cochran, and M. M. Delao:
Use of Axial Flow Pumps for Marine Propulsion.
Landerman, A. M. and W. R. Davison: Interim
Report on Performance Evaluation of Tip-Driven
Helicopter Rotors. UA Research Laboratories
Report UAR-A185, November 19, 1962.
10. Arcand, L.: Waterjet Propulsion for Small
4000
west Section Meeting, Miami, Florida, May 26-28,
1966.
11. Carstens, J. P.: Preliminary Evaluation of Gas
Turbine-Powered High-Speed Planing Boats. UA
Research Laboratories Report B,110052-21,
November 1963.
12. Elliott, D. G.: Analysis of the Acceleration
of Lithium in a Two-Phase Nozzle. Proceedings
of 1963 High-Temperature Liquid Metal Heat
Transfer Technology Meeting. Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, December 1964.
13 Gill, J. D.: The Hydrofoil Commuter. Boat
Construction and Maintenance, February 1965.
14. Fact Sheet, FT3C-9 Marine Gas Turbine. Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn., May 17,
1965.
15. The Boeing Company: A Parametric Study of
Hydrofoil Ships. US Navy Bureau of Ships
Report D2-20671-3, December 1963.
16. Bailey, W. S., E. N. Nilson, R. A. Serra, and
T. F. Zupnik: Gas-Particle Flow in an
Axisymmetric Nozzle. ABS Journal, 31, pp. 793-
798, June 1961.
17. Lane, W. R., and H. L. Green: The Mechanics of
Drops and Bubbles. Surveys in Mechanics, pp.
162-215 Edited by G. K. Batchelor and R. M.
Davis, Cambridge University Press, London, 1956.
Scott, D. S.: Properties of Cocurrent Gas-
Liquid Flow. Advances in Chemical Engineering,
Vol. 4, pp. 200-278, Edited by T. B. Drew, J. W.
Hoopes, Jr., and T. Vermeulen, Academic Press,
New York, 1963.
Martinelli, R. D., and D. B. Nelson: Prediction
of Pressure Drop During Forced-Circulation
Boiling.of Water. Transactions ASME, 70, pp.
695-702, August 1948.
John Vance, W. H., and R. W. Moulton: A Study of
Slip Ratios for the Flow of Steam-Water Mixtures
at High Void Fractions, A.I.Ch.E. Journal 11,
pp. 1114-1124, November 1965.
10
No. 61-363

ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPULSION FOR CARGO SUBMARINES

by

S. WAY
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Paper No.
67-363

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and ta AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)

1.08, 5.08
 ELECTROMAMETIC PROPULSION FOR CARGO SUBMARINES

S. Way
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Research and Development Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235

Abstract 500

In this paper the application of electro-

magnetic propulsion to large submarine tankers is
discussed. This system may lead to some increase 400

in propulsion efficiency and thereby contribute an

added advantage to the submarine tanker concept. Surface Tanker
The general theory of external field DC electro-
300
magnetic propulsion is discussed and propulsion
efficiencies are deduced for 2, 4 or 6 pole config- Submahne
urations. Application for submarine tanker hulls
of L/d . 8.75 and prismatic coefficient 0.6 is then
discussed, for cases of 4 poles or 6 poles, and a; 200
submerged displacements of 25,000, 50,000, and
100,000 metric tons. For the 6-pole, 100,000 ton
vessel, the thrust power is estimated to be 86% of
100
the electric power supplied at 29 knots. The value
falls to 83% for 50,000 tons and 80% for 25,000 20000 DWT
tons. Values over 90% are reached at 20 knots.
Arrangement of equipment inside the hull is dis- o
cussed. In particular, attention must be given to 10 15 20 30
the method of supporting the coils of the super- Speed, knots
conducting magnets. Separating forces are very Fig. 1-Resistanceofsurfaceandsubmarine
large, and the restraints must not give excessive tankffsofsamedeadweight
heat leakage. Other problems treated are those of To realize the full advantage of the reduced
the magnetic field inside the hull and the attrac- resistance at high speed the submarine must cruie
tion of iron bodies on the bottom or in the vicinity. at a depth of about four hull diameters or more,l3)
to eliminate surface disturbances and wave forma-
1. Introduction tion.

Use of large submarines for cargo transport
has been frequently suggested. Of particular
interest is the tanker application, where loading
and unloading operations and cargo storage are
simplified.
The submarine tanker offers certain advantages
over a surface ship.l1/2) The principal gain comes
from the reduced resistance at high speeds, due to
the absence of wave drag. A comparison is shown in
Fig. 1, for vessels of 20,000 dead weight tons.*
The point of breakaway of the drag curves depends
on the Froude number u2/g4,1/3, so that for larger
tankers this point shifts to higher speeds. Gen-
erally, however, at speeds above 20-22 knots the
submarine would have an advantage, and at a speed
of around 30 knots this advantage is quite
appreciable. (Fig. 1 based on Ref. 2 data.)
It should be kept in mind in such comparisons
that the ratio of dead weight tonnage to displace-
ment will be less for the submarine than for the
surface ship because of the main ballast tanks
(about 10% of submerged displacement). This means
that the submarine hull displacement tends to be
larger, for given dead weight tonnage, than for the
surface ship. Drag comparisons should therefore be
on the basis of the sane dead weight tonnage, as is
the case in Fig. 1.
A further advantage of the submarine tanker is
that an economical cruising speed may be maintained
even in very rough seas. The surface ship must
reduce its speed, the wave resistance increases,
and there are the usual dangers and ship damage
that may attend bad weather at sea. The hull
design, for these reasons, may also be lighter for
the submarine than for the surface tanker.
These apparent advantages of the submarine
tanker are offset by several disadvantages. Chief
of these is the requirement of larger draft. A hull
of circular section is desirable to minimize re-
sistance, but since the diameter may be as large as
80 feet for a large submarine tanker, the draft at
the normal surface condition may approach 65 feet.
This is considerably more that is allowed in many
channels and estuaries. Passage in Panama or Suez
canals would be restricted for the larger tankers.
To reduce draft, an elliptical or rectangular hull
could be used(2) but then there appears to be a con-
siderable increase in resistance. Even with the
circular hulls the resistance goes up due to bottom
effects in shallow waters. The submarine tanker is
only feasible with a nuclear power plant**, and the
initial capital cost of the vessel may be consider-
ably higher than that of a surface tanker of the
sane dead weight.

Dead weight tonnage usually refers to cargo (pay load) plus useful load.
**
Further developments may indicate some possibilities for fuel cell systems.

-1-
1-
 In the present paper the possible application magnets, and requiring large energy storage in the
of electromagnetic propulsion to the submarine electrical circuits.
tanker is discussed. Electromagnetic submarine
propulsion has been considered by several investi- The internal duct direct current System, while
gators(4-9). It held little promise till it became simple in concept, leads to a water jet of high
evident that large electromagnets could be made velocity, and gives a jet efficiency
from superconducting metals. Analysis shows that
by means of electromagnetic propulsion it might be
2
possible, for large submarines, to realize a sig- I, - u.
(1)
nificant increase in propulsive efficiency, thereby 1 + j
giving additional advantage to the submarine tanker u
concept. However, it is very clear that there are
many difficult problems that arise in construction where.isjet velocity and u is boat speed. This
and applying the electromagnetic propulsion system. jet efficiency must be multiplied with the electro-
It is the intention of this paper to be descriptive magnetic pump (duct) efficiency, To, to obtain the
and to highlight the problem areas, emphasizing the propulsive efficiency
difficulties as well as some of the advantages of
the electromagnetic system of propulsion. No at- = lj ID (2)
tempt is made to evaluate economic factors.
Since ui/u must be about 1.4 to 1.5 for a duct of
2. Electromagnetic Propulsion Methods reasonably small size, ni becomes about 0.8; the
product in Eq. 2 then becomes less than 0.7 in most
Electromagnetic propulsion of a submarine can cases, and this propulsion system is not attractive
be effected either with an internal flow or exter- from the efficiency standpoint.
nal flow arrangement, and either by use of a direct
current system or an induction system. These The external field system, by virtue of apply-
several methods are shown schematically in Fig. 2 ing small body (Lorentz) forces to a very large
a,b,c,d. The internal flow systems use an electro- expanse of surrounding water, can achieve an ni
magnetic pump, either in simple crossed field(7,8) essentially unity, and the propulsive efficiency 71
arrangement, 2a, or in the form of a linear in- can be quite high. The magnetic field, however,
duction motorl9), Fig. 2b. The external field spreads out from the hull into the surrounding sea,
method may also use either direct currents and a factor which could, under certain circumstances,
crossed fields(6), Fig. 2c, or a varying magnetic be troublesome.
field with induced currents(9), Fig. 2d.
Advantages and disadvantages of the several
schemes are indicated below:*
B
Internal, d.c., Fig. 2a
---.,
f----
-F -
U--.',-----
ji 98
1
___ ---'
1

-i
_ -.c::-___',..,,
ui u ------
,
r
,, o ,,
,

Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Compact, slight external field
Low larger power plant
u.
l

a. b. Internal, a.c., Fig. 2b

Advantages: Compact. No electrodes

Disadvantages: Low n. Non-superconducting magnet

External, d.c., Fig. 2c

, - B

CZ=
Advantages: Good 1. Low flow disturbance

(MN Disadvantages: Spreading magnetic fields

External, a.c., Fig. 2d

Advantages: No electrodes
C. d.
Disadvantages: Low n. Non-superconducting magnet.
Spreading magnetic fields

Fig. 2-Methods for electromagnetic propulsion The implied advantage of no electrodes for 2b
and 2d should not be taken too seriously, as pre-
In the induction method, a magnetic field of liminary experimental studies have shown that pola-
intensity proportional to sin 2v(x-ct)Ps. is provided rization losses at the electrodes are negligible.
by energizing a number of magnet coils successively.
Circulating currents are induced in the conducting For the ensuing discussion in this paper it is
sea water that interact with the magnetic field to assumed that an external flow dc arrangement is
provide rearwardly directed forces on the water. used.
No electrodes are necessary. The magnetic wave
speed, c, must be larger than the water flow speed.
This induction motor method has the disadvantages
of not being amenable to use of superconducting

*These advantages and disadvantages refer only to the relative merits of schemes of Fig. 2, not to
the merits of electromagnetic propulsion vs. propeller drives.

- 2 -
 3. Theory of the External Field The curvilinear coordinates p and * are derived
Direct Current System as the real and imaginary parts of a function of
the complex variable x + i y:
A multipole system may be used as indicated in k
Fig. 3. A 6-pole arrangement is preferred because w = 9 + i* = Ln -
it leads to an acceptably good efficiency while (vb)k + (5)
keeping the stray field inside the hull'reasonably
low. A simple 2-pole configuration could yield The magnitudes of the gradients of T and * are
higher efficiency, but tife problem of shielding
against the internal field is more serious. equal and are denoted by h:

dw
h = laT . Igrad pl = i grad * (6)
a

magnet Coil
The magnitudes of E and f then become
2b
veh bh
E.- --__ , = R
ok (7)
e
Magnet Conductors
Parameter pe is the value of 9 on the electrode
= kJ,
2k = No. of Electrodes
k = 3 in Case Shown
surface, the latter being chosen to conform to a
Electrode surface of constant T in order to insure that E
and f are perpendicular vectors. There is a rela-
e tion of Te to the angle 6e where the electrode
surface meets the hull (see Fig. 3):
Fig. 3Electromagnetic submarine configuration I Schematicl

Te = - tanh-1 (sin k 6e) (8)

At the outset, we shall summarize certain re- The active field region is assumed to be of
lations that apply for the case of 2k electrodes length "a" along the middle section of the hull.
and exciting conductors': The assumption is made In this region the current density is expressed as
that the field configuration has an active length
at least four times the hull diameter. The equa- 3= (f + 171 x f) (9)
tions are given in two dimensional form, neglecting
end effects. The water flow along the sides of the Since vectors f, T1, f are perpendicular and since
hull in this active field region is assumed to have 3 x S (the Lorentz force) is to be in the same
uniform velocity u. The latter assumption is justi- direction as it follows that 1.1 x f is oppo-
1-1,

fied on the basis of the use of the center section sitely directed to E. Since the ratio of magnitude
only for the Propulsion system, and the relatively of B and E is a constant, we may introduce the
small momentum changes given the water in the constant parameter, n:
'"stream tubes" by the sm.11 applied Lorentz forces.
There will be reduced velocity in the boundary u-f-
B Bo b
layer, of course, and this will tend to lead to n - u Irv- pe
larger dissipative joule losses. It is possible that e
Icertain design measures can mitigate the latter
losses. In any case, the theoretical limitations Uxf= -nf
in the present treatment may be removed in ensuing
more detailed analyses. The magnitude of the current density is then ex-
pressed as:
The electric and magnetic fields for a confi- (12)
guration as that in Fig. 3, but with 2k electrodes, j= E(1-n)
are described in terms of-two conjugate harmonic Or
functions p and which are proportional to the
electric and magnetic potentials: (1-n) (13)
e Te

V Bb Note that parameter Te isnegative. Parameter n is

- grad p_ k gr
ad (3) positive and less than unity. It is the ratio of
Te Lorentz force work to electrical work, per unit
volume.
Expressions for p and * are as follows:
The Lorentz body force per unit volume in the
r2k - 2rkbk sin ke + b2k sea water is
p= Ln
r2k 2rk.n k sin
2 + b2k h2 a Bo b (1-n)
(4) jB - Ve
-1 k
* . tan
-1 rksin .
- bk tan r ksi.n ke + bk
rk cos ke rk cos k6

3
 Integration of j B in the external region, and the electrode shell, depends on considerations
consisting of the 4k sectors, gives the total of the limiting critical field B for the super-
propulsive force: conducting material. Figure 3 shEws, schematically,
in section, the outline form of the magnet winding,
o o which is circular in cross section, and the
electrode. The field B exists at the point
F 4 ka j B 4 t* (15) r b, e. A/2k - 6. Calculation of B at r b
leads to the relation
-g/ 2
Pe
B B sin k 6 (25)
o cr
Substitution from (14) gives directly
The angle Oe where the electrode intercepts
F = 2A Ve a Bo a b (1-n) (16) the hull is slightly removed from the periphery of
the magnet coil, as indicated in Fig. 3. We may
relate 5 and ee by means of a multiplier w:
The thrust power then becomes
e . - w 5 (26)
Fu . 2g u Ve a Bo ab (1-n) (17) e 2k
PT
In this way we obtain the relation of ye and 6, in
The current, I, from one electrode to its
place of (8):
neighbor, on one side, is found by integrating
current density j along the + x axis fram b toco: -1
-tanh o cok 6) (27)
(cospe

0Ve The efficiency n may also be formulated in an

I = a-Jr (j)y_odx . - ia (1_) (18) expression alternatively to Eq. 23.
?e
2
2a a
1 Bcr (28)
11= a k CD - pu
Here, the integrand is found by making use of the
expression for h at e = 0: 1
2
2 pe sin k 5

_1 2rk -1 k bk I Parameter w determines the space available for

(h)(9.o (I) 0.o I r2k + b2k
(19)
thermal insulation (vacuum space and radiation
shields) around the magnet conductors. The value
co= 1.1 would be appropriate for large submnrines.
Having the current, I, we may express the
electric power PE: For any value of w there is am optimum k 5,
2
a and a corresponding optimum pe, that makes 1
4 I Ve k - 2ga e k(1-n) (20) maximum. The optimum values are k 5* . 0.805 and
PE Actually, it is unlikely
Pe (Pe* *
- -0 747 for w . 1.1.
that in a vactical design 5 could be chosen as
The propulsive efficiency is the ratio P_/P large as 5 , because this would imply excessively
E' large coil and electrode dimensions, with correspond-
and one sees that
ing excessive heat infiltration into the very cold
(21) magnet windings. Only for cases of very large k
(many electrodes) mignt 6 approach the value 5*.

The propulsive efficiency in an operating sub-
marine is determined by the condition that the
voltage Ve is sufficiently high to make the thrust
equal to the hull drag. This means that
1
2g Ve a Bo a b(1-n) 7 pu2
where CD is a drag coefficient based on wetted
surface, S.
Design calculations may be made as follows:
Assume hull form, dimensions L, b, a and
coefficient CD, and determine a.
Select an appropriate value for Ber, and
S C, (22) electrode number 2k.
Calculate V for various speeds u.
Select w and 5 and determine Te.
Calculate 71 for various speeds u.
Calculate drag for each speed from

Combination of (10)(21) and (22) now gives

1 2
D . 2-pu S CD (29)
1
(23)
1 - a CD k
2 t (g) Calculate PT and PE from
Pe
where PT
PT = D u ; PE . (3o)
2a a Bo2
- pu
;a_ ---7
S
(24)
b (h) Calculate voltage 2Ve between electrodes
from
Choice of an appropriate value for Pe, which -2u b pe Be,. sin k 5
(31)
determines the relative size of the magnet winding 2Ve -

- 4 -
 (i) Calculate current 21 from one anode by However, in order to avoid excessively large
diameters for hulls of large displacement, a larger
value will here be assumed. It is also advantageous
PE
21 . (32) to have an approximately cylindrical portion of the
2Ve k hull amidship to facilitate application of electro-
magnetic propulsion. The hull form adopted for the
If we compare designs with different k-values, present study is similar to that treated by Russo,
several alternate assumptions could be ri fie. One et al(2) for the 30,000 DWT version, designed for
possibility is to hold 6 constant while varying k. 30 knots. (Table 4 of Ref. 2). This hull has a
This procedure leads to higher efficiencies with cylindrical center body of 20% L, and a ratio Li2b
larger k values; however, by holding 5 constant or 8.75. The combined length LE of the fore and
while increasing k the amount of superconducting aft figure of revolution portions is 80% L and the
material is considerably increased, and also surface area of these portions is 0.7374 (2x b LE).
refrigeration power requirements. Therefore, one The total hull wetted surface is
may proceed on another assumption, namely, keep the
product 0th constant while varying k. It then turns S . 0.7874 (22 b L) (33)
out that the amount of superconducting material
remains constant, as well as the total electrode The prismatic coefficient of the hull is 0.60. The
surface area. In this case, better efficiency is profile of the hull is shown in Fig. 5.
realized with small k-values.

Curves are shown in Fig. 4 for ri vs. Cn/C for

three values of k, for a). 1.1, a . 27.6 an1
0th = 0.20 and 0.15.
1.0

Lc

0.9 f Vol. = 0.600k

Bare Hull t
Surf. = 0.787412obli

5-Assurried ha form
0. 8
111111111 Hull dimensional parameters for submarine

\ mum
11521 tankers of three submerged displacements are given
in Table 1. In this table LEF and LEA are the

mill
0.7 lengths of the figure of revolution forebody and
afterbody, respectively, and Lc is the length of the
cylindrical center body.
0.6
\ Table 1

D. 5 metric tons 25000 50000 100000

meters 157.6 198.5 250
111111111 a
2b
meters
meters
78.8
18
99.2
22.7
125
28.6

-
0. 4

0.

----
kb= 0.2
kb= 0.15
MEN 3
LE?
LEA
Lc
meters
meters
meters
meters
50.6
75.6
31.5
9 11.35
63.6
95.1
39.7
14.3
80.2
119.8
50
S meters2 7025 11180 17780
0. 6 metric tons 22500 45000 90000
O .002 003 . 004 .005

D/E The surface displacement, Ls, is that which

F ig. 4-Propulsive eft iciencies for Si db2 = 27.6 and u = 1.1
4. Application to Submarine Tankers
It will be assumed that the hull is of circu-
lar cross-section and that 4 or 6 electrodes are
used. Althougn an elliptical or rectangular cross-
section would lead to a smaller and more favorable
draft, the increase in resistance tends(2) to
nullify any advantage of the submarine tanker.*
corresponds to 10% reserve buoyancy. The sum of
Lz,,F and LEA is equal to LE, which is 80% of L. The
parallel center body length Lc is 20% of L. The
active field length, a, is chosen somewhat, larger
than Lc, but the hull is actually very nearly
cylindrical over the length a.
The drag coefficient CD for the complete hull
with appendages may be estimated from towing tank
results. The value adopted for the hull configura-
tion of this study is

The optimum hull configuration, with considera- CD

0.00156
tion, of appendage drag, is one with Li2b approxi-
mately 7, with maximum diameter at about 40% of L. This value is based on values**deduced from data

It is possible that an elliptical hull section of beam to depth ratio 2:1 could be applied without
excessive increase in drag, but for the present discussion the circular form will be assumed.

ActpPlly a slight reduction is introduced into CD to allow for the possibility of future refinements
of hull forms. This should, of course, be taken into account, along with the lower roughness
contribution, in making comparisons with conventional submarines.

- 5-
given by Russo, et al(2) and Todd(3), but with the The general arrangement of the submarine tanker
modification that a smaller roughness contribution for the Case (a) or (b) configuration is shown in
is assumed, 0.0001 being used instead of 0.0004. Fig. 7. The magnet coils, of long rectangular
We assume that the electromagnetic submarine tanker form, lie along the sides of the hull, the
is built with an exceptionally smooth hull, free electrodes forming slightly protruding bulges which
from plate overlaps and other sources of parasitic run axially.
drag. A 15% allowance has been used for appendages,
as in Ref. (2). The aft section of the hull might be used for
the power plant. Far astern it would also house
In Eq. 28, parameter a appears. The value of steering motors and aft trim tank. The latter
a for the assumed hull configuration is 27.6. could be placed in the vertical and horizontal fins.
Number 3 main ballast tank might be in the forward
For the specific tankers under consideration part of the aft section.
we make assumptions as follows:
The forward section could contain crew's
Case (a) Case (b) quarters, control and navigational aids, stores and
supplies, the No. 1 main ballast tank and the for-
CD . 0.00156 = 0.00156 ward trim tank. Also, air conditioning equipment
CD
k =2 k =3 and trim pumps could be located here.
Rcr = 7 tesla B. . 7 tesla
a . 4.5 mho/m a = 4.5 mho/m., A tubular passage way, or tunnel, with steel
p = 1030 kg/m3 p = 1030 kg/m' walls, running through the center section, would
=1.1 cc=1.1 connect fore and aft sections of the hull. This
=27.6 =27.6 tunnel might be of radius about 0.3b, and could
6 =0.10 6 =0.08 have at least two decks. Refrigeration equipment
k6 . 0.20 k6 . 0.24 for the cryogenic system could be located in the
Bo = 1.39 tesla = 1.664 tesla lower portion. The steel walls would constitute a
Bo
9e = -2.203 9, = -2.019 pressure barrier against the sea pressure, and
0.428 4- =o.1+28 would also serve as magnetic shielding.
FWD Trim Tank Cargo Tanks
1 Control RM Reactor Mach. Shop
1_ - u
Tunnel
Aft Trim
1 + 1.157 i 1 + 1.322 T.

Values of ri for both cases for the three

vessels are plotted in Fig. 6a and 6b. Values of 1, Steering Motors

PT, PE, 2Vh and 21 are given in Tables 2a and 2b for /1 MBT - 112 MBT I3MBT Engine RM
the tankers of three displacements, and for three Refrig. Equipt.
Air Cond. System
speeds of 5, 10 and 15 meters/sec (9.7, 19.4 and
-Stues
29.1 knots). Knts reW OmierS
lO 20 30 Fig. 7-Disposition d tanks and eqwpment in hull
1.0

The main cargo space would lie in the center

section of length a, between the tunnel of radius
19 ',amoot - about 0.3b and the inner face of the double wall of
500 the hull, of radius about 0.9b. Thus, the cargo
storage volume is approximately
18
Case I.
V = 0.72 m a b2
0.7
0 5

Speed, u meters/sec
10 15 If a is L/2 and if we have prismatic coefficient 0.6,
Knots
then V is about 0.6 of the hull displaced volume.
10 The liquid cargo would exist at a pressure equal to
1.0
that of the sea, at the hull bottom.

0.9 - To blow the main ballast tanks, it is possible

0.8 -
Caselbl
0.7
0 5
Speed, u meters/sec
6-Effidmcies
The design speed of 15 meters/sec is of prime
importance since it determines the size of the
power plant. Note that for given l, k and 5 we are
giving results for the same submarine operating at
various speeds, rather than for different vessels
designed to operate at different speeds.
Though detailed calculations have not been
made, the dead weight tonnage would be expected to
be about 50% of the submerged displacement.
that chemical gas generation might be used. Com-
pressed air could be used to regulate the water
contained in variable ballast tanks. These tanks
are used for a "fine adjustment" of buoyancy, and to
compensate for weight losses overboard.
10 15
Cargo expansions and contractions, and storage
of cargoes of different densities, may require also
assignment of a certain portion of the tankage space
as "variable cargo tanks." This subject is discussed
further in Ref. (2).
5. Problems of the Electromagnetic
Submarine Tanker
The Superconducting Magnet
Great progress in the technology of large
superconducting magnets has been made in recent

6
 Table 2 (a)

Results for Submarine Tankers with w . 1.1, k 2,

5 . 0.1, a = 27.6, CD = 0.00156, Bcr
=
7 tesla

6. met. tons 25,000 50,000 100,000

L meters 157.6 198.5 250
a meters 78.8' 99.2 125
2b meters 18 22.7 28.6
u meters/see 5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15
0.932 0.872 0.820 0.944 0.895 0.851 0.956 0.915 0.878
1
10-3 .D newtons 141.1 565 1270 224.8 899 2022 358 1430 3220
PT kw' 706 5650 19,060 1124 8990 30,400 1790 14,300 48,300
PE kw. 758 6480 23,250 1191 10,040 35,700 1873 15,630 55,000
2VE volts 147.4 315.2 503 184 388 612 229 478 748
21 amps 0 2570 10,270 23,100 3240 12,960 29,200 4090 16,190 36,750
(1/2)pu2 newt./m- 12,880 51,500 115,900 12,880 51,500 115,900 12,880 51,500 115,900

Table 2 (p)

Results for Submarine Tankers with w = 1.1, k 3,

6 = 0.08, a.
27.6, CD = 0.00156'and Ber a. 7 tesla
Dimensions L, a, 2b same as in Table 2(a)

met. tons 25,000 50,000 100,000

u meters/sec 5 lo 15 5 lo 15 5 10 15
0.923 0.856 0.799 0.936 0.883 0.833 0.948 0.905 0.863
-3 1
10 D newtons 141.1 565 1270 224.8 899 2022 358 1430 3220
PT kw 706 5650 19,060 1124 8990 30,400 1790 14,300 48,300
PE kw 765 6600 23,860 1203 10,190 36,500 1880 15,800 56,000
2VE volts 109.3 236 378.5 136 288 458 169 354 557.5
21 amps 2330 9330 21,020 2945 11,790 26,600 3720 14,880 33,450

years(1o), in connection with MHD generator applica-

tions. In the construction of magnet coils as large
as those anticipated in an electromagnetically
propelled submarine tanker there will be further Outer.lack0
difficult engineering problems.
Composite of
The exciting current, J, in any one of the Shunts and
several coils can be calculated from the integral tSuperconductors
With Lig. Helium
relation / Circu lat ion

S.dg (35)
JI-Lo =

where the integration extends around the winding. ---- N Evacuated Space With
Outer Envelope
Evaluation is most simply made if the path of Radiation Shields

integration follows a curve of constant p, upon

which the magnitude of B is Bo b h/k. The path Fig. 8-Annular may. conductor

length increment is d 1V/h and the calculation leads

to the result,
combined density of around 3000 kg/m3. Current
25 b B sin k 6 density in the composite may be as high as 10,000
cr (36) amps per cm2. We thus have the relations,
ki.10

One sees that for small 6, the effect of neighboring meters2 ; b b meters ;
rm
windings disappears and the current J is related to
the field at radius b b by the usual relation. (37)
meters
To use the superconducting material most
rm
effectively, the winding should preferably be in
the form of a hollow annulus, in cross section, as Total mass of the composite material in the k
shown in Fig. 8. Outer radius of the annular magnet coils is given by
bundle is designated rm, and its thickness is t.
The conductors would be of composite construction; 3000 k At (2a + 2x b sin !y) (38)
with optimized design it is anticipated that the Wm
composite would consist of about 10% void for
liquid helium circulation, 81% shunt conductor Values are given in Table 3 of J, rm, Am, t and
material and 9% superconducting material with a Wm for the Cases (a) and (b). The thickness t

7
 Table 3

Case(a), k . 2 Case(b), k =3
Il metric tons 25,000 50000
, 100000
, 25000
, 50000
, 100,000
b meters 9.0 11.35 14.3 9.0 11.35 14.3
rm meters 0.90 1.135 1.43 0.72 0.908 1.144
10-7 J amps 3.13 3.95 4.98 2.497 3.145 3.965
An meters2 0.314 0.396 0.499 0.250 0.315 0.397
t meters 0.0555 0.0555 0.0555 0.0554 0.0554 0.0554
Wm metric tons 372 589 940 419 665 1055
10-7 Fm newt.imeter 1.052 1.376 1.736 0.693 0.872 1.100
Fm lbs/in 60,200 78,600 99,600 39,650 49,900 63,000

Magnet Bed
remains nearly constant for all cases, a result
Magnet Bed
that may be anticipated from relations (56) and Insulating
(37). Spacers Electrode
U-Strap
The mass of composite magnet material varies Double Wall
as the square of the scale factor, while Csveries
as the cUbe. Hence, the larger the submarine, the
more favorable the situation as regards the rela-
tive weight of the magnet.

The most serious problem in regard to the

magnet design has to do with the coil support. The
annular bundle comprising the winding, held togeth-
er by the inner and outer metallic jackets, must be
held in a centrally located position within the
outer housing. The intervening space must be Bu lkhead
designed for the minimum possible heat transfer,
yet the forces to be transmitted across this space
are very large.

The force per unit length on the magnet lb) la)

winding due to interaction of current J and the
magnetic field is radially outward, and may be Fig. 9Techniques for magnet coil suPport
shown to be la) Tie Rods
lb) Spacers and U-Straps

F. . J2o
10_7 J2
7;7 newtons/meter (39)
Values are given in Table 3 for the several cases.
It is seen that F is extraordinarily large, but
that Case (b), wiTh six poles, has some advantage
over Case (a) with four poles.
There are two ways, illustrated in Fig. 9 (a)
and (b), that might be considered to provide force
transmission from the winding to the main hull
structure. One involves the use of tie rods. The
other would use spacers of high compressive strength
and low thermal conductance. In both cases, the
heat flow inwards must be carefully considered. In
the case of tie rods, the heat leakage can be kept
within acceptable limits, but the structure is
complex. In the case of the spacers the structure
is greatly simplified, but it is not known whether
materials, and a design configuration, can be
found to keep the heat leakage within bounds.
Calculation of required tie rod dimensions,
for rods running radially inward 72" apart, and
assuming high strength material of 300,000 psi
working stress, leads to 4.9" diameter-rods for
Case (a) and 3.9" diameter rods for Case (b). The
total number of tie rods for all coils is 271 for
Case (a) and 382 for Case (b) including restraints
on the end turns. Tie rod heat leakage will be
about 10% lower in Case (b) than Case (a).
The major advantage of the low conductivity
spacer method of support is that the casing
structure of the magnet can be fastened to the
hull structure by simple tie-bands.
A rough estimate may be made of the refrigera-
tion power requirement for the magnet. With well-
designed thermal shielding and evacuated space in
the region between the outer jacket of the winding
and the tubular casing, the heat infiltration due
to radiAtion across this space will be about 0.14
watts/m'. For the 50,000 metric ton submarine of
Case (a) the casing area is about 3900 sq. meters,
and for Case (b), about 4380 sq. meters. Corres-
ponding heat leaks are 546 watts and 614 watts.
Refrigeration power required would be, for this
portion of the heat leakage, approximately 546 kw
in Case (a) and 614 kw in Case (b). The other
major part of the heat infiltration would be that
due to conductance along the tie rods. The tie rod
heat leakage, with vapor cooling, and rods 3 meters
long, would be such as to require an additional
refrigeration power of 660 kw for Case (a) and 590
kw for Case (b). Thus, for 50,000 tons,.the tie
rod method of coil support could lead to combined
radiation and conduction refrigeration power re-
quirements of about 1200 kw for either Case (a) or
).

- 8 -
 With the use of insulating spacers, the final
solution would depend on the ratio of compressive m (42)
N u + 1
strength to thermal conductivity for the spacers.
Here also, two stage or vapor cooling would help For a spherical body the factor N is 4x/3. In
reduce refrigeration power requirements. The order to lift an iron object from the sea bottom,
feasibility of the spacer method of construction the value of f would need to be 6680 dynes/cm3,
from the standpoint of refrigeration requirements considering the buoyancy as well as the weight.
has not yet been ascertained. A design goal might (Electromagnetic units used in the present calcula-
be set at keeping refrigeration power less than 5% tion). The following lifting distances, d*, between
of the power PE, at the top speed of 29.1 knots. hull bottom and sea bottom are found by evaluation
The great simplification of structure and assembly of the r.h. member of Eq. 41 on the vertical axis:
could justify acceptance of higher refrigeration
power in the spacer support method than in the tie Table 5
rod method.
Lifting Distances for Steel Ball on Bottom
Stray Magnetic Fields
Case (a) Case (b)
For naval submarines the spreading magnetic met. tons 25000 50000 100000 25000 50000 100000
field outside the hull might be objectionable, and 2b meters 18 22.7 28.6 18 22.7 28.6
in that case a large k-value would be selected for d* meters 7.5 8.60 10.0 6.75 8.00 9.50
the design. For the tanker application, the
spreerling external field is chiefly of concern as it
may lead to unwanted attractive forces on iron It would be preferable to maintain a bottom clear-
objects, either boats on the surface, or debris on ance somewhat larger than d* to guard against metal
the bottom. pick-up. Elongated objects, oriented toward the
hull, will have an N-value somewhat smaller than the
The strength of the external magnetic field in value for the sphere.
teslas is given in Table 4, along lines passing
through windings (0 = W2k) or centered between The field inside the hull could prove hazardous
windings (e = o). to personnel unless shielding is used. The value of
B on a radial line passing through the center of a
Table 4 magnet winding (0 = W2k) is given by

External Magnetic Field. B-values, teslas

2B rk-1 bk+1
o
Case (a), k = 2 Case (2), k . 3 B= (43)
b2k -r2k
r/b e m o e. u/4 e.o e = si6
Numerical values for Cases (a) and (b) are given in
1 1.390 1.664 Table 6.
2 0.328 0.371 0.205 0.211
3 0.1017 0.1041 0.0410 0.0411 Table 6
4 0.0432 0.0435 0.0130 0.0130
5 0.0222 0.0223 0.0053 0.0053 Values of B in Teslas on Line at 0 . W2k
6 0.0129 0.0129 0.0026 0.0026
7 0.0081 0.0081 0.0014 0.0014 r/b 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
8 0.0054 0.0054 0.0008 0.0008 B, Case /1) 0 0.278 0.558 0.841 1.140 1.14.82
9 0.0038 0.0038 0.0005 0.0005 B, Case b) 0 0.033 0.133 0.299 0.534 0.845
10 0.0028 0.0028 0.0003 0.0003

With the cylindrical steel tunnel in the center

Expressions for the magnetic induction along section the B-value inside the tunnel will be greatly
these two axes of symmetry are given below: reduced. We note in Table 6 that for Case (a) the
flux density at 0.3b is 0.841 tesla, or 8410 gauss.
2 B r1-1 bk+1 To indicate the possible degree of shielding pro-
e= ic/2k ; B 2k° vided by a steel cylindrical shell, imagine that we
2k
r -b had a uniform field B', and in it placed a cylindrical
(40) shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2. If
p, is the relative permeability the residual field
2 B rk-1 bk+1 B1 inside the cylinder will be
o
. 0 B
2k
r +b 2k
4B'
Bi (14)
The attracting power of the exterior field for
an iron object depends on the induced magnetization (1 - r12/r22)
gi and on the vector field E. The force per unit
volume is This formula would indicate a shielding ratio BVB'
of about 0.1 for an iron cylindrical shell with
? (R.grad) E (41)
r]/r2 . 0.95. However, in the present case, Eq. 44
is hardly applicable on account of saturation.
The magnetization R induced in a body having Reference to Table 6 indicates that the shielding
"demagnetizing factor" N in a region of magnetic problem will definitely be more difficult for
field intensity R, is Case (a), with k 2, than for Case (b), with k = 3.

- 9 -
A cylindrical wall of thickness 0.01b at r2 0.3b enclosing jackets can be estimated from the
will probably suffice in Case (b). relation
, 1 aU
Gas Evolution (45)
= 2A Za'c
Gas will be evolved at the electrodes amounting
to one gram equivalent for each 96,500 coulombs of where a is the coil radius and U is the energy
electricity. At the anodes, 0.25 gram moles of 02 stored in the field.
are released, and at the cathodes 0.50 gram moles of
H2 If current 2kI flows out of the anodes and into
the cathodes, the number of gram moles released per
second is

0.75 x 2kI
n - _ 1.555 x 10-5 Ik
g 96,500

The total volume of gas evolved per second at STP is

v = 22.4 x 1.555 x l0

. 3.485 x 10-4 Ik 1iters/sec. la)

The volume of gas (at STP) left behind the submarine

per linear meter of ocean (i.e. in a "slice" of
water 1 meter thick, extending out in all directions,
and perpendicular to the direction of motion) may
vg*; it is vg/u. Values of I, v and
-11111_411111111111-
be*designated lb)
v for u . 15 meters/sec are given in Table 7.
Fig. 10-Self restraining magnet systems
Table 7

Gas Evolution at 29.1 Knots

The internal arrangement with the self re-
Case (b) (k . 3) straining coil is pictured in Fig. 10b. An electro-
Case (a) (k = 2)
magnetic pump is used, with circumferential flow in
met.tons 25000 50000 100000 25000 50000 100000 an annular torroidal passage. This arrangement is
I amps 11550 14600 18375 10510 13300 16725 relatively compact, would require smaller refrigera-
vg lit/sec 8.06 10.17 12.8 11.0 13.9 17.5 tion power than other schemes, and would not give
v lit/meter 0.538 0.678 0.854 0.733 0.927 1.167 rise to excessive internal or external fields. How-
ever, because it delivers a water jet, it is
handicapped by having a jet efficiency ni which is
At a cruising depth of 90 meters, the volumes vg and perhaps as low as 80%, and which must be applied as
* would be multiplied by 0.1, since the pressure a multiplier on the duct efficiency in accord with
vg
.

is then 10 atm. E. 2.
Preliminary experiments have shown that the in- 7. Model Experiments
sulating effect of the gas bubbles is quite negligi-
ble. Gas evolution would not appear to be a serious In 1966, at the University of California in
problem. Santa Barbara,* a model 10 feet long, of 900 lbs
displacement was constructed. This model had as its
6. Designs with Self-Restraining Coils objectives (1) demonstration of an operating ex-
ternal field electromagnetic submarine, (2) pro-
It is conceivable that the electromagnetically vision of an interesting design project for mechanical
propelled tanker could be designed with a self- engineering students.
supporting coil. In this case, the simplest con-
figuration would be a magnet coil in the form of a The model, designated EMS-1, was of bipolar
circular ring. The cryogenic chamber would be of field arrangement, as illustrated in Fig. 11.
torroidal form. 10001
We might here consider either an external field
or an internal duct arrangement. The external con-
figuration is pictured in Fig. 10a. The coil would
extend laterally outwardly, leading to a vessel of
quite a large beam. The draft might thereby be
slightly reduced, which would be an advantage.
There would be some lessening of propulsive efficiency Y
because of the relatively smaller active field region,
but this would be offset by a reduction of refrigera-
j;
tion power requirements because of the much simpler
ie'
problem of coil support in this case. Only the
weight of the coil would have to be carried by the
I- fiedroatoindIc sower.. mewl
supports.
The winding itself would restrain the electro- The author was serving as Professor of
magnetic forces. The tension in the coil and Mechanical Engineering during the period.
The center section consisted of a basic structure
of 17 3/4" O. D. steel tube of about 1/4" wall
(after machining) with recessed troughs on the side
formed from half sections of 5" pipe. This
assembly formed a spool, on which was wound the
magnet coil. The coil consisted of two windings,
about 1275 feet each, of No. 4 aluminum wire, plus
an additional 1200 feet of No. 12 coppdr wire.
Todd, F. H., "Submarine Cargo Ships and Tankers,"
3rd Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics,
Scheveningen, Holland, September, 1960.
Rice, W. A.; U.S. Patent 2,997,013, August 12,
1961.
Way, S., "Examination of Bipolar Electric and
Magnetic Fields for Submarine Propulsion," Pre-
liminary Memorandum, Communication to U.S. Navy
Bureau of Ships, October 15, 1958.

Way, S., "Propulsion of Submarines by Lorentz

Forces in the Surrounding Sea," American Society
of Mechanical Engineers Paper 64WA/ENER7,
November, 1964.

Friauf, J. B., "Electromagnetic Ship Propulsion,"

Fig. 12-Electromagnetic submarine model of 400 kg displacement
Nose and tail sections were made of molded
fiberglass reinforced plastic. A mast and "sail"
provided a mounting point above the water line for
meters and starting switch, and a means for auto-
matic depth control, since the sail afforded -I- 8
pounds buoyancy variation depending on submersion
depth.
The length of the active field region was
approximately 1 meter, and the hull radius b was
0.225 m. The B, design value was 0.015 tesla.
Parameter cpe was -1.914 and, of course, k = 1.
With an assumed drag coefficient of 0.09 based on
hull cross section the design speed was 0.4 meters/
sec.
Journal of American Society of Naval Engineers,
February 1961, pp. 139-142.
Doragh, R. A., "Magnetohydrodynamic Ship Pro-
pulsion using Superconducting Magnets," Society
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Annual
Meeting, New York, November 14-15, 1963.
Phillips, O. M., "The Prospects for Magnetohydro-
dynamic Ship Propulsion," Journal of Ship Research,
March, 1962, pp. 43-51.
Kantrowitz, A; Stekly, Z. J. J.; Hatch, A. M.;
"A Model MHD Type Superconducting Magnet," Inter-
national Symposium on Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical
Power Generation. Salzburg, Austria, July 4-8,
1966.

Power for magnet and electrode circuits was Way, S. and Devlin, C., "Prospects for the Electro-
provided by five series connected 6-volt lead- magnetic Submarine." (Paper to be submitted to AIAA
acid batteries of 217 a.h. each. At the high Propulsion Specialists Conference, July 17, 1967).
current drawn by these two circuits, discharge time
vas about 20 minutes, and ampere hours available
fell to 72. Notation: (MES units, except as noted.
Vector quantities written with bar,
Tests were made of this model(11) and the magnitudes without bar, e.g. E and B)
design operating speed was realized. Separate
tests indicated negligible polarization effects at 5, j current density
the electrodes. S, B magnetic induction
P, E electric intensity
8. Concluding Remarks 11, H magnetic field intensity
M induced magnetization
The submarine tanker offers some advantages f force per unit volume on magnetized body
and some disadvantages; the principal disadvantage 171, u flow velocity, or ship speed
is the large draft in the normal surface condition. uj jet speed
With electromagnetic propulsion it appears possible x,y rectangular coordinates
to realize an added gain in propulsive efficiency r,0 polar coordinates
that should further enhance the competitive position k number of anodes or cathodes
of the submarine tanker. However, this will be V electric potential
possible only if (a) certain difficult problems of Ve half voltage between electrodes
magnet design and support can be solved, (b) the half current from one anode
refrigeration power can be kept less than about 5% current in magnet coil (amp. turns)
of the full load power, (e) economic considerations B, value of B at r b, 0=0
do not rule out the electromagnetic tanker on the critical B for superconducting material
basis of higher capital costs. Ecr
hull radius of submarine amid ships
hull length
Lc length of cylindrical center body
References length of forward figure of rev. section
IEF
LEA length of aft figure of rev. section
Sheets, H. E., "The Engineering of Submarines." LE= LEA + LEF
Mechanical Engineering, January, 1962, p. 37. A. cross-section of conductors in winding
rm radius of annular conductor
Russo, V. L.; Turner, H., and Wood, F. W., thickness of annular conductor
"Submarine Tankers," Transactions of the mass of composite material in mag. coils
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Wm
force per unit length on mag. conductor
Engineers. Vol. 68, 1960, p. 693. BT hypothetical B-value, uniform field

-11-
11-
 Bi hypothetical B-value inside shielded region permeability of free space, 4g X 10-7
N demagnetizing factor of magnetized body relative permeability
d* lifting distance, iron body on sea bottom qV conjugate harmonic functions
ri,r2 inner and outer radii of interior tunnel W p + i* w()
ng gm. moles gas evolved per sec. x + iy
vg liters gas evolved per second interaction parameter 2aoBo2Lpu
U energy in magnetic field interaction parameter 2a0Ber-d/pu
ratio UB/E value of e where electrode meets hull
CD hull drag coeff. based on S, appended hull ratio x/2k-ee to
surface area of bare hull half angle subtended by mag. winding
drag of fully appended hull value of p on electrode surface
PT thrust power electrical conductivity of sea water
PE electric power to electrodes density of sea water
a length of active field region 8*,pe* optimum values for max. n
a defined by Eq. 24 submerged displacement, met, tons
rl propulsive efficiency, PT/PE E normal displacement at surface
jet efficiency Ve cargo storage volume
MHD duct (pump) efficiency value of dy/d0
I

4 magnetic permeability defined in text

vg

-12 -
No. 61364

LIFE SUPPORT FOR INNER AND OUTER SPACE VEHICLES

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
by

THOMAS V. BOLLES and HAROLD WALLMAN

General Dyncimics/Electric Boat
Groton, Connecticut

Paper No.
67-364

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Arnericas, New York, N. Y. 10019
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12.13, 12.15
 LIFE SUPPORT FOR INNER AND OUTER SPACE VEHICLES
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Thomas V. Bolles and Harold Wallman
Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics
Groton, Connecticut
Abstract
The life support systems and hardware
used on modern military submarines,
research submarines, and outer space
vehicles are reviewed and compared. Among
the life support systems and components
discussed are: oxygen supply, carbon
dioxide removal, trace contaminant
removal, temperature/humidity control, and
water/Waste/food management. The vehicles
employed for inner and outer space explora-
tion both operate in hostile environments.
Their required life support systems are
similar in some ways, but differ in many
respects. The differences are the result
of differences in external environment and
in the important criteria for each mission.
For modern military submarines and research
submarines, minimum equipment volume is
usually the controlling criterion; for non-
nuclear submarines electric power is also
a controlling factor. For space vehicles
weight and power are usually the principal
controlling criteria. In the outer space
environment life support systems must
perform under weightless conditions. This
requirement causes the most difficulties
for systems involving gas-liquid separa-
tions. Life support systems for deep-
diving research submarines have the
greatest similarity with space vehicle
systems. Conclusions are reached on the
reasons for the similarities and
differences in the methods and hardware
used.
I. Introduction
The vehicles employed for inner space
and outer space exploration both operate in
hostile environments. The crew members no
longer have an unlimited supply of oxygen
or a vast biological cycle to dilute and
remove their exhaled carbon dioxide. In
small, sealed systems the carbon dioxide
concentration can reach toxic proportions
in a matter of hours; likewise the oxygen
concentration can reach the minimum value
in a short time. Trace contaminants in a
sealed atmosphere can become a serious
problem and inhibit the performance of the
crew or cause the abortion of a mission if
not properly removed. Temperature and
humidity of the sealed atmosphere must be
maintained within a comfort zone for
optimum performance by the crew members.
Water must be provided (except for short
missions) for drinking, food preparation,
and general personal hygiene. Human waste
products must be collected and disposed or
stored.
1
It is necessary, therefore, to provide
life support systems for both inner space
and outer space vehicles to maintain the
crew within their sealed environment. The
required life support systems and their
associated hardware for inner and outer
space vehicles are similar in some ways, but
differ in many respects. The differences
are the result of the differences in
environment and in the important criteria
for each mission.
Within General Dynamics Corporation two
of the divisions have performed the
functions of systems manager for manned
vehicles, Electric Boat for inner space
(both military and research submarines) and
Convair for outer space. These two
divisions, in fact, have worked jointly on
many occasions to solve the complex pro-
blems of life support in sealed systems.
With this broad background of life support
system management in inner and outer space
this paper reviews the various life
support systems and hardware used on
modern military submarines, research sub-
marines, and space vehicles.
The life support requirements of man are
summarized in Table I. The oxygen con-
centration for vehicles maintained at
atmospheric pressure is normally maintained
at 21% or 3.1 psi partial pressure.
Vehicles operating at reduced pressures
have somewhat higher 0, partial pressures.
Carbon dioxide levels 'cpr vehicles at 1 atm
are usually maintained at 1.0% although the
Navy is presently considering lowering the
level to 0.5%. In vehicles at reduced
pressures the CO, levels are maintained at
CO partial pressures equivalent to 1% at
ambient,pressures.
The temperature and humidity require-
ments are closely related. The design cri-
terionis usually to maintain the environ-
ment within the "comfort zone- spelled out
by these temperature and humidity ranges.
Trace contaminant removal requirements
or levels to be maintained are difficult to
establish quantitatively since it is so
difficult to measure the amount of con-
taminant and its effect on man. However,
it is very important to consider trace
contaminant control in the design of any
sealed environment vehicle. This is
especially true in systems with a small
crew where each individual must be at peak
performance at all times.
 Table I. considerably among these vehicles. In
Summary of Life Support Requirements military submarines (crew size - 70 to 130
men) this volume ranges from,about
orma 800 ft3/man to about 1200 fti/man while in
Requirement Design Point research submarines and space vehicles
(crew size - 1 to 7) it is as little as
Oxygen consumption 2.2 lbs/man-day 50 1t3/man.
Carbon dioxide expiration 2.4 lbs/man-day
Military submarines and research sub-
Water intake - food and marines have individual life support sub-
drinking 6.2 lbs/man-day systems whereas in space vehicles all life
support systems are integrated into one
Food intake 1.4 lbs/man-day loop to provide all functions of the
(dry basis) environmental control system (ECS). In
the case of the military submarine the
Waste output - solid and life support system is of secondary
liquid 6-7 lbs/man-day importance compared to the weapon system
and the power supply system. The life
Temperature range 60-80°F support components were developed
separately as the requirements developed
Relative humidity 40-70% and were located in the spaces available
after the primary systems were arranged.
Life support units are therefore at
The operating environments (external and different locations throughout the ship.
internal) of inner and outer space vehicles
are compared in Table TI. This table Research submarines are usually a one
illustrates some of the vast differences of a kind vehicle and must be designed and
that exist in these two hostile external fabricated at a moderate cost. This again
environments. leads to separate life support subsystems
rather than a completely integrated
Table III lists the design criteria in environmental control system.
order of importance for the three types of
vehicles under consideration. For modern In the case of space vehicles there are
military submarines and research subMarines, usually a number of vehicles of thesame
minimum equipment volume is usually the design. Weight must be optimized with
controlling criterion for non-nuclear sub- cost not as important. These criteria
marines electric power is also a con- lead to an integrated life support system.
trolling factor. For deep-diving research
submarines (greater than about 5000 ft.) Another general difference fs in the
minimum weight assumes increased importance. area of reliability. Ail systems of a
For space vehicles weight and power are space vehicle must be very highly
usually the principal controlling criteria. reliable. The present space missions have
Power is usually converted to an equivalent no time for performing maintenance and
weight penalty for space vehicles. emergency rescues would be most difficult
to perform. The crew is free to abort a
There are other general differences mission at only certain times during orbit.
between the various types of vehicles being
considered which are worthy of note. The Military submarines carry spare parts,
floodable or free volume per man differs perform maintenance on life support eluip-
Table II. Comparison of Environments

Submarines Space Vehicles

External: Normal gravity Weightless conditions

Pressure (ca. 45 psi/100 ft.) High vacuum
?5 to 85°F -10 to -110°F (earth orbit)
Good heat sink Poor heat sink
(1)
Internal: 1 atmospheve, 1/3 atmosphere (?)
91% oxygenkl) 100% oxygen(?)
Normal gravity Weightless conditions

Notes: (1) Except for high pressure He/Op mixtures used in some diving (Sea Lab
Project), salvage, and rescue-operations.
(2) Currently under review by NASA.

2
 Table III. Controlling Factors for Hardware Selection
Modern Military Submarines Research Submarines
Minimum volume
Minimum volume
Proven technology Minimum power
Moderate operation and Moderate cost
maintenance requirements
Minimum weight
ment and have some emergency rescue or
A large portion of the
escape capability.
time the submarine would be free to snorkel,
surface, or abort the mission in case of a
life support system failure. Also, because
of the relatively large floodable volume
per man, the submarine can remain sealed
for about 15 hours even with complete
break-down of a life support subsystem:
this allows a reasonable amount of time to
affect repairs.
II. Oxygen Supply Methods
Some of the ways of providing the
necessary oxygen for a closed system are
reviewed below,
High-Pressure Gas Cylinders or Spheres
This approach to oxygen supply has been
widely used on military submarines, researdh information was available.
submarines, and space vehicles. Gaseous
oxygen is stored at pressures ranging from
2,000 to 7,500 psi and bled into the
atmosphere as required.
Cryogenic Oxygen Storage
Cryogenic oxygen may be stored in
insulated spheres either subcritically or
supercritically. Supercritical storage is
usually used in space applications to
eliminate phase separation problems.
Chlorate Candles
Chlorate candles liberate oxygen by the
thermal decomposition of sodium chlorate
(NaC103). The candles are available in
various shapes and sizes. They are very
close in weight and volume to liquid
oxygen but are much easier to store and use.
Water Electrolysis
Oxygen is proariced from water electroly-
sis by passing a d.c. current through an
electrolyte solution. Hydrogen, of course,
is a by-product of this process. If water
and power are readily available, this
oxygen supply method is most attractive.
Electrolytic oxygen generators have been
developed for use on military submarihes.
Electrolysis units are also being developed
for future space application which impose
some rather severe restrictions - i.e.,
power penalties are severe, therefore, very
efficient cells are required; zero gravity
environment causes liquid-gas separation
problems. In spite of these problems,
electrolsis of water (as part of a semi-
closed cycle) is being developed to supply
oxygen for extended space missions.
Space Vehicies
Minimum weight
Minimum power
Very high reliability
Operational under weight-
less conditions
Active Chemicals
Active chemical compounds are available
for use as a source of oxygen supply and
for the removal of carbon dioxide. These
active chemicals include the alkali and
alkaline earth peroxides, superoxides, and
ozonides. These compounds in the presence
of water vapor and CO2 react to release
oxygen and absorb CO2, forming metal
carbonates and/or bicarbonates. These
compounds are all strong oxidants and tend
to keep the atmosphere free of bacteria and
to deodorize the atmosphere.
Table IV summarizes the types of oxygen
supply utilized in the three vehicle
applications under consideration. In the
summary tables in this review paper the
research submarines include those that are
operational or under construction for which
Because of the
long mission requirements of the modern
military submarine, storage of the
necessary oxygen is not feasible. The
power availability and the unlimited supply
of water make electrolysis a natural
solution to the oxygen supply problem. A
few weeks eqoply of oxygen is maintained in
oxygen flasks as a back-up to the electroly-
sis system. (Some earlier submarines employ
oxygen flasks as their main source of oxy-
gen and chlorate candles as a back-up.)
Table IV. Oxygen Supply Wthods
Modern military submarines:
Electrolysis of distilled sea water
(KOH electrolyte)
Compressed 02 gas in flasks
Chlorate candles
Research submarines:
Compressed 02 gas in flasks (1)
(1800-3000 psi) - 13 vehicles'
Compressed 02 gas in spheres - J. vehicle
Liquid (cryogenic) oxygen - 1 vehicle
Chlorate candles - 1 vehicle
Space vehicles:
Mercury - compressed 0, gas (7500 psi)
Gemini and Apollo - subercritical
storage in spheres
Russian space vehicles:
Superoxides
(1)Electric Roat's STAR series can use KO2
as alternate.
3
 For research submarines compressed oxy-
gen in conventional flasks is commonly used.
The cost of this approach is moderate and
the logistics are not difficult at pressunm
of about 2000 psig. Also weight and volume
are not as critical for missions of less
than 24 hours. For the longer missions
(and deeper depths) weight becomes much
more important and the use of liquid oxy-
gen, chlorate candles, or superoxides must
be considered.
For the Mercury space vehicle compressed
oxygen at 7500 psi was used in weight
optimized (but costly) spheres. For the
Gemini and Apollo vehicle with their longer
mission, supercritical oxygen was used to
give a lower weight penalty and a one
phase fluid. It is reported that the
Russian manned space vehicles use an
-active chemical believed to be super-
oxides for the oxygen supply as well as
CO2 removal system.
III. Carbon Dioxide Removal
Methods presently utilized for removing
CO2 from sealed environments are reviewed
below.
Lithium Hydroxide
Lithium hydroxide (Li0H) is used in a
granular form and can absorb about 0.9 lb
CO2 per lb of Li0H. It does tend to dust
and an efficient filter must be used.
Although normally used with a blower, it
can be used passively or by spreading on
flat surfaces for a no-power, emergency
situation.
Baralyme
Baralyme is a trade name of a granular
material containing approximately 80%
Ca(OH)2 as the principal absorbent, plus a
dye as a color indicator. It also contains
an "activator" (barium octahydrate) to
obtain gOod reaction rates with low CO?
concentrations.
Sodasorb
Sodasorb is similar to Baralyme in that
it also contains about 80% Ca(OH)2 and a
dye. Sodasorb (commonly called soda lime)
contains NaOH and KOH as an 'activator-.
Monoethanolamine
Since the advent of nuclear submarines,
much research has been done to optimize a
CO2 removal system for submarine applica-
tion. Many liquid absorbents have been
investigated and evaluated. The optimum
absorbent (for minimum volume) is a solu-
tion of monoethanolamine (TA) and water.
MEA has the ability to absorb CO? when cool
and to release it when hot, which allows a
regenerative system.
Table V summarizes the types of CO2
removal systems employed in the three
vehicle applications under consideration.
4
Table V.
Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods
Modern military submarines:
Monoethanolamine scrubbers
(regenerable)
Back-up - LIOH absorption
Research submarines:
LiOH lAr/blower) - 9 vehiclesDI
LiOH passive) -'1 vehicle
Sodasorb w/blower) - 4 vehicles
Baralyme w/blower) - 1 vehicle
Baralyme passive) - 1 vehicle
Space Vehicles (Mercury, Gemini and
Apollo):
LIOH (w/blower)
Russian space vehicles:
Superoxides
(1)Electric Boat's STAR series can use
superoxides as alternate.
The military submarines with their long
missions require a regenerable CO2
removal system. Since ample power is
available, this also lends itself to a
regenerable system. The use of a mono-
ethanolamine system is very difficult to
beat based on the volume required to
provide a specific scrubbing capacity.
Lithium hydroxide canisters are carried
on all submarines as a back-up to the MEA
scrubbers.
Lithium hydroxide, Baralyme, and Soda-
sorb are all used on research submarines.
The LiOH is the best based on weight and
volume requirements but its dust is very
irritating. Baralyme and Sodasorb are
frequently used for short missions (less
than 2)4 hours) because they are somewhat
easier to handle. For longer missions
LIOH is usually used to obtain minimum
weight.
All the U.S. space vehicles to date use
LiOH for CO2 removal to obtain minimum
weight. In the case of the Russian space
vehicles it is reported that they utilize
superoxides for both oxygen supply and CO?
removal to obtain minimum weight.
IV. Trace Contaminant and Odor Control
A large number and variety of contamin-
ants are produced in a closed system by the
crew members, machinery, and materials of
conatruction. Many of these trace con-
taminants are difficult to detect and/or
measure quantitatively. Methods used to
remove trace contaminants are summarized
below.
Activated Carbon
For any mission of more than a day,
activated carbon filters are usually used
to remove trace contaminants from the
atmosphere. Most carbon is located in a
main carbon filter. In research sub-
marines and space vehicles this carbon is
usually placed with the CO2 absorbent. In
military submarines and some research sub-
marines small carbon filters are also
employed at spot locations such as the
sanitary tank vents.
Purafil
Purafil is a trade name for a relative-
ly new odor control material consisting of
activated alumina in the shape of spherical
pellets impregnated with potassium perman-
ganate. Purafil destroys odors by the
processes of adsorption and chemical
oxidation.
Catalytic Burners
Activated carbon filters effectively
remove the majority of trace contaminants:
the carbon, however, does not remove light
gases such as hydrogen, methane, and CO.
Disposing of these light gases at a rea-
sonable temperature can be accomplished
only with the aid of a catalyst.
Electrostatic Precipitators
ContamIñants can occur as aerosols,
which are defined as particulate matter,
either solid or liquid, s-spended in the
atmosphere, with particle sizes usually
less than 1 micron in diameter. Aerosols
reduce cooling coil efficiency and increase
electronic and fan failures by collecting
on surfaces exposed to air flow. Electro-
static precipitators utilize electric
forces to separate aerosols from a gas
stream. D.C. voltages as high as 15,000
volts ionize gas molecules, which impart
their charge to aerosol particles. The
charged aerosols are then collected on a
collecting plate.
Table VI summarizes the type of trace
contaminant control methods used in various
applications.
Table VI.
Trace Contaminant Control Methods
Modern military submarines:
Catalytic burner
Activated carbon
Electrostatic precipitator
Research submarines:
No special provision - 9 vehicles
Activated carbon - 5 vehicles
Purafil - 1 vehicle
Activated carbon + Purafil - 1 vehicle
Absolute filter - 1 vehicle
Space vehicles:
Activated carbon
The military submarine is sealed up for
many weeks at a time, longer than any other
vehicles that are being compared. The
length of mission contributes to the con-
taminant load of a sealed system. The crew
members are allowed to smoke which produces
5
a heavy CO and aerosol contaminant load.
The inboard main storage battery gases
hydrogen when on charge. Cooking,
materials of construction, lubrication and
fuel oils all contribute to the contaminant
load of a submarine. Therefore, today's
submarines have two catalytic burners,
about 1 lb carbon for every 75 ft3 of
floodable volume, and several electro-
static precipitators.
Research submarines do not usually have
the contaminant problems of a military sub-
marine. The crew does not smoke and there
is usually no cooking. Batteries are
usually stored outboard. The summary
table shows nine research vehicles with no
special provision for contaminant control,
the others using carbon and Purafil. In.
the case of one vehicle, with Inboard
batteries and a three day design mission,
the explosive limit of hydrogen in air
could be approached under the worst condi-
tions. If the mission were to be several
days longer, a catalytic burner would
probably be required. All space vehicles
use activated carbon even for short
missions as little as one orbit. The
difference between these short missions
and the inner space short missions is the
internal pressure. Since the space
vehicles operate at reduced pressure, many
of the materials of construction are sub-
ject to outgassing and therefore trace
contaminants can become more of a problem.
However, there is a compensating factor in
that space vehicles have a finite leak
rate, thus some purging of contaminants
naturally occurs. Submarines, obviously,
cannot purge atmospheric contaminants in
this way.
V. Temperature and Humidity Control
The types of temperature and humidity
control methods employed in various vehicle
applications are summarized in Table VII.
With an abundance of available power and
an excellent heat sink, the modern military
submarine has no problem maintaining.
temperature and humidity throughout the
ship at comfortable levels. Air condi-
tioning plants provide chill water to
cooling coils throughout the ship. Some
present day submarines have about 220
tons of refrigeration of the vapor-com-
pression type using Freon as the refrig-
erant. In addition, they have about
210 tons of the absorption type with
LiBr as the refrigerant.
Research submarines usually cannot
afford electrical power for operating an
air conditioning unit. Many short-mission
research submarines have no provision for
temperature and humidity control other than
heat transfer through the hull. Ambient
temperature within these submarines depends
on a balance between the heat load within
the vessel and the temperature of the
 Table VII.
Temperature/Humidity Control Methods
Modern military submarines:
Freon compression and absorption
refrigeration; sea water heat ex-
changer for heat sink
Research submarines:
Hull cooling and condensation(1)
(Passive) - 14 vehicles
Hull cooling and condensation
(Dynamic) - 1 vehicle
Freon compression refrigeration -
1 vehicle
Space vehicles.
Mercury - Wáter boil-off
Gemini and Apollo - Heat exchange loop
with space radiator + water boil-off
(1)Two vehicles have variable hull
insulation; 1 has electric heaters.
surrounding sea water. The humidity level
is controlled only by condensation on the
hull walls. In warm waters this method is
unsatisfactory, and improvements are
needed.
For the longer-mission research sub-
marine, a forced-air circulation system is
sometimes employed to control temperature
and humidity. The system delivers air to
an annular slot between an insulating
shield and the hull on the upper portion
of the sphere. Condensate from the hull
walls is collected in the bilge.
In the Mercury vehicles the temperature
and humidity in both the cabin and pressure
suit circuits were controlled by a heat
exchanger of the water evaporative type.
With the vacuum provided by space, the
water boiled at 35°F with the vapor being
discharged overboard. The condensing cabin
moisture in the heat exchanger was then
collected by a water separator which was a
sponge device to collect the water drop-
lets. This sponge device was squeezed
periodically and the water collected in a
storage chamber.
In the Gemini and Apollo vehicles a
heat exchanger loop with a space radiator
is utilized. Due to variations in the
sink temperature of space, the design of
spacecraft radiators become quite involved.
To meet this sink temperature variation
the Gemini thermal control system employs
a temperature-controlled mix valve that
maintains a constant temperature at the
system outlet by by-passing cold fluid
from the radiator through a regenerative
heat exchanger. Condensate from the cabin
atmosphere is stored and used for peak
loads by boil-off to space.
6
VI. Water/Food/Waste Management
Water management is an important element
of any life support system. The minimum
water requirements for food and drinking
purposes are about 6.2 lb/man-day. Thus,
it is the most important requirement from
a logistic point of view.
The methods used for water/food manage-
ment are summarized in Table VIII. Modern
military submarines are equipped with a
8,000 gpd sea water distillation system,
hence there is ample fresh water for all
purposes, including showers. Conventional
food with variety is used because of its
importance to crew Morale for extended
missions. Galley facilities provide for
all conventional forms of coOking and
baking (including an ice cream maker), but
unfortunately, cooking is a major source of
atmospheric contaminants.
Table VIII. Water/Food Management
Modern military submarines:
Sea water distillation supplies potable
water
Conventional food with completely
equipped galley
Research submarines:
No special provision - 12 vehicles
Emergency rations - 1 vehicle
Stored water; stored food in ice chest;
hot plate - 1 vehicle
Freeze-dried food with hot and cold
water reconstitution - 1 vehicle
Freezer with frozen food and warming
oven; stored water - 1 vehicle
Space vehicles:
Stored water
Food tubes, bite size rations, and
freeze-dried food
Most of the research submarines have
either no special provisions for water/food
management, or have minimal facilities.
Three of these vehicles with mission dura-
tions of 3 to 42 days have stored food
(see Table VIII); preparation facilities
are minimal (warming only) because of
volume limitations and manpower limitations
with the relatively small crews.
The space vehicles use specially pre-
pared rations requiring no refrigeration,
and the packaging is designed for use under
weightless conditions. These rations pro-
vide a well balanced diet with a minimal
weight'penalty, but are too expensive for
use in most underwater missions. Space
vehicles use wipes for personal hygiene,
i.e., no wash water is used because of
weight restrictions.
The principal sources of waste to be
considered in waste management are
atmospheric condensate, used wash water,
urine and feces. In addition to the above
there are several other minor waste sources,
e.g., food scraps and packaging.
Of the above wastes the sanitary waste
will be discussed since it is the most
difficult to handle in a closed vehicle.
The methods used are summarized in Table
IX. Modern military submarines use fairly
conventional flush (sea water) facilities.
The sanitary waste is collected in "hard"
tanks and blown over-board every 1-3 days
with compressed air. (Activated carbon is
used in the tank inboard vent for odor
control). For research submarines of short
mission duration (up to 2)4 hours) waste
management facilities are either minimal or
non-existant. For longer missions inboard
storage with a chemical disinfectant
(phenolic or iodine complex compound) is
used. A special toilet design is used to
allow for odor control and use of minimal
flush water quantities. For space vehicles
the urine is vented; feces is collected
using a "glove" bag, mixed with a dis-
infectant (phenolic complex), and stored.
Table IX.
Sanitary Waste Management
Modern military submarines:
Conventional flush facilities; waste
stored and discharged out-board every
1-3 days
Research submarines:
No special provision - 11 vehicles
Urine bottle + emergency bags -
2 vehicles
Chemical toilet - 1 vehicle
Chemical disinfection and storage -
2 vehicles
Space vehicles:
Urine vented; feces stored in bags with
disinfectant
It is interesting to note that water
management problems in inner and outer
space are coming closer together. In deep-
diving submarines, hull penetrations are
very undesirable. A current submarine
concept will use only nine pounds of
water per man-day for drinking, washing,
and sanitary purposes, Although water
recovery systems will not be utilized, water
will be used for multi-purposes, e.g., used
wash water will be utilized for toilet
flushing. Such a small water usage rate is
a far cry from the 30 to 100 gallons/Man-
day used in modern military submarines.
VII. What of the Future?
Hardware for the next generation of
manned vehicles is under development and
should be available to meet mission require-
ments. Some of the methods that will
probably be used are summarized below.
7
Military Submarines
The MEA scrubbers, as currently
designed, maintain a 002 level of about
one per cent. The Bureau of Medicine has
recently recommended a maximum level of
0.5 per cent CO2 for extended missions,
and the Navy is endeavoring to develop
equipment to meet this level. As one
possible approach, General Dynamics is
developing and optimizing a mixture of
sodium superoxide and sodium peroxide in
high density form for use in an all-
chemical system for generating oxygen and
removing carbon dioxide (see Figure 1).
The high density chemical bricks are
stored in watertight and gas-tight con-
tainers with a pull-tab on the bottom.
The containers are loaded into the unit
with the bottom opening of each can over a
spray nozzle. Water is then passed through
the spray nozzles against the bottom of the
chemical bricks. Oxygen gas is released
and a sodium hydroxide solution formed
which flows to the bottom of the reactor.
This caustic solution Is then circulated
through a packed column to scrub CO2 from
the air, which is also forced through the
packed column. This complete 02 producing
and CO2 removal system would require only
slightly more volume than one MEA scrubber,
plus storage volume for the chemical bricks.
The big advantage of this type of system is
its simplicity compared to the high
Pressure electrolytic oxygen generator
and MEA scrubber.
2 NaO2 + H20 2 NaOH + 3/2 02
H20 -11. 2 NaOH + 1/2 02
NO202 -1-
2 NaOH + CO2 {1. No2CO3 + H20
AIR (CO2 RICH)
CHEMICAL
BRICKS
WATER
Na OH
AIR
(CO2 LEAN)
SOLUTION
SUPEROXIDE SPENT
REACTOR SOLUTION
OVERBOARD
CO2
SCRUBBER
FIGURE- I No0 - No202 CHEMICAL AIR REVITALIZATION SYSTEM
Research Submarines
As noted earlier, minimum weight
becomes very important as mission depth
is increased. To reduce weight (as com-
pared to compressed gaseous oxygen) one of
the following three approaches will
probably be used: (1) chlorate candles plus
Li0H, (2) liquid oxygen plus UGH, or (3)
sodium or potassium superoxide (to both
supply 02 and remove CO?). A two-man
superoxide system has been tested at
Electric Boat in a sealed environment and
is presently designed for use in the STAR
III research submarine. The use of regen-
erative techniques for CO2 removal are not
anticipated in the next géneration research
submarine because of the difficulty of dis-
posing of the CO2 at deep depths. Oxygen
recovery from the CO2 is not considered to
be feasible because of the limited duration
of most underwater missions and the limited
availability of power.
VIII. Conclusion
This brief review and comparison of the
various life support systems used on
modern military submarines, research sub-
marines, and space vehicles illustrated
some of the similarities and differences'.
of these systems under various applica-
tions. The results of these comparisons
shows that there are many similarities in
the life support system of the inner and
outer space vehicles. ' It is concluded that
life support systems-for deep-diving
research submarines (except for heat
rejection) have the greatest similarity
with space vehicle systems in that both
types of vehicles are usually weight
critical, have a small crew, low volume to
man ratio, and low power availability.

In order to save weight multiple use of

water and water reclamation (from the less
contaminated sources) will be practiced for
missions of more than a few days duration.

Space Vehicles
A program recently completed by General
Dynamics Corporation (joint effort of
Convair division and Electric Boat division)
for NASA-Langley illustrates the integrated
life support system of the future. This
future system utilizes a semi-closed physio-
chemical approach. Carbon dioxide is
removed with Molecular Sieves (using silica
gel to pre-dry the air). The CO2 is driven
off by heating and is reduced in a catalytic FIGURE-2
reactor by either the Bosch reaction or the
MULTIFILTER WATER RECLAMATION SYSTEM
Sabatier reaction. Electrolysis of the
product water supplies 02 for breathing and
H2 for recycle.
For space missions beyond Apollo it is
anticipated that fuel cells (with their by-
product water) will not be used, therefore,
water reclamation will be utilized for all
waste sources except feces. A filtration
system suitable for reclamation of atmo-
sphere condensate or wash water is shown
in Figure 2. The unit illustrated weighs
only 10 lb and will produce 370 lb of pot-
able water; it is equally suitable for
space vehicles or for long mission, deep
diving submarines.

The waste management system used in

Gemini, although acceptable, leaves much to
be desired. A more advanced waste manage-
ment system, developed by Electric Boat
under Air Force contract, is shown in
Figure 3. The two desirable features of
this unit are (a) a single sphere is used
to collect, dehydrate, and store feces
(i.e., no handling or transfer is involved);
and (b) positive odor control is achieved
with a forced air flow exiting through an
activated carbon canister. For urination,
it is necessary only to lift the relief
tube from its storage rack; this auto- FIGURE - 3
matically starts the air blower and a WASTE MANAGEMENT UNIT FOR SPACE
liquid-air centrifugal separator.

8
No. 61365

THE EFFECTS OF SINGLE CURVATURE ON STRESSES

AT REINFORCED CIRCULAR HOLES
by

PETER VAN DYKE

Martin Marietta Corporation
Baltimore, Maryland

Paper No.
67-365

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c, Nonmember Price$1.50,
6.13, 6.14
 THE EFFECTS OF SINGLE CURVATURE ON STRESSES
AT REINFORCED CIRCULAR HOLES
Peter Van Dyke
Specialist in Engineering
Martin Marietta Corp. , Baltimore, Md.
Abstract
The primary purposes of this paper are:
first, to present a summary of the results of
recent investigations into the effects of the
curvature on the stress conditions at circular
boundaries in shallow cylindrical shells; and
second, to apply these results, in the form of
influence coefficients at the circular boundary
in the shell, to more complex problems of
practical importance which might be encount-
ered in the design of advanced marine or aero-
space vehicles. When the boundary conditions
at the shell edge specify either the stresses,
deformations, or mixtures of both, solutions
are obtained through direct use of the influ-
ence coefficients. When the stresses and de-
formations are linked elastically, as exempli-
fied by problems concerning reinforced holes,
solutions are more complex in nature. Results
for stresses at the intersection of a shell with
a flat circular reinforcement are presented
here as a function of shell curvature for par-
ticular material and geometric properties of
the shell and reinforcement. Also, the formu-
lation of the problem where both reinforcement
and shell are curved-is included.
Introduction
The determination of the effects of cutouts
of various kinds on the states of stress in flat
plates under particular loading conditions has
been a subject of continued interest since the
beginning of this century when the first theo-
retical results were reported. Greater
demands imposed, for example, by high per-
formance pressure vessel design have taxed the
ingenuity of the theoretical analyst concerned
with the problem of determining stress con-
ditions around cutouts in flat plates. An entire
book1 devoted to formulations and solutions of
problems concerned with stresses around holes
in flat plates attests to the magnitude, variety,
and importance of these problems.
With the development of sophisticated vehi-
cles designed to carry men into new environ-
ments both above and beneath the surface of the
earth, the requirement for further understand-
ing the basis for all aspects of the design of
these vehicles is increased. Thus, stress
concentrations about a canopy cutout on a man-
ned re-entry space vehicle, or at the inter-
section of an observation port with the hull of a
deep-diving submarine, are phenomena which
must be well understood.
This increase in the importance of cutout
problems has necessitated development of
mathematical models to aLlow the prediction
of the effects of the curvature on stresses in
curved plates, or shells, as well as flat plates.
The cylindrical shell has surface curvature in
1
only one dimension, and thus serves as the
first step in determining these curvature ef-
fects. Several recent investigations2-5 have
been concerned with determining the stress
distribution about a circular hole cut in a shal-
low cylindrical shell surface. The effects of
the single curvature have been found to be of
primary importance, and additional efforts have
been directed 6, 7 toward the solution of cutout
problems with both added practical significance
and complexity.
The formulation of influence coefficients for
a circular boundary in a shallow cylindrical
shell forms the basis for solution of all types
of problems concerning circular cutouts in the
shell. Problems where the boundary conditions
at the shell edge are of either the stress, de-
formation, or mixed stress and deformation
type can be solved directly through use of the
influence coefficients. Under conditions where
the stress and deformation quantities are
linked elastically, as exemplified by problems
concerning shell intersections and reinforced
holes, solutions are more complex in nature.
The influence coefficients for the shell must be
employed in conjunction with the influence co-
efficients for the elastic body that is attached
to the shell, and this resulting system used to
describe the total stress conditions.
The primary purposes of this paper are:
first, to present a summary of the results of
recent investigations into the effects of the
curvature on the stress conditions at a cir-
cular boundary in a shallow cylindrical shell;
and second, to apply these results, in the form
of influence coefficients at the circular
boundary in the shell, to problems concerning
reinforced holes. The determination of the
stress conditions at the intersection of a cy-
lindrical shell and a flat circular reinforce-
ment, under a uniform tension loading, is
considered in the present analysis. Results
are given for stresses as a function of shell
curvature for particular values of material
and geometric properties of the shell and re-
inforcement. As a further example of pos-
sible reinforced hole solutions, the exten-
sion of this problem to the case where both
shell and reinforcement have equal curva-
ture is formulated. A preliminary applica-
tion of the reinforced hole results to a practi-
cal problem is given for the intersection of
suction and discharge valves with the hull of
a submarine.
The theoretical investigations discussed in
this paper are restricted by the assumptions of a
uniform, isotropic, constant thickness, thin
shallow shell containing a circular boundary.
With the existence of the complete solution to
this problem in terms of influence coefficients,
consideration of problems not restricted by these
assumptions is feasible. In particular, investi-
gations into the states of stress near general
curvilinear holes8 and reinforced curvilinear
holes9 in shells have been conducted. Approxi-
mate methods involving perturbations of the
boundary shape are employed, and solutions are
formulated in terms of a series of circular
boundary solutions. The applicability of the cir-
cular boundary results is thus extended to prob-
lems concerning other boundary shapes.
Many studies dealing with the problem of op-
timum reinforcement of circular cutouts in flat
plates have been performed (e. g., Ref. 10). No
attempt has been made in the present paper to
define criteria for optimum reinforcement and
then study the effects of curvature on these
criteria, but an effort has been made to estab-
lish parameters and to present the results in a
form which might serve as suitable input for
future optimization investigations of this kind.
Review of Influence Coefficient Derivation
The configuration of the shell with a circular
boundary is shown in Fig. 1. The problem of a
circular reinforcement with material and geo-
metric properties different from those of the
shell is indicated in this figure, but for the deri-
vation of the influence coefficients, only the prin-
cipal dimensions of the shell are needed. These
are the shell radius R, uniform thickness t,
boundary radius a, and material properties de-
scribed by elastic modulus E and Poisson' s
ratio v. The curvature parameter is defined as
9
82 = a- [12 (1 - v2)] 1/2/8 Rt
If the ratio of the boundary radius to the radius
of curvature, a/R, is small, the effects of con-
ditions within the boundary may be confined to an
bia
432-a2 [12/i -V211112/ 8R)
Y. E IE
2 //2)
p.2 (1.-v )/(1
T ° trIt
--- SHELL MIDDLE SURFACE
Figure 1. Configuration of Shell, Hole and Reinforcement
area which is within a small radial distance from
the hole; this region of the shell may be treated
as a shallow shell. Also, the shell thickness
must be small to allow the use of a shallow, thin
shell theory.
The behavior of the region of the shell which
is influenced by prescribed stresses and de-
formations on the circular boundary, based on
linear, shaLlow, thin shell theory, may be de-
scribed by the single complex nondimensional
differential equation
4
VO +gip2C, .0 (2)
The complex function is
= W - iF (3)
and
(4)
= a20/ aE2
where W is the nondimensional normal displace-
ment and F is a nondimensional membrane stress
function. The lengths on the shell middle sur-
face are nondimensionalized with respect to the
boundary radius a; g'is the coordinate in the
direction of the axis of the cylinder, and is the 71
circumferential coordinate.
A circular boundary implies that the boundary
conditions must be written for an edge of con-
stant radius. It is therefore useful to introduce
the dimensionless polar coordinates defined as
E= r cos rl =r sin El (5)
(1)
The stresses and deformations which describe
the conditions in the shell are shown in Fig. 2.
The definitions of these stress and deformation
quantities in terms of the normal displacement and
stress function are given in Appendix A, and the
relationships between the dimensional and non-
dimensional quantities are contained in Appendix
B.
Er, 1/, 77e
STRESS COUPLES
& ROTATIONS
e7)
STRESS RESULTANTS
& DISPLACEMENTS
Figure 2. Stress Couples and Resultants, Rotations and Displacements
2
 Problems concerning the shell loaded by a uni-
form axial tension are symmetrical with regard
to both the g and r, axes, and so the solution to the
governing equation, and the influence coefficients
obtained from this solution, will be required to
possess symmetry in g and n. The appropriate
solution to Eq. (2) which possesses the required
symmetry conditions and which is bounded at a
large distance from the boundary is
= (El -iE2 (An+il3n)H1n(pr(2i)1/2)cos ne
n=0,2,4,...
+ (E3 - iE (An+iBn)H1n(pr(2i)2)cosne
Once the unknown coefficients Cn and Dn have
been determined for a given unit periodic bound-
ary stress quantity, and the solution function
thereby determined, the influence coefficients are
given directly by the periodic edge deformations.
The quantities W and W, may be determined
directly, and the U and V displacements are de-
termined by the procedure outlined in Appendix A.
The influence coefficient formulation may be
written in matrix form as
N
Uo 11 12." rr0
(")21

N
rr.
V2
The E functions are Nre2

+ e-(1-i)p)/2 ukk
E1 - iE2
Nre2
E3 - iE4 = (e (1-i)3g e-(1-i)P,F)(1 +0/4 W2
rro

H1 is the Hankel function of the first kind, and

rr.
An and Bn are the unknown coefficients to be de-
termined by application of the boundary conditions. W, ro Q'r2
The influence coefficient formulation is most
conveniently carried out by a periodic represen-
tation where the effects of applied unit periodic W, r0
stresses are determined in terms of periodic QTr
deformations L the circular boundary. The
stress quantities which are specified at the bound-
ary r = 1, in a form periodic with respect to the
hole center, are the radial membrane stress
N , the membrane shearing stress N where j is (k + 2)14, and j and k are even. This
rr re' the matrix will be abbreviated as
radial bending couPle Mrr and the radial trans-
verse shear stress Q; the deformations are the
periodic components of the radial displacement U N
Ti,circumferential displacement V, normal dis- rr
placement W, and radial rotation W,r.
Nre
The solution given by Eq. (6) may be resolved rr
into periodic components by writing the E func-
tions in terms of a periodic series of Bessel W,
r Q'r (10)
functions; and after using appropriate combina-
tion formulas, the solution may be written in
periodic form as
The normal displacement W can be determined
= ) cos ne only to within a constant displacement, as in-
(Cn +iD)(Gln+iG
n 2n dicated by Eq. (2), and so the constant W term
Wo has been dropped. Also, the constant trans-
where the coefficients Cn and Dn are combina-
verse stress Q' r is not an independent quantity,
but is dependent on the value of the membrane
tions of the coefficients An and Bn, the G functions stresses N rro , N rr2 , and Nr02*
are combinations of the Hankel and Bessel
*functions, and, because of the symmetry in g and
n, the solution function involves only even values Additional quantities not directly involved in
of n. The stress and displacement quantities are the boundary conditions may be of interest. An
also written in periodic form. example is the circumferential membrane stress

3
N00' which may be written as
[Nee N is then obtained by adding the uniform stress
rr
Nre
rr
Qr
The influence coefficients have been obtained
for discrete values of ,3 of 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, and 3,
where the periodic representations are carried
through enough terms to ensure convergence.
The corresponding values of k are 14, 14, 22, 26,
and 34.
When obtaining solutions for specific problems
involving circular boundaries in the shell, the
values of the stresses at the boundary will be of
primary interest. These stresses will be repre-
sented in terms of ratios of the average stress
o-AV
to the stress in the shell far from the
boundary cr,,, and as a ratio of the maximum bend-
ing stress crb -to cr Thus, in terms of the non-
dimensional stress quantities, these ratios be-
come
prescribed conditions at the boundary, with the
effects of these conditions disappearing at large
distances from the boundary. The total solution
state to the residual stress solution. Thus, for
the hole problem, when the uniform state of
stress under axial tension represented by the
single stress N = 1 is subtracted from the
total solution, the boundary conditions for the
total solution, which require that the stresses
vanish at the hole, imply that the boundary con-
ditions for the residual problem are, at r = 1
Nrr = - (1 + cos 28)/2 M
rr =0
Nr8 = sin 20/2 Q'r = 0 (13)
For the rigid inclusion problem, the boundary
conditions restricting the deformations at the in-
clusion for the total problem imply deformation
boundary conditions for the residual problem
U = -(1 -v)/2 - (l+v)cos 28/2 W=
V = (1 + v) sin 26/2 W, =0
(14)

°-AVkle, Nb/a,, = 6M(D/Et3)2 (12) Results for the circumferential membrane and
bending stresses at a hole are shown in Figs. 3
with D and o- defined in Appendix B.
and 4. The maximum membrane stress con-
centration increases steadily with increased
curvature, while the bending stress concentration
Review of Previous Results increases much less rapidly.

The first investigations concerned with cir-

cular cutouts in shallow cylindrical shells treated 10
the stress boundary condition problem of deter-
mining the effects of curvature on the stresses 9.900
around a circular hole in the shell under various
loading conditions. With the derivation of the in-
fluence coefficients, problems with deformation
boundary conditions, such as determining the
stresses around a rigid inclusion in the shell, and
problems with mixed stress and deformation
boundary conditions could be solved.
The original work on the hole problem2 used
a perturbation solution to the shell equations 70° _
valid for small values of the curvature param-
eter f3 This perturbation solution has been
extended to obtain small 3 influence coefficients6
and the general range of applicability of these
results is a 3 of 1/4. In the problems to be
described here, however, only the results obtained 60° _
by numerical treatment of the periodic series rep- o°
resentation will be considered, where results to 10°
a ,3 of 3 can be obtained. Also, the case of the 2o°
shell under a uniform tension loading will be used 30°
as a basis for presenting the previous results 50°
which have been obtained. 40°

The method of applying the loading to the

shell involves a definition of residual problems 1 2 3 4
which describe the conditions in the shell with CURVATURE PARAMETER,
the uniform state of stress subtracted from the
total conditions. The residual problem then has Figure 3. Circurnferential Membrane Stresses at a Hole tinder Tension Loading

4
 8.90o o
so

800

70°

-lo
b8
30°
o b."

cc

2 3 co

CURVATURE PARAMETER, i9

Circumferential Bending Stress at a Hole Under Tension Loading

t -20
Figure 4.

For the rigid inclusion problem, the stresses

of interest are the radial membrane and bending
stresses. The membrane stresses shown in
Fig. 5 are fairly constant in magnitude and do
not increase until 0 is greater than 2. The bend-
ing stresses, however, begin a steady increase
beyond a g of 1 as shown in Fig. 6. The magni-
tude of the bending stresses is such that they 1 2 3
dominate the total stress picture above a )3 of 2. CURVATURE PARAMETER,/3

Mixed stress and deformation solutions are Figure 6. Radial Bending Stresses at a Rigid Inclusion Under Tension Loading
also possible, and Fig. 7 shows the circumfer-
ential membrane stresses at a hole constrained
against normal displacement and rotation, but
allowed free surface displacement so that the
membrane stresses vanish. These results fall
between those of the completely free and complete-
ly constrained boundary.

CURVATURE PARAMETER, ß

Figure 7. Circumferential Membrane Stresses at a Constrained Hole Under

Tension Loading

The problem of the intersection of two cy-

CURVATURE PARAMETER ,
Figure 5. Radial Membrane Stresses at a Rigid Inclusion Under Tension Loading
linders has been formulated, 3 ' 7 and preliminary
results obtained using the shell influence co-
efficients in conjunction with influence coefficients
for the intersecting cylinder. 3 These preliminary

5
numerical results are shown in Fig. 8, and the boundary conditions may be related through the
limiting cases with free and constrained bound- matrix.
aries are indicated. The reinforced hole problem.
that is treated in the next sections of this paper is N N
another example where shell influence coefficients, rr rr
used in conjunction with influence coefficients for
an attached elastic body, describe the complete Nr9 N
re r
stress conditions.
Ur Ur
Formulation of Reinforced Hole Problems
Vr Vr
The configuration of the shell and reinforcement
are shown in Fig. 1. Dimensionless parameters rr rr
which relate the geometric and material properties
of the shell are: the reinforcement width ratio QTr Q'r
= b/a (15)
Wr Wr
where b is the reinforcement radius and a is the r=1
radius of the boundary between shell and reinforce- Wr, r r = a
ment; the shell curvature parameter, ß defined by Wr, r
Eq. (1); the modulus ratio (19)

V= Er/E (16) For the problem where the inside of the ring is
unconstrained, the stress quantities at r = a will
be specified. By denoting these specified boundary
where the subscript r denotes the reinforcement; conditions by the column matrix T, the matrix I can
the Poisson's ratio parameter be partitioned to yield
v2r)
(1 (17) -^
N U
r-- rr r
and the thickness ratio II III V
(18) r9r r
=
tr/t
rr Wr
With the shell conditions represented by influence
coefficients which relate stress and deformation Qtrr Wr, r
quantities at the circular boundary, influence coef- r=1 r= 1
ficients which connect the conditions at the inner
and outer boundaries of the reinforcement will allow (20)
the determination of stresses and deformations at
each boundary as a function of the boundary condi- A modified form of the shell influence coefficient
tions at the inside edge of the reinforcement. The matrix u given by Eq. (10) can now be written to
stress and deformation quantities involved in the relate the boundary stresses and deformations,

1 I 1

f 1 f

y
b"
8
F4
V. 0.3

a121112
/
//,/ AV
0°

XS

7
14
--- 21
o REF. 3

co e. 900
r AV

CIRCULAR
RIGID
HOLE
INCLUSION XC

Figure 8. Membrane Stresses at a Shell Intersection Under Pressure Loading

6
which are continuous across the boundary, where For the general problem when both the rein-
the shell quantities are written in terms of the forcement and shell have equal curvature, the
corresponding reinforcement quantities (see Appen- matrix I defined by Eq. (19) is determined by em-
dix B); thus ploying the total solution to Eq. (2). This total
solution involves the solution as represented by
N Eq. (5) with the addition of an equal number of
U
r rr terms involving the Hankel functions of the second
2
N kind Hn which do not decay with increasing argu-
V
r re r ment. After writing the solutions in terrns of the
unknown coefficients at both edges of the reinforce-
Wr rr ment r = 1 and r = a, the influence matrix I is ob-
tained by elimination of the unknown coefficients.
r, Q'r
r =1 r =1 The problem considered by this paper concerns
the case where the reinforcement is flat. The ma-
(21) trix I is then determined in two separate steps by
with employing the membrane and bending solutions for
a flat annular plate (see Refs. 11, 12). The influ-
w
lo -yT 0 ence coefficients are then written in two separate
equations for the membrane and bending solutions
O Ti..t
IL O l'7211

(2 2 ) N N
rr rr
The stress conditions at the boundary are then N N
rer re r
-1
N
rr Ur Ur

Nrer Vr r= vr r =1
11+111
(25)
rr and

Q'r
r =1 rr rr
(23)

Q'r Ib wrr
and the deformation conditions can be obtained
from Eq. (21). Additional influence coefficients Wr
can be obtained for other quantities of interest.
In particular, the circumferential membrane
stress N 00 can be determined in terms of other W,rr r = a rr r =1
stresses by _
(26)

N IV or V
eer r = a or
r =1
where all the conditions at the boundary are known.
N
rr The matrices I and Ib are then used to obtain ma-
trices II and III in Eq. (20). The matrices IV and
N V as given in Eq. (24) are also modified, with only
rer the membrane stress and displacement quantities
being involved.
Ur
The prescribed boundary conditions represented
Vr by the T matrix are obtained by considering the
problem of a solid reinforcement in the shell under
a uniform tension loading. The residual problem
rr is then defined by applying stresses T at the bound-
ary r r a which are of opposite sign from the
stresses in the solid reinforcement at this radius.
Q'rr The total stress conditions are then obtained by
adding the solid reinforcement stress states to the
Wr residual stress solutions.
An alternative approach to the solution consid-
Wr'r r =1 ers only the required equilibrium at the boundary
between the reinforcement and shell (see Ref. 3).
(24) Specifying the stresses and displacements at r r 1
in the continuous shell with no reinforcement by S
and L, respectively, compatibility of the shell

7
and reinforcement deformations after applying an
additional residual loading is enforced by the equal-
ity
N T.1
rrr
1 II NrOr
+ Sr r b8 10
rrr
Q'
rr
r=1 r=1
(27)
where Eq. (20) with T = 0 has been employed. The
residual solution is then added to the stresses and
deformations represented by S and U to obtain the
total solution. The advantage of this approach to
the problem is that the solution to the solid inclu-
sion problem is not required.
The circumferential bending and membrane
stresses in the shell are also of interest as these
were the critical stresses in previous problems.
These stresses are determined from the separate
influence coefficients for the shell after the shell
boundary stresses are related to the correspond-
ing reinforcement quantities using the factors
given in Appendix B.
Results for Flat Reinforcements
Results have been obtained for the circumfer-
ential membrane and bending stresses in the shell
and its reinforcement for curvature parameter
values from zero to two. Because of the approxi-
mation of assuming that the reinforcement is flat,
it was felt that this range of values would give a
good indication of the effects of the curvature on
the stresses without extending the results into a
region where the bending stresses, in particular,
would differ greatly from those which would exist
if both the reinforcement and shell were curved.
Two examples were chosen to illustrate the
results: the first represents a copper shell with
a steel reinforcement (Y = 1.833, p. = 1) of equal
thickness (7 = 1), with the maximum stress at
e = r/2 given for various values of the reinforce-
ment width a; the second gives the same results
for a steel shell with a copper reinforcement
(y = 0.546). These two examples were chosen
because of the existence of results for the flat
plate problem (see Ref. 1, pp 244 to 251).
The circumferential membrane stresses for
the case with a Y of 1.833 are shown in Fig. 9
for four values of a between 0.75 and 1. The
stresses at the inside edge of the reinforcement
and in the shell at the intersection with the re-
inforcement are shown, and the stress in the
shell with no reinforcement (a = 1) is also shown.
The increase of the stress in the shell with in-
creased curvature is always less than in the unre-
inforced case, and for the two largest reinforce-
ment width cases the stresses decrease slightly.
16
-6
14
1L1
12
Y.1.833
0-7772
REINFORCEMENT, r a
SHELL, r 1
0.0961
_ 0.938
r =1 0.833
_ --0.750
NO REINFORCEMENT
4 0.0 961
0.938
2
0.833
0.750
oo
1
CURVATURE PARAMETER,$
2 3
Figure 9. Circumferential Membrane Stresses Under Tension
Loading for Y 1.833
In the reinforcement, the stresses increase
steadily with increased curvature, but less
sharply for smaller a values. The bending
stresses shown in Fig. 10 exhibit rapid changes
with increasing curvature: the stresses in the
shell increase initially and then decrease, and
the reinforcement bending stresses, for the
most part, behave similarly; the bending stresses
in two cases begin to decrease but then increase
again.
The Y = O. 546 case shows similar behavior:
the shell membrane stresses, shown in Fig. 11,
increase less markedly with increased reinforce-
ment width, and the reinforcement stresses show
the same tendency (thus causing the cross-over
at about ß = 1); the bending stresses, shown in
Fig. 12, exhibit behavior generally similar to
the previous bending case, with all the shell
stresses increasing initially but then changing
direction, and the reinforcement stresses,
with one exception, reaching a peak value at
about a ß of 1.
The bending stresses are perhaps the most
important consequence of the shell curvature.
An example which illustrates the effects that
the bending stresses might impose on a practi-
cal reinforcement selection is shown in Fig. 13.
For this example, a constant weight reinforce-
ment, equal in weight to the missing shell ma-
terial (see Ref. 10), is inserted into a hole in
a flat aluminum plate and into an aluminum
shell with curvature parameter equal to 1.
Three materials, aluminum, magnesium, and
titanium, are considered as the reinforcement
material. Because the moduli and densities
of these materials are proportional, no effect
of the material selection is evident for the flat
plate. For the curved shell, however, the
changes in bending stiffnesses for the three
materials cause a definite variation in the
8
 o
T p, 1
T1 = 1 NO RE I NFORCEMENT
Y. 1.833
82 Y. 0.546
8.7172
REINFORCEMENT, r
2---- SHELL, r 1
a
NO RE I NFORCEMENT
-- REINFORCEMENT ,
SHELL, r =
r

8
0 0.833

Q. 0.750
0.833
03
0.938
0.961 -- 0. 961
0.938

1 2 3

CURVATURE PARAMETER, P
0.833
Figure 10. Circumferential Bending Stresses Under Tension Loading
for y1.833 3
2

CURVATURE PARAMETER,P

Figure 12. Circumferential Bending Stresses Under Tension

Loading for Y . 0.546

Mg

7 T1 1
c0-9 Al
ß1
NO REINFORCEMENT
Y. 0,546
I
-7T12

1 f Ti
6 24
8=72 I I

b8 00.961
-5 5
/3. 0
b21 0.938

4 16

a. 0.961 REINFORCEMENT r a
cc O. 938
0.833 12
roz. Ts:7- O. 833

0.750

REINFORCEMENT, r .0
SHELL, r 1
SHELL, r
31
= 1

20
o, 2 3 0.5 1.0
1

CURVATURE PARAMETER, P REINFORCEMENT WIDTH RATIO,

Figure 11. Circumferential Membrane Stresses Under Tension Figure 13. Maximum Circumferential Stress for Equivalent Weight Reinforce-
Loading for Y 0.546 ments in an Aluminum Shell

maximum stress at the inside edge of the re- problem concerns the effects of the suction and
inforcement, with an insignificant variation in discharge valves on the deformations of a sub-
the shell stresses. The bending stresses thus marine hull. The valves and adjoining hull were
become a factor when curvature is present. represented by a system of discrete elements,
and the deformations at distinct points on the
The reinforced shell model has been applied valve and hull were determined. Because of
to a practical problem which was approached the existence of two circumferential frames in
using a different method of analysis. 13The the discrete element model, a uniform axial
9
tension loading was used to compare the deforma-
tions obtained in the shell at the valve intersec-
tion. The comparison of the two results is shown
in Fig. 14, where the radial and normal displace-
ments are presented. Although the two models
did not exactly correspond, because of the frames
and the fact that the reinforced hole model's param-
eters (a. = 0.75, T = 1.2) could only be estimated,
the agreement is still reasonable.
i3 FL 1T 1. 2
1
-I a -0.75
DISCRETE
ELEMENT
2
300 400
0 10° 200
C I RC UMFERENT I AL COORD I NATE,
Figure 14. Displacements in the Hull at the Discharge Valve I ntersection
Conclusions
Preliminary results have been obtained for the
problem of a reinforced circular hole in a shallow
cylindrical shell. As a first approximation, the
reinforcement was assumed to be flat, and results
were obtained for values of shell curvature from
0 to 2. The results agree with existing data on
reinforced flat plates, and the effects of increas-
ing curvature on the membrane and bending
stresses in the reinforcement and the shell have
been demonstrated.
The problem where both the reinforcement and
shell are curved has been formulated, and it is
anticipated that results of solutions to this prob-
lem will agree with the flat reinforcement problem
as the curvature parameter [3 becomes small.
Because of the expected divergence of the flat re-
inforcement problem from the curved reinforce-
ment problem in the region (13 > 1) where the
curved reinforcement is a more realistic model,
results for the flat reinforcement problem were
obtained only to a (3 of 2.
The next step in the development of reinforced
hole problems would be the determination of nu-
merical results for the curved reinforcement
problem for the full range of curvature parameter
(f3= Oto 3) for which shell influence coefficients
are available. Engineering data for a wide range
of the material and geometric parameters could
then be generated. Weight minimization proced-
ures could also be developed, and the effects of
the bending stresses fully defined. The flat re-
inforcement bending stresses could then be com-
pared to the corresponding curved reinforcement
stresses, and explanations of the erratic behav-
ior of the flat reinforcement stresses could be
found.
Additional symmetrical loading conditions,
in particular a uniform pressure loading, can
also be investigated by making appropriate
changes in the boundary conditions imposed by
the uniform stress states in the shell before the
effects of the reinforcement are considered.
Skew-symmetric problems, such as when the
MODEL
shell is loaded by torsion, can also be solved
by generating appropriate sets of skew-symme-
REINFORCED
HOLE
tric shell and reinforcement influence coeffic-
DIS PLACEMENT
ients. The necessary solutions to the governing
RADIAL - shell equations have been determined.3'4 The
NORMAL --- extension of the results for circular boundaries
in the shell to other curved boundaries is also
possible, 8, 9 and efforts toward their end would
o greatly extend the generality of the results.
Experimental investigations of the effects of
curvature on stresses at a circular boundary in
the shell have been restricted to problems in-
volving holes. A summary of some of the limi-
o ted experimental data is presented in Ref. 4 for
500 600 700 800 900
circumferential membrane stresses at holes
under loading by tension, pressure, and torsion.
Additional experiments where membrane and
bending stresses at the hole and in the shell
were measured are reported in Ref. 3; the
loadings imposed were axial tension and tor-
sion. With the extension of the theoretical
investigations to problems concerning rein-
forced holes and shell intersections, the need
for experimental correlation becomes evident.
References
1Savin, G. N., Stress Concentration Around Holes
(Pergamon Press, New York, 1961).
2
Lurie, A. I., Statics of Thin-Walled Elastic
.
Shells (State Publishing House of Technical and
Theoretical Literature, Moscow, 1947), Chap. 4;
transl. by Atomic Energy Commission, AEC-TR-
3798, 147-200 (1959).
3Lekkerkerker, J. G., On the Stress Distribution
in Cylindrical Shells Weakened by a Circular Hole
(Uitgeverij Waltman, Delft, 1965).
4Van Dyke, P., "Stresses About a Circular Hole
in a Cylindrical Shell," AIAA J. 1, 1733-1742
(September 1965).
5Eringen, A. C., Naghdi, A. K., and Thiel, C.C.,
"State of Stress in a Circular Cylindrical Shell
with a Circular Hole," Welding Research Council
Bulletin No. 102 (January 1965).
10
 = -(1 -1/)(W'9/r)'r (A-3)
6Van Dyke, P., "Stresses in a Cylindrical Shell Mre
with a Rigid Inclusion," AIAA J. 5, 125-137
(January 1967). where the Kirchhoff shear terms are defined

7ErMgen, A. C. and Suhubi, E. S., "Stress Q'r =Qr + (mre/r)' Q'e =Qe + Mre'r (A-4)
Distribution at Two Normally Intersecting The displacements are given by
Cylindrical Shells," Nuclear Structural Engi-
neering 2, 253-270 (September 1965).
'r =F '00 /r2 + F'r/r - vF , rr
2
U - 8 (3 sin 2
.
W
8Savin. , G. N. and Guz, A. N., "On the State of
Stress Near Curvilinear Holes in Shells,"
Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika V.e/r + U/r =F'rr -v(F'eeir2 + F'r/r)
Mashinostroyeniye, 7, No. 6 (1964); transl. by
NASA, Washington D. C., NASA TT F-423 (May
1966). 8 (32 cos2 W

9Guz, A. N. and Savin, G. N., "The Stressed

State Near Curvilinear Reinforced Orifices in
V,
r +U, /r - V/r =
Shells," Inzhenernyy Zhurnal, 5, No. 1 (1965);
transl. by NASA, Washington, D. C., NASA 16 sine cos@ 82 W-2 (1 +v)(F,e/r),r
TT F-424 (May 1966).
(A- 5)
1
°Reissner, H. and Morduchow, M., "Rein-
.

forced Circular Cutouts in Plane Sheets," The stress and deflection quantities are repre-
NACA Technical Note TN-1852 (April 1949). sented in periodic form by
11 Tirnoshenko,
.
S. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S.,
Theory of Plates and Shells (McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., New York, 1959), Chap. 9. Nrr' N00' ,M ,M M00' Q'r
12
Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J. N., Theory
.

of Elasticity (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., cos ne

New York, 1951), Chap. 4. )Nrrn' Nee ' Mrr ' Mee , Q'r
13,,Analysis of Main Seawater Piping System
Suction and Discharge Valves in One-Third (Nre, Mre,Q,E) {Nre
Scale Model of SS(N)-637 Engine Room," = ,
Mre'n We n sin ne
Engineering Report ER 14430, Martin n=2,4,..
Marietta Corp., Baltimore Division(Novem-
ber 1966).
LI
{U,n W n cos ne
APPENDIX A

The nondimensional membrane stress result- V= Vn sin ne

ants, transverse shear stresses, and bending (A-6)
couples written in terms of the normal displace- n=2,4,.. .
ment and membrane stress function are The determination of the periodic stress quanti-
ties in terms of periodic solutions for F and W
comes directly from Eqs. (A-1) to (A-4). The
N
rr =F,r/r +F '00 /r2 displacement quantities are determined from
(see Ref. 3)
N00 =F'rr Nre = - (F/HP, Un = r(nLn + In - rKn, r )/(1-n2)
(A- 7)
Vn = (rKn - Un)/ta
=- (y2 w,r + (1 - v/r) (W, 88'r)
where the quantities I, K, and L represent
=- (72 W,e/r + (1 - v)(W,e/r),rr) In =Un,
r ,
K = - n Vnil' Unir
Mrr = (ITV' rr v(W'r/r W'001r2))
Lnn
=
vn,r - n un/r - vn/r (A-8)
Mee = (w'rr (wrir w'ee/r2))
and are the periodic components of Eq. (A-5).

11
 APPENDIX B and the displacements by
The barred dimensional quantities are given = UaNref/Et = V aN ref/Et (B-4)
in terms of the dimensionless quantities W and
F by
The stress at infinity is defined in terms of the
F = F a2Nref reference stress by
= a2NrefWADEOli2
(B-1) =N refit (B-5)
Nref is a reference membrane stress, chosen as The nondimensionalization of the shell and
the axial membrane stress for the axial tension reinforcement quantities is carried out using the
problem; the bending stiffness is given by respective geometric and material properties.
The following examples illustrate typical re-
D = Et3112 (1 - v2) (B -2) lationships between dimensionless shell and re-
inforcement quantities
The dimensional stresses are given in terms of N =N U = Ur/yT
the nondimensional stresses by rr rrr
2
= NNref T\71- = MNref(D/Et)1/
M
rr = TM
rr W = Wr/}'T
(B-6)
= Q' Nref(D/Eta2)1i2 (B-3) where the subscript r denotes the reinforcement.

12
No. 61368

SELECTION AND UTILIZATION OF BATTERIES FOR

DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLES
by

N. KUSKA and J. A. CRONANDER

North American Aviation, Inc.
Los Angeles, California

Paper No.
67-368

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

volumes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price-81.50)
5.08
 SELECTION AND UTILIZATION OF BATTERIES
FOR DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLES
N. Kuska and J. A. Cronander
North American Aviation, Inc.
Ocean Systems Operations

Abstract Characteristics of Candidate Cells

A brief review of battery Characteristics is pre-
sented. The mission of a deep submergence vehicle and
the parameters that affect battery cell selection are
mentioned. The proper choice of battery cells, as
related to power system optimization, is discussed in
the light of economy, weight and volume trade-offs. The
conception and design of a battery power system is dis-
cussed, including electrolyte reservoirs, pressure
compensators and gas vent valves. The results of a
battery system test program are covered including
capacity, charging, gassing and significant findings.
Introduction
Submersibles in the past were characterized by rela-
tively shallow dive depths requiring only highly buoyant
pressure hulls due to the low hydrostatic pressures
encountered. As dive depths increased, so did wall
thicknesses and weight premiums, until the hull ratio of
weight to displacement became unity and above. Ways
to reduce weight or increase buoyancy became para-
mount. This led to employment of power system storage
batteries external to the pressure hull. In this location
they could be operated at ambient sea pressure wherein
a savings in volume and weight could be realized.
Problems of temperature control and ventilation became
ones of pressure compensation, insulation and material
compatibility with a few added ones of maintenance,
control and reliability.
Enter now the desirability of using the more exotic
series of alkaline electrochemical couples such as silver-
cadmium and silver-zinc in lieu of lead-acid cells and the
advantages to be gained may be somewhat offset by added
problems of maintenance, cost and control. The primary
reason for using these cell types is to obtain higher
energy densities than are available with the lead-acid
type. The disadvantages, on the other hand, should be
evaluated with care to ensure that not too great a penalty
is being paid.
TYPES ENERGY DENSITY*
W-hr/lb W-hr/in3
Lead-acid cells have been used on most deep submer-
gence vehicles where the batteries are located external
to the pressure hull. Unless low-energy density rules
out the lead-acid battery, it will probably see extensive
use for a long time to come. It is a proven, inexpensive,
rugged, reliable, and relatively easy way to service
source of power. It also has a high cell voltage, rela-
tively long cycle life and trouble-free service life.
There are no off-the-shelf units designed specifically for
use external to the pressure hull. All installations have
been adaptations of automobile, truck, golf cart or
industrial cells. This has resulted in larger, heavier,
and in some cases shorter-lived installations than could
be obtained from cells especially designed for the ocean
environment. Table 1 presents some characteristics of
candidate cell types.
Silver-zinc cells are currently being developed for
deep submersible use in the ocean environment. This
cell type is characterized by its high energy density,
tolerance to high rates of discharge and long dry storage
life. Its disadvantages are high cost, short cycle life
for deep discharge cycles, short wet storage life and
difficulty in determining state of charge.
The silver-cadmium cell combines the high energy
density of the silver anode with the long life of the cad-
mium cathode. As was shown in Table 1, the energy
density is somewhat less than that of silver-zinc, but
the increased cycle life may overcome this for some
applications. Cost per cell is close to that of silver-zinc,
but more cells are required because the nominal cell
voltage is lower. The silver-cadmium battery can be
charged fast and has a long dry storage life.
NO. OF VOLTAGE
CELLS FOR PER CELL EST**
12 VOLT OPEN AV LIFE
BATTERY CIRC. VOLTAGE

LEAD-ACID 15 1. 3 6 2. 1 1. 9 50-300 Cycles

(AUTOMOTIVE)
3 yr

11 1. 1 6 2. 1 1. 9 1600 Cycles
LEAD-ACID 5-10 yr
(INDUSTRIAL)
50 3. 0 8 1. 86 1.55 100-200 Cycles
SILVER-ZINC 1 yr
1.58

30 2. 5 11 1.40 1.06 500 Cycles

SILVER-CADMIUM 1.12 2-3 yr
_

*CAN VARY CONSIDERABLY AS A FUNCTION OF DESIGN.

**CAN VARY CONSIDERABLY AS A FUNCTION OF DESIGN, USAGE AND MAINTENANCE.

TABLE 1. NOMINAL BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS

1
 Mission
Factors in a deep submersible mission which can
affect battery selection are: dive depth, energy require-
ments, response time, standby requirements and per-
missible maintenance requirements.
Required dive depth, if much over 6000 ft, and nomi-
nal energy requirements will place a premium on
available space and allowable weight. This generally
will require a high specific energy, high-cost power
system to prevent the round robin increase of buoyancy
requirements, drag, and additional power requirements
that could accompany the use of a less compact power
storage system.
Energy requirements will determine battery size and
weight once the cell type and depth of discharge have
been selected. This selection can have a direct influence
on hull size and configuration. Peak power drains could
influence cell selection or affect choice of cell construc-
tion after a specific couple has been selected. Some
cell types are less degraded by high discharge rates
while others are more responsive to low rates.
Mission response time or turn around time can
influence battery charge time which in turn could affect
average power available, mandatory maintenance period
and cell life. Limitations on charge time tend to move
available capacity per cycle toward the discharge side of
the voltage time curve. This reduces voltage control
and increases the likelihood of inadvertent cell
reversal or premature dive termination to prevent it.
Reduced charge time may require charging at a high
current rate which, if too high, can generate heat and
produce gassing. Excessive heat and gassing will reduce
cell life and can cause catastrophic failure if allowed to
continue. Excessive gassing will increase periodic
maintenance requirements due to water loss by
electrolysis.
Standby requirements will affect charge condition or
the procedure necessary to maintain charge. It can also
affect per cycle cost if utilization rate is low.
Limitations on periodic maintenance can place con-
straints on cell selection if power requirements are not
overriding and would certainly affect system design to
some degree.
Battery Cycle Life
Probably the most important factor affecting overall
power system cost is battery cycle life which, anfor-
tunately, is one of the most elusive factors in the
selection and performance of electrochemical couples.
The lack of data or, more specifically, the lack of
correlating data, lead to doubt or low confidence in
regard to the anticipated life of a given battery installa-
tion. Several factors contribute to this situation probably
not the least of which are as follows:
Test Method Variation: Due to the large variety of
battery cell constructions and sizes available, as well
as the large number of usage criterion, manufacturers
and users are forced to test systems on the basis of
specific requirements and cannot obtain much gen-
eralized data. Data is available but, though excellent
for the purpose for which it was taken, is not suitable
for accurate correlation. This is because depth or
rate of discharge is variable, criterion of failure is
inconsistent, or cells failed due to inadequate charge
and, in reality, were recoverable simply by
recharging.
2
Usage Data: Though excellent to project duty cycle
for a similar or expanded mission, usage data would
contribute only general information in regard to cell
life due to the many variables encountered throughout
its operating life. Certainly usage data from a num-
ber of similar systems could prove valuable but to
date a fleet of deep submersibles with batteries
external to the pressure hull is not a reality.
In a general nature several factors do affect battery
life and should be optimized within the limits of other
constraints to obtain as high a cell life as possible. Cycle
life sensitivity to depth of discharge is probably the most
important, primarily for the silver-zinc combination with
silver-cadmium and lead-acid following in decreasing
order of vulnerability.
Percent recharge is another factor which should be
neither too low, which would allow the battery to dis-
charge deeper each cycle, nor too high, which could
damage the cell by over temperature and excessive water
or active material loss. It has been stated that recharg-
ing a cell each cycle to the value of the previous discharge
will shortly lead to cell exhaustion. This means that cell
inefficiencies are applicable, to some extent, to cycling
at all states of charge and not just to overrate charge and
over capacity charge.
By following all the guidelines of evaluation and
selection, one would expect to obtain a near optimum
battery power system within the framework of the design
requirements. To realize this goal, the finished system
must be operated within the established parameters. If
this is not the case, projected performance and cost
should be re-evaluated in the light of the changes or the
system should be modified to rectify the discrepancy. In
the event the system falls short of expectations whilebeing
operated within established criterion, the system suffers
untimely derating. One instance of capacity deratinz
which occured on a contemporary submersible apparently
was due to the cell type selected.
Other reasons for derating after the fact could be:
Reduction of usable capacity to obtain more
reserve capacity.
Reduction of usable capacity (depth of discharge)
to extend cycle life.
Reduction of usable capacity due to the replace-
ment of silver electrode cells with less expensive
types as an economy move.
Reduction of usable capacity when compensating
oil is masking plate area because of lowering
electrolyte level due to lack of cell maintenance.
Power System Optimization
An optimum battery power system would be one which
offered the highest energy density, longest life, mini-
mum care and the lowest cost consistent with mission
and configuration constraints. Unfortunately, not all
these attributes are enjoyed by any one electrochemical
couple. The primary difference is high energy density--
high cost on the one hand and low energy density--low
cost on the other. This difference is accentuated more so
when cycle life and wet shelf life are included. The
immediate effects of this dilemma are high costs if energy
requirements are mandatory, and lower energy if cost
factors are overriding. It is possible to reduce the cost
of a silver electrode system by reducing discharge depth
to gain cycle life. This will increase the size of the
 battery in terms of rated capacity and increase the cost
per battery, but may result in a net cost savings over the
life of the submarine. Now an added constraint, wet
life, primarily for silver-zinc cells comes into the pic-
ture and the desired cycle life may not be obtainable.
This factor also precludes a smooth trade-off transition
between silver-zinc and lead-acid when cost, as well as
discharge depth and cycle life are involved. It is pos-
sible to evaluate these factors for a specific couple and
attempt a near optimum configuration on a cost basis if
some flexibility can be obtained on system size and
weight.
CONSTANT ENERGY-SILVER-ZINC
,, --TDTAL ENERGY COST-4 x10-6
I FOR 80%
8 ..
LEAD ACID WT
DEPTH OF
-LEAD ACID VOLUME
FOR 33 -3 mscHaKE
KWH .7 2.1
.6 1.8
FOR 100 %
KWH .5 1.5
4 12
.3 9
.2. .6
.1-.3
10 20 30 40 50- GO 70
PERCENT DISCHARGE
Figure 1. Power Source Cost
Figure 1, is a plot of power system cost versus per-
cent of discharge for a silver-zinc system. It depicts
curves of constant replacement rate and constant cycle
rate for a constant energy supply. A minimum cost
silver-zinc system would occur where a utilization rate
curve intersects the applicable replacement rate curve
as continued reduction in discharge depth would result
in increased costs. It is interesting to note that high
utilization rates dictate shallow discharge for
economy and low utilization rates dictate deep discharge.
Shown also are the limits where system volume or
weight, with decreased depth of discharge, arrive at
those of lead-acid.
This plot was obtained by generating arbitrary
replacement rate cost curves using current unit price
information. The constant cycle rate cost curves were
obtained from life cycle test data from several sources,
(1), (2), and manufacturer's test data. The shaded area
depicts the area wherein most systems would lie. The
trend of the constant cycle rate curves can be a matter
for conjecture and is certainly sensitive to additional
breakthroughs in cell cycle life of which we are not
aware. Regardless of the exact trend, the utility of the
plot is not necessarily affected.
Design of Battery System
With the selection of battery cell type, size and num-
ber to provide the required system energy, the task
becomes one of providing an appropriate insulation,
compensation and gas removal (ICR) system for the
battery in order to function properly in the ambient
pressure and temperature cycling it will experience
throughout its usable life. The basic functions of an
ICR system of this nature are: to provide required
electrical insulation, to compensate the battery to
ambient sea pressure, to prevent leakage, to provide
electrolyte level control, and to provide efficient
removal of generated gases. The first can be accom-
plished by either placing the cells in an oil filled box
or potting the cell tops to provide the required insulation.
The oil should be one that is relatively unaffected by and
non-miscible in sea water, weak sulfuric acid solutions
for lead-acid cells or potassium hydroxide solutions for
the alkaline cells. It should also be unaffected by battery
gases and possess good dielectric properties. The cell
top terminal potting should possess good dielectric
properties and not absorb water at high pressures. It
should provide good adhesion properties to cell top and
electrical insulation materials, and it should stand up to
the mechanical abuse it will experience in service.
The pressure compensator should consist of an elastic
member which contains a sufficient volume of oil to sup-
ply the battery throughout the extremes of pressure,
CANSTANT REPLACEMENT RATE
temperature and entrained gas volumes to which the
CONSTANT CYCLE RATE
battery will be exposed. For the purpose of obtaining a
positive internal pressure to prevent ingesting sea water,
it is possible to superimpose on the ambient sea pressure
10YEAR BOAT LIFE
the pressure generated by the spring rate of the elastic
member or of an auxiliary spring. It is also possible to
CYCLE LIFE=b9x103D 15
accomplish this by proper location of the compensator it-
COST BASED ON self so that the differential density head between sea
CONSTANT UNIT PRICE water and compensating oil generates the internal pres-
sure. The pressure compensator fluid should be
associated with reservoirs which are attached to each
..--LEAD ACID COST
cell top in which the interface between electrolyte and oil
80 "4
occurs. The reservoir should be sized so as to maintain
80 90 100 DISCHARGE)
the electrolyte-oil interface within prescribed limits at
all times. The outlet of the reservoir should contain a
simple baffle system to enhance the removal of acid drop-
letts from departing gas bubbles.
The system should contain pressure relief provisions
so that generated gases may be vented overboard. This
valve should be leakproof to prevent expulsion of the
compensating oil over a period of time and jamfree to
prevent cell or system damage due to gas-generated
internal pressure.
Cell Top Reservoir
Assuming that oil is not to enter the cell top where
it could contact plates, the reservoir volume below
the acid removal baffles should include, as a
minimum, the following incremental volumes:
Volume change due to compressibility,
c = V° 4.1)
Dave
= Electrolyte Volume = Vcell
Vo Vfill
Bave = Average electrolyte bulk modulus
AP = Depth pressure
Volume change due to temperature,
t = at Vo AT
at = Volumetric temperature expansion
coefficient of electrolyte
= Temperature change
Mechanically trapped gas volume,
Assuming all mechanically
AVint =V
mto trapped gas is removed upon
pressurization because of
solubility.
3
 Residual gas volume, Boil = Bulk modulus of oil
Assuming all gas adhe.ring to cell AP = Dive depth pressure
Avr = vr o plates is removed upon pressuriza-
tion LIgcause of solubility. Reduction of battery box oil volume due to temp-
erature change,
Electrolysis of water volume lost due to gassing
overcharge. Av
ot =aotVot (Tcharge - Tmm.)
AVe
-= ae KCN
aot = Volumetric temperature expansion
coefficient of oil
ae
= .34 cc/Amp - hr
Required oil volume to compensate cells,
K = Gassing overcharge factor
Av
. cells = n ( Vfill - AV)
C = Cell Capacity
N = Cycles between battery maintenance. AV (See "Cell Top Reservoir"
Vfilland e .
discussion)
Volume change due to cell chemical change,
Required oil volume to accommodate oil lost thru
AVcc This volume can vary with cell conditions relief valve and thru leakage,
and contamination. Initially there is a
slight volume reduction upon discharge
but the relatively large loss of electrolyte Av1
volume is essentially made up by the
production of lead sulphate. Required oil volume to compensate mechanically
trapped gas,
The initial fill volume of the reservoir should be,
Van = AV afVo (Tfiff -T raid+ AVraf+ AVr Avtg = vtgo Assuming that all trapped gas is
removed upon pressurization
because of solubility.
+ Ave + Av cc
So, volume of oil compensator should be at least,
which is true if the cell is charged and known to contain
residual gas. The oil column above the electrolyte to yoc = Avop + Avot + Avcells + Av + Av tg
. 1
the acid removal baffles should be at least:
Vabove = at Vo (T -T- Tfill) The relief valve should be set so that its reseat value
is above the maximum compensator pressure so as to
minimize the amount of compensating oil carried out with
This volume should also include AV, if any doubt exists cell gas venting.
as to the presence of residual gas.
BLEED 4
Compensator and Relief Valve 1.1g FILL

The system pressure compensator should be sized BATTERY RELIEF

VALVE
to provide a compensating oil supply for the prescribed FILL Hg
dive depth and temperature. It should also provide a INERTING OIL VENT
reserve capacity to compensate for trapped gas volumes
and system or relief valve leakage. The minimum CI4ECK VALVE 4- OVERFLOW
compensation volume should be made up of the following -r= SUMP
incremental volumes:
PWR LEAD,,
1. Reduction of volume of battery box oil due to _BLEED LEAD

compression, _ DRAle
Vot LEAD-ACID1 ACID BOTTLE
Av
op
- AP [ CELLS W/ BAFFLES
B oil GAS-LADEN OIL
DRAIN
ELECTROLYTE
Where Vot = Total oil volume Vob + Voc COMPENSATING OIL RESERVOIR ED Ng COMPENSATING
0E
+ ri Ave + nVabove
Figure 2 . Industrial Cell Installation Schematic
yob = Volume of oil in battery box
Test Program
V = Volume of compensator
oc Figure 2 presents a schematic of a lead-acid battery
system meeting the basic requirements mentioned pre-
= Number of cells viously with the added provision of an internal manifold
system with check valve to prevent gas-contaminated or
AVe and Vabove (See "Cell Top Reservoir" acid-contarninated oil from contacting the cell terminals.
discussion) A configuration of this nature was constructed and tested

4
at pressures up to 2700 psi at the Hydromechanical
Laboratory Facility of North American Aviation's Los
Angeles Division (see Figures 3 and 4). For testing,
this system contained a single industrial type lead-acid
cell of 780 amp-hour rating. A configuration was also
tested which contained a 12-volt automotive-type battery
of 220-ampere hour rating. The terminals were potted
and a differential density head type compensator was
used. See figures 5 and 6.
kI VF
...
ON1t,
N N"N''''\\X*
Figure 3. Industrial Cell Test Assembly
Figure 4. Pressure Test Chamber
5
The test program was conducted in three phases.
Phase 1, to establish the system's performance level
prior to submersion for the pressure testing; Phase 2,
the pressurization tests in which the cells were dis-
charged at different rates and various pressures up to
2700 psi (6000 ft dive); Phase 3, or post submersion
PRESSURE TEST INSTALLATION SCHEMATIC
Figure 5. Automotive Battery Installation Schematic
tests, in which the effects of Phase 2 testing could be
evaluated. Throughout the testing, data was obtained on
several aspects of cell and system performance, some
of which are as follows; capacity at temperature and
pressure; charging, schedule and acceptance., cell gass-
ing during charge, discharge and standby; management
of acid-oil interface level, residual gas retention-, and
management of compensator oil charge, relief valve
performance.
The immediate results of the test program were the
verification of considerable performance criterion. The
premium here is the fact that results were obtained in a
deep submergence atmosphere with representative hard-
ware. It was then possible to correlate performance
deviations, when they occurred, with hardware degrada-
tion, when it was observed.
Figure 6. Automotive Battery Test Assembly
Capacity um-S4C ), 'AMPS
D- AMP N. ASES FROM CELL

Preliminary testing on candidate cells was conducted I. CHARGE CURRO

t? TIME
Tim? ELICTROLr if
DRAV.Ty

to demonstrate their ability to arrive at advertised MX

DLit CASSINC POINTS
capacity values. In one instance this was not the case as or,K, ä
CHARD. DWI
4 CoG

several cells of the same type fell short of published ROOM TEMP -74T
values by as much as 21%. It was also possible to IUD
RI CiLL LOCATION

observe the initial capacity performance of the heavy bC0 is

duty industrial-type lead-acid cell as compared to the 5,0 AS
VOLTS -

automotive type. Cold temperature tests were also DASSiNG RAU

performed at atmospheric pressure to verify capacity 000

degradation at reduced temperature. SOG 33

40 AMPS FINISH PAT(

¿OD
Phase 2 tests, conducted at various pressures up to
2700 psi and at different discharge rates, generated a set 21

of capacity curves at increased pressures. Figure 7 70 o

shows the capacity versus discharge rate at 2700 psi HOURS

for a 780 amp-hour industrial-type lead-acid cell. This

data has been temperature corrected for comparison with
a standard capacity curve at 77F.
yPERCENT OF 6 HR RATE CAPACITY
130 -
2700 PSICAPACITY(TEMP
120 - CORRECTED T017° F
FROM AVERAGE CELL
110 TEMP)
100
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
90 77°F
80
T-
4 6 8 10
DISCHARGE TIME HOURS
Figure 7. Pressure Effect on Capacity
After 17 cycles of deep discharge, six of which have
been at increased pressures, the industrial cell was still
delivering the rated capacity as was anticipated. The
12-volt automotive-type battery capacity, after 15 cycles
of deep discharge, was 12% below anticipated capacity
from an initial high of 108%. One cell was acting up and
took charge with difficulty.
Charging
Throughout a large part of the test program charge
sequence was accomplished to the convenience of the
discharge schedules. Charging was normally conducted
overnight with one check and reset point. Final charge
was verified by voltage leveling off above 2.6 and by
overcharge percentage. A charge test was conducted on
the industrial cell in which the measurable parameters
of current, voltage, gravity, temperature and gassing
rate were monitored. The charge was manually con-
trolled throughout the sequence. A maximum capacity
charge current of 160 amperes was maintained for three
hours and forty-five minutes to reach the temperature
voltage gassing (TVG) point. TVG point defines the
charge voltage at a specific temperature at which cell
gassing commences. The charge current was then
reduced in increments maintaining the voltage close to
the TVG value until the finish rate of cell capacity /20
or 40 amperes was reached. Figure 8 is a plot of the
charge parameters obtained as well as the theoretical
ampere hour curves (shown dashed). It should be noted
that the plot of test current almost perfectly follows the
theoretical curve, except it has been translated in time
to account for the fact that initial charge rate was only
Figure 8. Charging Characteristics
about 20% of theoretical maximum. The theoretical
curve follows the form:
I = Ce-t
where C equals t.he amp-hours removed. The maximum
initial charge current for a 100% discharge would be
780 amperes. The accumulated capacity to the finish
current value was 737 amp-hours as compared to 741 for
integration under the exponential curve. This close
correlation demonstrates that the two methods of charge
control are, in fact, the same and TVG control is defined
for chargers with maximum charge current less than
the "C" rate as well as not being dependent on previous
charge history. Cell gassing increase during charging
indicates that the ampere rate is exceeding the acceptance
rate. At the end of the finish charge, all of the charge
current would be producing gas (approximately 11 cc of
H2 & 02/ampere/min/cell). Note the gassing rate curve
was still increasing during the last hour of charge while
the voltage curve became quite flat. Subsequent discharge
of this cell showed that the 100% capacity point had not
been reached.
Gassing
In addition to cell gassing during charge, gassing was
also monitored during discharge and standby. Gassing
rate during discharge does not appear to be a steady or
repeatable phenomena as data varied from cell to cell and
from cycle to cycle, primarily in the earlier cycles on
each cell. Figure 9 shows a record of cell gassing during
a 6 hour discharge cycle. It also depicts cell gassing
780 AMP HOUR LEAD-ACID CELL
,--6ASSING RATE - CC/MIN
4.0
DISCHARGE TEMP 79°F
j./DURING
CURRENT 130 AMPS
3.0
2.0 AFTER CHARGE TERMINATION
CELL TEMP.72°F TERMINALS OPEN
1.0
10 25 30 40 50 60 10 80
TIME- HOURS
Figure 9. Gassing Characteristics

6
during standby conditions in which it reduced to a mini-
mum value several hours after charge termination where
it remained nearly constant. Standby gas was found to
be mostly hydrogen. One factor which has a large
influence on cell top reservoir and compensator sizing
is the residual gas retention of various cell types. Large
volumes of gas can remain on plates, raising the electro-
lyte level. Then vibration shock and application of
pressure will reduce this volume, thus lowering the
electrolyte level. Results of testing showed the residual
gas retention of the industrial-type cell to not exceed
manufacturer stated values of 1/2 cc per ampere hour of
cell capacity for this type construction. The gas reten-
tion by the pasted plate-type automotive battery, on the
other hand, was found to exceed this value so cell top
reservoirs and compensator volumes would have to be
proportionately larger for this type construction.
Venting
Two types of gas vent valves were utilized in the
system test program. One was a poppet-type with a
cracking pressure of 1 1/2 psi. To provide a back-up
design for this conventional type, a heavy fluid trap valve
was constructed and installed in the industrial cell ICR
system. The problems that could be encountered with
conventional vent valves are sticking when operated in a
fouling atmosphere with the result of sea water entering
the battery box or loss of compensating oil if even a
small leak is maintained over a period of time. The
advantages of a fluid trap valve are that it is leakproof,
jamproof and maintains an accurate cracking pressure.
The conventional poppet-type valve permitted loss of
compensating oil during Phase 2 system tests because of
contamination of its poppet seat. Although the fluid trap
vent valve did not suffer this problem, it will have to be
maintained periodically to ensure that the fluid does not
oxidize excessively in the sea water environment. It is
possible to place a thin film of inert high density oil over
the trap fluid to impede any chemical action that may
OC CUT .
7
During the Phase 2 testing of the industrial cell an
intentional malfunction test was performed. The purpose
of this test was to simulate excessive gassing and test
the elimination of same by the venting system. The
gassing was produced by additionally charging the fully
charged cell at a 100-ampere rate for one-half hour while
the cell and its ICR system were submerged and pres-
surized to 2700 psi. As the system was de-pressurized,
no malfunctions were encountered and 42,000 cc of gas
were successfully expelled by the venting system.
Conclusion
The results of this test program are encouraging in
that the performance of the industrial cell capacity was
commendable and that it showed good repeatability
throughout the testing. The performance of the cell's
insulation compensation and gas removal system was
essentially as anticipated. It is felt that this system
concept, with minor modifications, is suitable for estab-
lishment of guidelines for the battery power system for
the North American Beaver Mark IV design now in
progress.
References
F. Solomon and G. W. Work "Present-Day Long
Life Silver-Zinc Secondary Batteries" Pro-
ceedings of the 4th International Symposium on
Research and Development in Non-Mechanical
Electrical Power Sources. Brighton, England,
Sept. 1964
J. A. Keralla and J. J. Lander "Sealed Zinc-
Silver Oxide Batteries" 16th Annual Power
Sources Conference. May 1962
No. 61369

THE CHALLENGES OF OCEAN ENGINEERING OF THE FUTURE

by

A. H. KEIL
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Paper No.
67-369

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vows meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by Arnerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Mernber Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08, 2.05
 THE CHALLENGES OF OCEAN ENGINEERING OF THE FUTURE
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Abstract
The paper discusses steps necessary to
identify and develop future ocean engineer-
ing. It points out the need to establish
broad objectives for advances of ocean en-
gineering capabilities on the basis not
only of present technology but especially
of projected technology. The interrelation
of the engineering aspects of foreseeable
ocean engineering efforts is studied. Con-
clusions are drawn on how ocean engineering
can be advanced in a systematic manner.
The needs for systematic technological de-
velopments in selected areas, for selected
focus projects and for development of pro-
fessional resources are reviewed.
I. Introduction
The purpose of this study is to attempt
identification of the challenges which
ocean engineering of the future offers to
the engineering profession. As a prerequi-
site, it is necessary to clarify as closely
as possible what future ocean engineering
probably will be. Efforts to answer such
questions as, "What are meaningful devel-
opments in ocean engineering?" and "What
are meaningful areas of undersea technol-
ogy?" must therefore be preceded by at-
tempts to answer such questions as, "What
important present and future problems will
require ocean engineering?". Only when
the scope of future ocean engineering be-
comes somewhat better defined can we begin
to gain insight into what scope of engi-
neering problems we will have to face and
which of these problems are the most impor-
tant.
For the purpose of this discussion,
ocean engineering is defined as comprising
the engineering efforts in support of sys-
tematic exploration of ocean resources and
related environmental effects; and the de-
velopment of engineering capabilities, en-
gineering products and undersea technology
required for the utilization of these re-
sources. Ocean engineering is therefore
not
_ an engineering discipline of the type
which, for instance, electrical, mechanical, such as naval warfare and offshore oil dril-
chemical and nuclear engineering repre-
sent. It is an engineering effort inte-
grating many engineering disciplines and
directed at and controlled by the ocean en- and ocean transportation. In each case the
vironment, and is therefore similar to
aeronautical and astronautical engineering
which is directed at and controlled by the
A.H. Keil
environment of air and outer space.
Engineering for the ocean environment,
or briefly, "ocean engineering," is not a
new field, but can look back at an evolu-
tion spanning many thousands of years. All
oceangoing vehicles from Noah's Ark to the
present commercial and military ships illus-
trate this fact, and so does the develop-
ment of the fishing industry from its ear-
liest beginnings to its present level.
Since World War II, the demands for
advanced engineering for the ocean environ-
ment has grown steadily as a result of re-
quirements for advanced naval warfare sys-
tems, the intense interest of the oil in-
dustry in offshore oil resources, the world's
increasing need for protein from the seas,
and the increasing demands of advancing
oceanography for more sophisticated measure-
ments. Acceleration of this growth of
ocean engineering is certain because of the
importance of the resources of the oceans.
In recognition of this fact, the Marine
Resources and Engineering Development Act
of 17 June 1966 has made it a matter of
national policy to fully explore the re-
sources of the ocean and develop the engi-
neering capabilities for utilizing these
resources.
Analysts of State of Requirements for
Present State Need for Advanced
of Art, Field I CapabMti. Art and identification
of Weak
Advancs In
Ocon Engineering
Present State Need for Advanced Analysis of State of Requirements ton
of Art, Flekl 2 Capabilities Art and identification Advancs in
of Weakn sssss Ocean Engineering
Pros. State Need for Advance Analym of State of RequImments for
of A, Field n Capabilities Art and Identification Advoncesm
of Weakness. OctionEnginewl,
FIGURE 1: FIRST ORDER APPROXIMATION TO FU-
TURE OCEAN ENGINEERING
II. How to Identify Future Ocean Engineering
Projections toward future ocean engineer-
ing usually start with specific require-
ments generated in existing active fields
ling; and those other fields where strong
needs for advances and improvements were
recognized, such as commercial fisheries
need (or desire) for advanced capabilities
triggers a review of the state of the art,
leading to identification of weaknesses
1
and gaps in engineering capabilities and
technology, and being followed by
requirements for specific engineering
and technological developments (Figure 1).
The importance of developing the
capabilities for fullest utilization of
ocean resources makes it mandatory to
review this process carefully. Such a
review indicates two shortcomings. Pro-
jections of requirements for advances in
ocean engineering based on "realization
of gaps" is insufficient and too limited
if it is based on present technology alone;
that is, if the opportunities offered by
possible advances in ocean engineering
and undersea technology are not taken into
account when the need for advanced capa-
bilities is established; and the conglom-
eration of the various requirements for
advances in ocean engineering is not neces-
sarily a meaningful set of overall require-
ments. The following analysis of a few
examples will substantiate these conclu-
sions and bring out an additional important
issue.
Naval warfare underwent a drastic
change beginning in World War II with the
realization of how underwater acoustics
can aid submarines and how powerful a help
it can be against submarines. This real-
ization coupled with the application and
development of modern technology and in-
formation theory brought about the capa-
bilities of modern shipborne sonars. We
see here a systematically planned evolu-
tion based on technology which was pushed
in the direction of the most promising re-
turns, taking advantage, when possible, of
basic scientific advances such as informa-
tion theory and new technologies, such as
the modern computers. However, two points
must be realized: That the key to ulti-
mate success for shipborne sonars is the
systems approach, not only for the sonar
system itself (transducer, receiver, data
processing, display), but especially in
the integration of the sonar system into
the ship; and that the drastic advances in
naval sonar capabilities required and
brought about extensive studies of sound
propagation in the ocean, which in turn
lead to many studies in applied oceano-
graphy to explain observed performance and
to explore possibilities for further sonar
advances.
Three striking and very illustrative
examples were described by Craven and
Searle at the June 1966 meeting of the
Marine Technology Society. They are: "A
system whose engineering is well advanced--
the Polaris Fleet Ballistic Missile Sys-
tem; a system in the process of engineer-
ing development--the rescue system of the
2
Deep Submergence Systems Project; and a
system assembled ad hoc for a specific
mission--the search and recovery system for
the lost nuclear weapon at Palomares,
Spain." The paper demonstrates the need
for systems integration in order to suc-
cessfully and economically carry out the
assigned mission; illustrates the signif-
icance of individual facets (such as navi-
gation, underwater communication, logistic
support) for the effectiveness of those sea
systems; and highlights the special problems
which arise when working at or near the
ocean/air or ocean/ocean bottom interface.
The first two examples, the Polaris
Fleet Ballistic Missile System and the
rescue system of the Deep Submergence
System Project are excellent demonstrations
of how engineering development was planned
and carried out in the direction which
appeared most promising for overall systems
performance, for instance missile technol-
ogy and navigation for the FBM system; and
hull design, hull material and hydrodynamic
control for the rescue vehicle: Application
of elements of technological forecasting can
be found in both.
The perspective which technological fore-
casting provides to planning for the future
can be illustrated by the following example:
If needs for advanced capabilities in aero-
nautics had been established in the early
30's, they would in all probability have
been for larger and faster airplanes with
longer endurance and better payload and
the requests for engineering advances would
have been primarily better reciprocating
engines, better aviation gasoline, and bet-
ter airframes. The possibility of estab-
lishing requirements for an "air trans-
portation system at supersonic and high
subsonic speeds" would not have been no-
ticed except if technological forecasting,
that is extrapolation toward future possible
technology, had indicated such potentials
as the jet engine and the new aerospace
materials.
But the interplay between technological
forecasting and establishing needs for
advanced capabilities alone is not suffi-
cient--except if basic policies exist which
identify the urgency of the needs. It was,
for instance, apparent in the early 1950's
that man could reach out into outer space
if high thrust rocket motors, high energy
rocket fuels, precision space navigation
systems, lightweight rocket structures,
heat shiel4s for reentry vehicles, etc.,
were developed. If a decision to reach
out into outer space had been established
at that time, the process of technological
forecasting,coupled with analysis of the
impact of these projections on the ability
to reach the goal, would have caused the
initiation of many relevant systematic
developments which later had to be carried
out on a crash basis.
The marine Resources and Engineering
Development Act of 1966 provides the broad,
forward-looking policy for ocean engineer-
ing. Implementation requires proper per-
spectives for establishing the specific
advanced capabilities with respect to the
exploration and utilization of the oceans
and their resources.
This makes it mandatory, therefore, that
the requirements for new developments be
based not only on existing capabilities and
technologies, but on technological fore-
casts which must not only be visionary but
credible. Only through the process of
carrying out technological forecasting and
exploring the impact of projected technology
on future ocean engineering capabilities
does it become possible to determine what
ocean engineering capabilities to ask for
and which developmental efforts to empha-
size. This process is shown schematically
in Figure 2.
Broad Objectives Present
for Advances of Technology
Ocean Engineering
Capabi I i es
i
Concept Formu lation
for Projected Ocean
Engineering Systems
Envisioned Scope of
Ocean Engineer in g
of the Future
FIGURE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF SCOPE OF OCEAN
ENGINEERING OF THE FUTURE (SCHEMATIC)
III. A Projection Toward Future
Ocean Engineering
Ocean engineering of the future will be
directed at the following four broad
objectives:
A. Exploration of Marine Resources
This objective is aimed at expanding
that knowledge of the ocean environment
needed for accelerating the development of
ocean resources; and development and
provement of supporting vehicles, equipment
and instrumentation. This exploration of
ocean resources is not synonymous with the
scientific developments of the earth sci-
ences, but complements them. Exploration
of ocean resources is naturally dependent
on advances in earth sciences and especially
oceanography, but must include techniques
for extensive surveys as well as the con-
duct of such surveys (which are not neces-
sarily of scientific interest). These
surveys must include coverage of those
physical characteristics which are control-
ling for the actual work to be accomplished
in the oceans. Specific examples are ocean
bottom reflectivity with respect to sonar
applications, noise characteristics of
marine life, bearing strength of ocean
bottoms for erection of bottom installa-
tions, settlement of bottom material which
has been stirred up by activities on or
near the bottom, and fouling and stress
corrosion for deep-sea installations.
Non-Military Utilization of Ocean
Resources
This objective concerns the utilization
of ocean resources as, for instance, off-
shore oil fields, fish resources of the
oceans, minerals in the ocean itself or
in the ocean bottom, or the energies in
tides; and the engineering for coastal
processes. Included here are the engineer-
ing means toward utilization of the re-
tources as well as the planned development
of new resources as, for instance, in the
case of fish.
Projected
Technology Ocean Transportation Systems
This objective deals with shipborne
transportation systems, but must include
future oceangoing systems, which are based
on a technology quite different from the
present displacement ship technology.
This study must be closely interlocked with
projected world markets and projections in
the economic posture of the United States
and other countries. It must further be
closely interlocked with land-based trans-
portation systems including the harbors
and ports as links between the two.
Military Utilization of Ocean
Environment
This objective deals with naval systems
required to carry out the Navy's mission,
and making fullest use of the ocean
environment. These systems cover the
various areas of naval warfare and include
sea-based deterrence, ocean surveyance and
military support to other nations, as well
as policing and protecting future ocean
installations and ocean activities.
The following examples are offered to
stimulate thinking in broad perspectives
required for determining the scope of
future ocean engineering. They also illus-
trate the interplay of present and projected
technology, systems concepts and broad ob-
jectives.
Should we abandon the idea of expanding
3
existing congested harbors and ports (which
may have been ideally located for the econ-
omics of the 19th century) and instead plan
the creation of artificial harbors? With
the expected increase in traffic problems
in our cities, why add to the problems?
Why not plan for new harbors surrounded by
new industrial centers (refineries, steel
mills, shipyards, etc.) at strategic loca-
tions which appear most desirable in light
of future urban development, future pat-
terns of land transportation and future
industrial developments in the United
States?
The exploitation of the fish resources
of the ocean has come to the point that
some of the species have been decimated
drastically and some are close to extinc-
tion. Should the United States, therefore,
consider the development of fish and/or
crustacea ranches on the continental shelf
for United States use; and off the coasts
of underdeveloped countries for their use?
This requires an analysis of whether such
a development is feasible in light of the
basic behavior of marine life; projections
as to what extent it might be possible to
control the ocean environment in selected
areas; and derivation of needs for specific
technological advances. It then requires
an evaluation of whether such a development
is politically feasible in light of inter-
national laws. Furthermore, the economic
aspects must be analyzed to determine
whether such a project is economically
feasible (that is economical in terms of
returns) or whether it is of such impor-
tance that a large economic investment will
become mandatory as a matter of national
policy.
Should the United States establish a
new high-speed cargo capability (50-100
knots) for ocean transportation, or a
capability for oceangoing naval ships in
this speed regime? Recent technological
forecasting by the Maritime Administration
and the Navy made it clear that the prin-
ciple of the air cushion vehicles seems to
make it technologically feasible to develop
large oceangoing surface ships with cruising
speeds in the 80-120 knot range, if specific
engineering developments are carried out.
These large surface effect ships appear
feasible with modern gas turbine propulsion
They cannot be used with existing nuclear
power plants because of their specific
weight (lb/horsepower). However, with
advances in design of nuclear power plants
and with resulting reduction in specific
weight, the surface effect ships would be
the first mode of high-speed transportation
to benefit: Only a 50% reduction of the
specific weight will permit use of nuclear
power plants for surface effect ships while
4
a 95% reduction is necessary for applica-
tion to aircraft.
The question of whether such ships are
meaningful or not can only be answered by
reviewing their possible use for naval
systems or ocean transportation systems.
There is no question as to their signif-
icance in the military sense because of
They will, how-
their far superior speed.
ever, also be meaningful in the commercial
sense for transport of high-speed cargo in
the world market: Speed has always attrac-
ted a market.
Should we definitely plan to search for
oil resources under the ocean bottoms, even
at water depths of 1000 feet or more, or in
the arctic? Should we prepare for commer-
cial exploitation of these resources?
These questions have already been answered,
because the oil industry already invests
in such studies and it is of great value
to analyze the progress this industry made
because of determined efforts and the sure
expectations of good economic returns.
Exploration of oil fields took advantage of
the technique of seismic soundings and the
industry developed it further. Drilling
for oil at promising land sites was always
an operation of chance--but offshore dril-
ling increased the problems by an order of
magnitude. Ingenuity, determination and
brute force have produced a variety of
offshore drilling rigs and truly ingenious
techniques for drilling and tapping ocean
bottom wells. New problems arise as tech-
niques developed in this manner for such
special applications as the offshore oil
fields in the Gulf of Mexico, are applied
in different environmental conditions such
as in the swells off the California coast
or in the icebound regions of the arctic.
IV. Interrelation of Specific
Ocean Engineering Efforts
The wide scope and large diversity of
applications of ocean engineering makes a
systematic review of possible advances
necessary. The following analysis is
attempting a systematic approach, but does
not claim to be comprehensive.
The first step consists in developing a
list of specific sdbjects in the four broad
areas of exploration of marine resources,
non-military utilization of marine resources,
ocean transportation systems, and military
utilization of marine environment (see
Figure 3). These subjects are then related
to specific mission oriented projects of
broad nature. It should be noted that the
projects listed in Figure 3 are just a
few examples of the types which must be
considered. To further illustrate the
content and flavor of these projects, a
 few are discussed in more detail. Figure 4. Again it must be kept in mind
that the specific engineering developments
Specific mission oriented Vote.* listed are only selected examples of what
of brood nature .
must be considered. Again a few of the
*: : examples are discussed to demonstrate the
i 12 1 , g g i type of development of "engineering prod-
.I i
"Ir.

I -i 1 ot L.
-
ti i i 4 g.a s e ucts" envisioned here and to stress the
--
t-. w
/7.: 1. 1¡.,.1;
2
il I ! 1 "e a a- iw 0. ee j a
Li
need for imaginative thinking.
altZ.611"111: ...7
1 1 The FLIP SHIP, for instance, is a pro-
tilt gnerated jection beyond presently employed "spar
Genitra I requirertronto
by brood objectives in. IIi Ii .1 1
I I AS it
= io' E 8
rz buoy" type vehicles which offer the advan-
Group Specific Subject
Exploration of Applied Phyical Oceanography X X XXXX X
tage of very small response to ocean waves.
Mari. Rsources Applied Mar. Biology X X X X X This advantage has been dmonstrated by
Applied Marine Geology X X X X X X
Applied Chemical OceanagraPhY X X X Scripps' research platform FLIP; Cousteau's
Non - military Petroleum Product X X X X X
Utilisation of Fish and Other Protein Sources X X X X
Buoee Laboratoire; the SPAR of the Naval
Mar. Resources Plants X X
Minerals X XXX X
X
Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak; and the
Frosh Water X
Energy X Perpendicular Ocean Platform (POP) of AC
Ocon
Transportation
Improved Surface Ships
Submarine Applications
X
X X X X
X X X X Electronics Defense Research Laboratories.
Systems Novel Graf t X X X X However, all these applications are "small
Militar y Anti - submarine Warfare X X X X
Utilisation of Submarros Warfare X X scale" vehicles with no means of propulsion.
Marine Sea - baud Crotrronce X X X X
Environment Policing of Ocean Activi ti.. X X X X X The FLIP SHIP envisioned here is a new type
of self-propelled long endurance type ocean-
FIGURE 3: CORRELATION OF BROAD OBJECTIVES going surface ship which upon arriving at a
REQUIRING ADVANCED OCEAN ENGINEERING WITH desired location can erect herself to float
SPECIFIC MISSION ORIENTED PROJECTS OF A in a vertical position in the manner of a
BROAD NATURE (EXAMPLES ONLY) spar buoy. In this position about 75-80%
Underwater communication deals with the of the length of the ship is submerged,
determinatiOn and explanation of the acous- with only 20-25% of the bow portion remain-
tic and electromagnetic propagation in the ing above the surface. The ship in the
oceans as needed for sonar operations and vertical position is rather insensitive to
for all types of communication under water, surface waves, thus providing a working
and the coupling of this background with platform with very little motion in ocean
technology in producing efficient and waves. The propulsion of such a FLIP SHIP
reliable communication methods. could be two Voith-Schneider propellers
installed port and starboard near midships.
Fish ranching techniques are concerned This would not only offer the advantage of
with such questions as, "What are practical being able to turn the ship when in the
fences for selected species of fish?"; vertical position into any desired direction,
"Which valuable species of fish lend them- but would permit the generation of forces
selves to controlled breeding and raising in the vertical direction to eliminate the
in the ocean in a manner similar to chicken last amount of vertical motion. .Such a
raising?" and "Which ocean areas lend them- ship offers direct access to all types of
selves to such ranches and how can the undersea activities anywhere in the deep
natural food supply for the fish be aug- oceans, independent of wind and sea condi-
mented and controlled?". tions. It could be used in the "man-in-the-
Search and rescue capability addresses sea" project (with a sea-lab type structure
the problems which arise from greatly attached to or integrated into the FLIP SHIP)
increased activities in the ocean whether and many types of oceanographic research.
it be the submarine and small vehicle It could be used as mothership for search
operations, the man in the sea activities, and rescue as well as for a number of
the search for space project objects, etc. retrieval operations working with small
deep-sea vehicles or a tethered detachable
Harbor location and design were discussed capsule which could be lowered from the
before as an example of a radically differ- stern of the ship when the ship is in the
ent approach to harbor problems. Instead vertical position.
of starting with existing harbors and
improving them, why not analyze first what Small deep-sea vehicles are mandatory
the harbors of the future should be and tools for most undersea activities. Only
where they should preferably be located-- through their use can man operate in the
and then use modern excavation techniques deep oceans. They provide the key to search
to establish such a new harbor? and rescue operations, but will also be the
"work boats" for most of the future undersea
These mission oriented projects of activities. Vital for their application is
Figure 3 are related to specific engineer- the provision of reliable all-weather support,
ing developments in the matrix shown in because their endurance is inherently limited.

5
This stresses the need for reviewing con-
cepts for such vehicles in the framework
of the system in which they will be used.
As progress is made toward oceangoing plat-
forms with practically no motion in waves,
new concepts for such vehicles may well
emerge, as for instance, the tethered cap-
sule mentioned before in connection with
the FLIP SHIP.
Instrumentation for all undersea appli-
cations is a wide and rapidly growing field
faced with a multitide of problems. The
salt water environment makes it extremely
difficult to use electromagnetic waves for
signal transmission within the ocean.
Signal transmission, which is vital for
extensive instrumentation efforts, must
therefore depend on underwater sound which
results in only moderate transmission ranges
and rather low information transfer rates;
or transmission via cables which imposes
other severe problems which are also common
to most sensors, such as the large hydro-
static pressure, the corrosion due to the
combination of sea water and stress, and
the secondary effects of marine life. The
most common problems encountered with ocean
instrumentation is the neglect to consider
the impact of the ocean environment and to
underestimate the problems of placing, main-
taining and retrieving large and complex
instrumentation arrays.
Review of Figure 4 indicates that many
of the specific developments in ocean
engineering are common to several applica-
tions and that they draw on advancing ocean
engineering capability and undersea tech-
nology as the common basis for the achieve-
ments to be expected from ocean engineering
in the future.
Advancing Ocian Engineering Capability
and Undersea Technology
t I
Establishes
Requirements
I
Examples of Specific Engineering Dews cements
i 3 7, o ç .. f.
1:.2glr:o
e, z - I -12 211'4:-
..--
-- ,...1"E S. a t .
2 2.1 cn
.= in' r a
. 71 211;2
-1. = I
' ,,
1,-*
iiiCa0,80.1241z..8
g t;
....
Ocean Bottom Mappirg and
Geological Surveys
XXXX X X
iMining øf Ocean Bottom Minarais X X X X
f Control of Coastal Waters
I Search and Rescue Capabilities
X X X XXX
/k Salvage and Retrieval of X X
° Objects and Minerals X
JUnderwater ComMuni cations X X XXX
, Conenerclal Fishing Techniques X X
2 Fish Ranching Techniques X X
Of fshore 011 Drilling Techn4ues
!
Tx X
sign-speed Ocean Tr anew lotion
Design of N. Harbors
FIGURE 4: IDENTIFICATION OF OCEAN ENGINEER- payoffs of this systematic development effort
ING AND UNDERSEA TECHNOLOGY (EXAMPLES ONLY)
V. Considerations for Advancing
Ocean Engineering
The preceding chapters proposed how the
content and scope of projected ocean
engineering (that is, ocean engineering
capability and undersea technology) could
be derived through concept formulation
(which is based on existing technology and
technological forecasting) and system
analysis applied to specific projects aimed
at accomplishing the established broad
objectives for future new and improved
utilization of the marine resources. It
also showed the wide spectrum of ocean
engineering efforts and the importance of
specific ocean engineering advances to many
areas of application.
The purpose of the following discussion
is to advance some thoughts to identify
which steps will bring about advances in
ocean engineering needed for the exploration
of ocean resources and the engineering
developments toward utilization of these
resources (see Figure 5).
Envisioned Scope of
Ocian Engineering of
the Future
lt
Needed Advanced Capabilities
In Ocean Engineering and
Undersea Technology
Systematic Advances Focus Projects Development of
In Specific Fields Professional
Resources
FIGURE 5: STEPS FOR ADVANCING OCEAN
ENGINEERING ON A BROAD FRONT
A. The Need for Systematic Development
Review of possible future ocean activities
makes it apparent that they are dependent
Provides upon overcoming a number of specific technol-
Capability
ogical problems, which require long lead
4
times to resolve. A few typical examples
are cited to illustrate this point.
a
e
A typical example is the development of
g.-- material which can be used for the construc-
Sal':
,..-
:
tion of pressure hulls for any type of deep-
t.taó
sea applications. Such studies have been
N N g : going on in connection with the combatant
-I
submarines of the Navy for decades, but the
X x
impact of "deep submergence" has seen a
X x
greatly increased activity during the past
X x
six to eight years. A broad attack was
X X
X X
launched on the materials problem when the
range of materials was extended beyond that
X
for hulls for military submarines, and far
X
beyond their dperating depths. At present,
x steels, titanium and aluminum alloys, glass
reinforced plastics and glass and sintered
X X
materials are being investigated and many
are already apparent in the application of
6
the results in nearly all present ocean
engineering projects.
Closely coupled with materials develop-
ment must go the development of the
capability to design with new materials and
thus take fullest advantage of new develop-
ments. However, the development of design
capabilities has also a direct influence
on material developments in specifying
acceptable material properties.
The development of power plants (power
generation) and methods of energy conver-
sion also requires long lead times. We
face here the wide spectrum from batteries
and fuel cell to a variety of nuclear power
plants, as well as problems of thrust
development for propulsion and control.
One of the most severe handicaps for
working on the ocean bottom, both for
divers and for manned deep-sea vehicles,
stems from the fact that the divers as
well as the vehicles are nearly neutrally
buoyant and it is therefore difficult to
exert a force without being moved in the
opposite direction. Here is a wide oppor-
tunity for good old-fashioned mechanical
engineering to develop tools and mechanical
devices required to carry out work on the
ocean bottom.
Working on the ocean bottom requires
"seeing" what is being done. Unfortunately,
the nice clear waters we remember from
pictures of coral reefs do not exist every-
where and even if they exist, any activity
on the ocean bottom tends to stir up sedi-
ment and cloud the view. The need for
developing sonar techniques adapted to the
human operator is great.
B. The Need for Focus Proiects
Progress in engineering cannot be
accomplished alone by systematic develop-
ments in special fields. Actual engineer-
ing must be carried out and experience must project aimed at concept formulation be-
be gained by designing and building engi-
neering products and operating them in the thought process which links basic engineer-
environment for which they are intended.
In order to advance ocean engineering
it is therefore necessary to establish
"focus projects" which are aimed at
accomplishing major important objectives
and which at the sane time provide for the the type of ocean engineering the future
evolution of experience in ocean engineer-
ing. The space program had such focus
projects in Vanguard, Explorer, Gemini and
Apollo. Typical, but much more restrained
focus projects in ocean engineering were
the various sonar developments of the Navy, technological forecasting, aimed at meeting
the recently established Deep-sea Rescue
System, and the development of the under-
water acoustic range in the Bahamas.
For the systematic advance of ocean
engineering it is necessary to establish
several new focus projects because of the
wide range of ocean engineering applica-
tions. To be of greatest benefit, they
must have meaningful mission objectives
and at the same time spur on those engineer-
ing developments which appear to have the
most impact. Considerations of the type
presented in Figures 3 and 4 should be
helpful for the establishment of focus
projects.
C. The Need for Development of Professional
Resources
Ocean engineering is in many respects in
its infancy and so is applied oceanography
with the exception of the military aspects
of underwater acoustics and the efforts of
the oil industry in finding and tapping
offshore oil fields. The problems of de-
fining a program of higher education can
therefore be compared with the problems
which a department of aeronautical engineer-
ing of the early 1930's would have had if
a curriculum in anticipation of the require-
ments of present day aeronautics and astro-
nautics had to be developed. However, two
constructive comments can be made with re-
spect to ocean engineering education:
Such education must concentrate on the
principles in order to provide a sufficiently
broad foundation for the wide variety of
applications to come. Only a graduate
degree in ocean engineering is considered
appropriate because of the wide range of
applications in ocean engineering and the
many disciplines involved.
The basic training in relevant disci-
plines must be supplemented by association
with actual ocean engineering. Firsthand
experience of the ocean environment must
be gained by participation in experimenta-
tion at sea. This should be followed by
active participation of the students in a
cause it develops the perspective and the
ing principles with their application in
the effort to develop useful and practical
engineering solutions.
VI. Conclusions
TO bring about an orderly advance toward
requires, the following is considered
necessary:
Imaginative concept formulation
studies based on existing technology and
meaningful broad goals.
Definition and execution of a number
of focus projects, each aimed at accomplish-
ing a major pertinent objective and at the
7
same time assuring evolution of engineering
and operational experience by actually
designing and building advanced engineering
products and operating them in the ocean
environment.
(3) Initiation of systematic develop-
ments in those areas of undersea technology
which are critical and which require long
lead times. The results of these develop-
ments will provide the base for further
advances in ocean engineering in the future.
(4) Development of professional resources
by providing educational opportunities in
those engineering principles relevant to
ocean engineering and simultaneous training
in the thought processes which are typical
for applied oceanography, as well as con-
cept formulation and technological fore-
casting and system analysis pertinent to
the exploration and utilization of ocean
resources.
8
No. 61310

THE DEEP OCEAN WORK BOAT (DOWB), AN ADVANCED

DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLE
by

SCOTT C. DAUBIN
General Motors Corporation
Santa Barbara, California

Paper No.
67-370

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember Price$1.50)
1.08
 THE DEEP OCEAN WORK BOAT (DOWB),
AN ADVANCED DEEP SUBMERGENCE VEHICLE
Scott C. Daubin
Head, Marine Sciences Section, Sea Operations Department
AC Electronics - Defense Research Laboratories
General Motors Corporation
Santa Barbara, California
Abstract implies. To carry out its mission it is equipped
with an electro-mechanical manipulator and various
The Deep Ocean Work Boat (DOWB) is desig-n- viewing and sensing systems which permit it to op-
ed to carry two persons to 6,500 feet in the ocean erate in the black depths near obstacles and poten-
and there to observe and to do work. The spheri- tial entanglements.
cal pressure hull of HY 100 steel, 82 inches OD by
.935 inch thick, is machined inside and out to an Table I outlines the principal operational char-
almost perfect spherical shell. Two hatches, and acteristics. Figures 1 through 4 show the general
two hatch insert forgings, one in the north polar plan. DOWB's configuration is that of a spherical
regions and one in the south polar regions are the pressure hull surrounded by a free flooding fiber-
only departure from spherical symmetry. A free glass fairing. The prolate spheroid form of the
flooding fiberglass fairing 17 feet long by 8-2/3 fairing is interrupted by the cylindrical main bal-
feet at extreme beam mounts on the spherical last tank penetrating vertically about amidships.
pressure hull. The fairing supports the propulsion The pressure hull withstands pressures up to 2,860
system, manipulator, TV cameras, and various psi and provides a normal atmosphere for the oper-
sonar transducers, and ballast systems, and pro- ators and equipment inside. The fairing provides
vides a smooth hydrodynamic form. A cylindrical foundations for the propulsion motors, propulsion
load skirt, coaxial with the polar axis of the sphere, controllers, manipulator, shot ballast tanks, ver-
provides a tie point for the fairing, supports the nier ballast bladders, retractable mast, high pres-
entire vehicle when out of the water, and provides sure air flasks and piping, sonar transducers, etc.
a foundation for the main batteries. The vehicle The smooth outer skin also minimizes the clanger of
displaces 15,500 pounds on the surface when in entanglement and reduces drag. The load skirt
diving trim; it has a metacentric height of about 13 supports the entire vehicle on land and mounts most
inches on the surface and 5 inches submerged. of the main battery in two concentric rings.
Lead acid main batteries, with flexible PVC cases
specially developed to be light and transmit pres- 2. Drag, Speed, and Power
sure, are immersed directly in sea water; the
parasitic weight of an outer oil tank is avoided. Using a major dimension of 17 feet and assum-
Four AC propulsion motors of 2 SHP each, two in ing a water temperature of 40°F, DOWB's Reynolds
the deck plane and two in a centerline plane per- number as a function of speed, V , in knots
pendicular to the deck plane, provide four degrees becomes:
of maneuvering freedom. Propulsion drive system
is through DC to AC solid state inverters. An op- R = 1.73 x 106V (1)
tical system provides both pilot and observer a full
4-pi solid angle visibility through 180 degree wide Reference 1 reports that a wetted surface drag co-
angle objectives mounted outboard of ports through efficient of 0.027 was useful in the case of the DRV
the hatches at the poles of the pressure hull. A ALVIN. This same coefficient is used to predict
six degree of freedom electro-mechanical manipu- DOWB drag characteristics. Justification for the
lator, capable of lifting a 50 pound weight at a 49 application of ALVIN's drag coefficient to DOWB is
inch reach may be mounted either forward or aft; based on:
the manipulator provides an independently tilting
flange for mounting of TV cameras, lights, and Similarity in length to beam ratios:
sonar transducers. A sonar system with vertical ALVIN - 2.52 (approx.)
fan and conical beams permits search, terrain DOWB -2.32
avoidance, and beacon homing. Upward and down-
ward beaming fathometers, underwater telephone, Similarity in Reynolds number region.
and a free running sonic beacon are provided.
Various buoyancy control features permit normal Insensitivity of ALVIN drag resistance to
surfacing, submerged trim adjustment, and emer- hull shape as reported in Reference 1.
gency buoyancy acquisition. The test programs
are described. Thus using DOWB's calculated wetted surface of
461 ft2 the following expression is obtained for drag
1. General resistance as a function of speed, V , in knots:
The Deep Ocean Work Boat (DOWN is a man- Rf = 35.51V2 (2)
ned undersea vehicle designed to carry two men to
depths of 6,500 feet, there to do work as its name

1
Displacement: Crew 2
Surface (Diving Trim) 15,500 lb
Reserve Buoyancy 3,330 lb Dimensions:
LOA 17 ft 0.0 in.
Pressure Hull: Beam (Extreme) 8 ft 8.25 in.
Shape Sphere
Dimensions ID-80.174 in. Main Power:
Batteries
t- 0.935 in. No. of Cells 120
Material HY-100 Steel Cell Type Delco Type 847
Collapse 11,700 ft
Yield
Location Outboard
Failure Mode Total Energy 40 kwh at 20°C
Payload: Motors (propulsion)
Personnel and Effects 440 lb Number 4
Scientific Instruments 581 lb Function 2 - Horizontal
(and/or ballast) 2 - Vertical
Total Payload 1,021 lb Power (ea shaft)2 hp
Endurance:
Speed-Power
Motor- Speed Propulsion Auxiliary Endurance Ftange
Order (kts) Power (kw) Power (kw) (hr) (mi)
Full 2.5 5.36 1.20 6.1 15.3
Fast
Transit 2.0 2.75 1.20 10.1 20.2
Econ
Transit 1.5 1.16 1.20 17.0 25.5
Search 1.0 0.34 1.20 25.9 25.9
Maneuver 0.5 0.04 1.20 32.2 16.1
Stop 0.0 0.00 1.20 33.3 00.0
Environmental:
02 Storage 160 scf
CO2 Absorbent 25.0 lb (Li0H)
Atmospheric Endurance (nominal) 65 hrs for 2 men (130 manhours)
Environmental Sensing:
Direct Optical Ports at north and south poles of sphere. Internal
optical system to operator and observer. Outboard
system above and below for full spherical visibility.
TV TV camera outboard fore and aft. 3r solid angle
visibility, each. Double monitor inboard.
Illumination Illumination, 250 w mercury vapor lamp. Full
train and elevation on fwd and aft bottomside mounts.
Integrated Sonar Upward and downward fathometer and underwater
System telephone. Precision sonar for search, homing,
beacon acquisition and terrain avoidance.
Manipulator System: Six degrees of freedom electro-mechanical ma-
nipulator. 50 lb underwater weight handling capa-
bility at 49" reach.

TABLE I SUMMARY OF DOWB CHARACTERISTICS

2
 UPPER OPTICAL DOME

VERTICAL MOTOR TUBE

LOWER OPTICAL DOME

FIGURE 1. DOWB OUTBOARD PROFILE

PIPING
PENETRATOR
ELECTRICAL
PENETRATOR

VERTICAL
PROPULSION UNIT

MAIN VENT

OPTICAL DOME

FIGURE 2. DOWB OUTBOARD DECK PLAN

3
 1800
OPTI CAL HATCH
PROPULS I ON MA I N VENT DOME
CENTRAL
CONTROLLER
OPTI CAL
RETRACTABLE ASSEMBLY FWD
MAST
VERTICAL SHOT TANK
PROPULS I ON
MOTOR
SONAR
MONITORS

TV MONITORS

Wf
mom PRECISION
SONAR TRANDUCERS

INBOARD VERNIER
TRIM TANK

LOAD
PlIFI I

i..41zi
HYDRA UL IC illib
/ TV CAMERA

SKIRT TR IM PUMP ..0.t

OPTI CAL
RELAY TUBE
MAIN
BOTTOM SKI
BATTER I ES
MAN I PULATOR

FIGURE 3. DOWB INBOARD PROFILE

HYDRAUL IC ELECTRIC POWER

TRIM MANIFOLD BOARD MAIN VEHICLE
CONTROL BOARD

I NTEG RATED
SONAR MONITORS

o
A I R FLASK
FOUNDATION

TV MONITORS

HORIZONTAL AUXILIARY
PROPULS I ON MOTOR BOARD

FIGURE 4. DOWB INBOARD DECK PLAN

4
Equation (2) permits calculation of effective 3. Pressure Hull
horsepower:
Retention of symmetry and simplicity were de-
EH? = 0.109 V3 (3) sign objectives of the spherical pressure hull, Fig-
ure 6. Such efficiencies of design would produce a
References (2) and (3) were used to calculate pro- high operating depth to weight ratio, 1.028 feet per
peller efficiency and hull efficiency. At 3 knots lb; furthermore the elimination of any optical view-
the following numbers were found: ing port from the shell matched well the require-
ments of the new optical system discussed in the
Bare Propeller Efficiency - 0.335 section below. The viewing ports are located in the
Shroud Efficiency Correction* - +0.076 centers of the hatches which are found at the poles
Net Propeller Efficiency - 0.411 of the sphere. The only remaining deviations from
Hull Efficiency** - 0.960 spherical symmetry are six conical penetrations
Propulsive Coefficient - 0.395 arranged about the upper hatch in the thickened
section of the hatch insert forging; five of these
This propulsion coefficient with Equation (3) pro- penetrations are for electrical penetrators of 37
duces the shaft horsepower-speed function (where conductors each and one is for a piping penetrator
V is in knots): of two channels.
SHP = 0.276 V3 (4)

Drag, effective and shaft horsepower, Equations

(2), (3), and (4), are plotted in Figure 5.

100

FIGURE 6. DOWB PRESSURE HULL DURING

PFtESSURE TEST OPEFtATIONS

As illustrated in Figure 7 the pressure hull is

designed to yield and to fail by elastic buckling at
approximately the same depth, 10,200 feet. The
hatch insert forgings are designed to minimize
shell bending by compressing at the same rate as
the undisturbed spherical shell and by maintenance
of the neutral surface of the insert ring coincident
0.5 1.0
, SPEED (knots)
5 o
to that of the sphere.
i III I I I I I

0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 10

REYNOLDS NUMBER x 10-6

The pressure hull was fabricated from six
principal pieces of HY 100 steel. Two were the
FIGURE 5. DOWB SPEED - DRAG AND SPEED - hemispherical spun heads; two were the hatch in-
POWER CHARACTERISTICS sert forgings; and two were the hatch forgings. The
shell hemispheres were spun from 1.5 inch plate.
They were then machined inside to near the final
* Based on a calculated propeller load coefficient dimensions, welded together at the equator, then
(T/pAqi) of 1.95. machined inside and outside to the final dimension.
**Based on a 15° cant of propeller shafts to C/L The hatch insert forgings were machined inside and
axis.
5
1.21 in Table III. confirm that the pressure hull is a re-
markably precise sphere, having a standard devia-
SPHERICAL PRESSURE
VESSEL NOMOGRAPH
tion of only 0.009 inch in a radius of 40 inches.
(collapse depth in sea water)
1.5
Because deviations from sphericity can cause sig-
1.00
nificant reductions in the depth of shell buckling,
0.90 BUCKLING d
KEWRI2 such precision of fabrication is necessary in a deep
0.44
10-1
diving vehicle.
2f7y(t/R1
d
9
0.44
O. 80
NOTE. 8
The full scale test and analysis program, as
E may be replaced by
7
reported by Reference 4. predicts a collapse pres-
0.70 sure of 5,150 psi (11,700 feet) with a failure mode
6 by yield; Figure 7 shows that the increase in col-
30 5
lapse depth over the design value is due to the use
0.60 15
200
of a yield strength of 115,000 psi for the steel in-
,24s7.
30 4
stead of 100,000 psi and a slightly larger t/R ratio.
ic 80 150

0.50 si.90) 44D
so 1-
- 10
60
0.40 10
50
40
9
30
YIELD STRENGTH 2
(thousands of psi)
0.30'
K FACTOR ALDI ILIARY
SCALE
7-
YOUNG'S MODULUS
(millions of psi)
FIGURE 7. SPHERICAL PRESSURE HULL DESIGN
NOMOGRAPH
out and then welded to the polar regions of the
sphere. Thus only three principal welds were
made: the equatorial weld and two girth welds at
latitudes of approximately 600 north and south.
Welding was in accordance with Navy instructions
for HY 80 steel: only certified welders worked,
electrodes were carefully conditioned and handled,
the hull was preheated, and once a weld was start-
ed and the root pass inspected welding was contin-
ued without interruption until completion of the
joint. The hull was rotated on trunions to permit
complete downhand welding. Each weld was in-
spected by three methods: magnetic particle, X-
ray, and sonic.
The entire hull and hatches were stress re-
lieved at 1150°F for one hour. Because of their in-
creased thickness the insert forgings and hatches
had previously been stress relieved alone for one
hour. Impact, bend and tensile samples were
stress relieved along with the sphere; results are
shown in Table II. After stress relieving the
sphere was subjected to a detailed measurement
program. An arm pivoted at the center of the
sphere measured the radius at each 3 degrees of
latitude between 69°N and S on each of eight merid-
ians. At each measurement point shell thickness
was measured sonically. In addition, the spheric-
ity of the outer surface was checked with a special
fixture machined to the exact arc of the nominal
outer radius. These measurements, summarized
zo
4. Buoyancy and Trim Systems
3
2.29
Three systems are provided by which the net
actual) buoyancy of the submarine may be varied. Table
5
4
2.24
(design)
IV summarizes the characteristics of these
3
2
7 systems.
1.5
The main ballast system with a displacement
of 3,330 lb provides about 20°Z, surface re-
COLLAPSE DEPTH serve buoyancy. The tank is flooded by
(thousands of feet) opening the two motor operated main vent
10-2 valves in the tank top. The tank is de-
tIR watered by blowing with HP air through
solenoid operated valves.
The vernier trim system provides for pre-
cise and reversible adjustments in submerg-
ed displacement. It is used primarily for
acquiring and maintaining a neutral trim, or
a trim as otherwise specified, at the operat-
ing depth. It consists of the central trim
tank in the pressure hull, the forward and
aft trim bladders, the hydraulic trim pump,
and associated piping, valves, and fittings.
To increase displacement, and hence buoy-
ancy, oil is pumped from the tank to the
bladders; to decrease displacement oil is
bled back into the tank from the bladders.
Fore and aft trim may be adjusted through a
range of +250 by transferring oil between
the bladders.
The shot ballast system provides for com-
pensating variations in loading between
dives and for the application of net negative
or positive buoyancy during deep descents
or ascents for the purpose of conserving
battery energy. A motor driven ball stop
meters shot out of the two tanks.
In emergencies various items can be jettisoned
either to acquire buoyancy or to extricate the ve-
hicle from entanglements. The two 120 volt marn
batteries can be dropped separately, each provid-
ing about 750 lb of positive buoyancy. Should the
shot metering mechanism fail the shot tanks can be
dropped as units. The manipulator can be jettison-
ed in event of entanglement. A protective cover
and an arming switch protects all emergency

6
 ,
Physicals before Stress Rel. Physicals after Stress Rel.
No. Item Tested Yield Tensile % El. R/A Yield Tensile % El. R/A
' .
I Wldg. Proc.Test
Plate
p* Mill Test Report 109, 100 123,900 22 66.5
w .904 Reduc. Sect
Tensile 120,575 130,531 19 121,381 133,073 13
w .898 Reduc. Sect
Tensile 124,722 132,238 15 117,453 133,370 11
p .505 Reduc. Sect
Tensile (Hemi-
sphere Parent) 132,867 140,360_ 20 63.5
w Side Bends OIC OK
p Charpy's (Mill) 60 - 62 - 64 at -120oF
p Charpy's (H&C)** 32.5 - 32.5 - 39.5-120oF
0at
w Charpy's (H&C) 38 - 42 - 44 at -60 F 24 - 25 - 25.5 at -600F
ll Hatch Insert
Forging
p Mill Test Report 104, 900 120, 600 21 70
p Mill Test Report 104,500 121,000 22 70
p Tensile .506 Re-
duc. Sect 126,866 137,065 19 64.8
p Charpy's (Mill) 51.5 - 61 - 60.5 at -120°F
p Charpy's (Mill) 58.5 - 63 - 66 at -120°F
p Charpy's (H&C) 17 - 19 - 23 at -120°F
p Side Bends OK
III Hatch Cover '
Forging
p Mi 1 Test Report 103,000 119,200 20 65
p Mill Test Report 103,200 119,400 22 71
p Tensile .357
Reduc. Sect 102,000 117,700 21.0166.0
p Charpy's (Mili) 58 - 66.5 - 68 at -1200P
p Charpy's (Mill) 57.5 - 58 - 61.5 at -120°F
p Charpy's (H& C) 21.5 - 24.0 - 27.0 at -1200F
p Side Bends
, OK
* "p" denotes test made on parent metal; "w" denotes test made on welded specimen.
**H&C - "Halm & Clay"
TABLE II PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DOWB HY 100 PFtESSURE HULL
MATERIAL BEFORE AND
AFTER STRESS RELIEF

Raditis (inches) Thickness (inches)

Longitude Maximum Minimum Average Stnd. Dev. Maximum Minimum Average Stnd. Dev,
000 40.097 40.031 40.086 .011 0.932 0.907 0.921 .008
045W 40.099 40.056 40.087 .009 0.946 0.916 0.939 .007
090W 40.099 40.065 40.089 .007 0.950 0.921 0.942 .007
135W 40.097 40.064 40.086 .006 0.941 0.911 0.931 .006
180 40.097 40.055 40.087 .009 0.941 0.905 0.930 .007
135E 40.097 40.058 40.084 .008 0.948 0.914 0.939 .008
090E 40.097 40.047 40.087 .009 0.945 0.917 0.936 .006
045E 40.102 40.046 40.090 .010 0.950 0.911 0.940 .007
NET 40.102 40.031 40.087 .009 0.950 0.905 0.935 .007

TABLE III DOWB PRESSURE HULL SHELL MEASUFtEMENT SUMMARY

(Readings were taken every 3° of latitude between 60°N and 60°S on each indicated meridian. A total of
41 readings for each meridian and 328 readings for spherical shell were taken.)

7
 Type Buoyancy Range Main A uxi lia ryEmergency
Buoy- Battery Battery Battery
Variable ancy Wt. Moment
System Wt. Disp. Mat'l (lb) (ft-lb) Type Lead Acid Silver Zinc Alkaline
Main Volts
Ballast (O. C. ) 120 30 30
(Reversible) x Water 3,330 0
Ampere-
Vernier Hours 366 72
Trim Fwd- 240 KWH 40 1.82
(Reversible) x Oil 512 Aft - 320
Number
Shot Cells 120 16 5
Ballast
(Non- Iron 900 Fwd-1,535 Mfg. R.z. Cell Elements: Yardney Eveready
Reversible) x Shot Aft -1,535 Model No. DELCO Type Model Vlodel No.
- 847 HR-72 520
Cases:
TABLE W BUOYANCY AND TRIM SYSTEMS AC-DRL
SUM IVIA RY
Special
Development
release controls from inadvertent operation.
Three separate sources of power are available to TABLE V DOWB BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS
operate the emergency circuits: the emergency
battery which has no other function, the auxiliary
battery, or a spare battery which may be tied into
the system through terminal posts.
5. Energy Storage, Conversion,
and Distribution
Energy is supplied by three functionally dis-
tinct batteries: the main battery, the auxiliary
battery, and the emergency battery. The main
battery provides electrical energy for the propul-
sion system and most of the DC loads internal to
the pressure hull and most of the AC loads via the
main DC/AC inverters. The auxiliary battery sup- FIGURE 8. DOWB MAIN BATTERY
plies low voltage DC circuits which require a sep-
arate source and backs up the main battery through transmits sea pressure to the electrolyte. Copper
the emergency DC/AC inverter; the hydraulic trim bussing connects the cells together rigidly and per-
pump motor is the heaviest load supplied by the manently to form a 12 volt battery; these intercell
auxiliary battery. The emergency battery provides connections are jacketed with molded polyurethane. 1

power to the emergency release system exclusive-
ly. The main battery is located outboard; the aux-
iliary and emergency batteries are located inboard
in the pressure hull.
Table V outlines the characteristics of the
principal battery systemS..
The main battery consisting of two separate
120 volt batteries is supported by the load skirt in
two concentric rings. These separate batteries
are named "inner" and "outer" in accordance with
their position relative to the load skirt. The elec-
trically independent inner and outer main batteries
may be paralleled through the main propulsion
switching circuit.
Thus pressure compensated and insuluted, the bat-
teries are immersible in sea water. Heavy duty
(60 amp), in-line, pressure proof, underwater con-
nectors connect to the end terminal to permit "un-
plugging" of the 12 volt batteries from one another
for removal and maintenance. A fiberglass battery
tray contains each 12 volt battery and provides
means for attaching to the load skirt. A dielectric
oil supplied from a central reservoir through a
header manifold floats over the electrolyte. Gas
escaping from each cell rises to the header, on the
way passing through a baffle assembly to separate
electrolyte carried over, and then passes to the
reservoir and,after sufficient volume has been col-
lected and pressure built up, out the gas bleed
valve. See Figure 9.

Each main battery consists of ten 12 volt
batteries connected in series. Each 12 volt bat-
tery, Figure 8, consists of 6 separate cells
whose cases and tops are molded of unplasticised,
Type I, polyvinylchloride by the intrusion process.
Reference 5. The flexibility in the cell wall
8
The 120 volt DC is converted to 115 volts, 60
cycle, single phase AC by two solid state inverters
of 400 watt rated load each (500 watt intermittent).
An emergency 100 watt inverter, for use when the
main batteries are gone, is powered from the aux-
iliary battery. AC circuits have the selection

MPS
/WWI 11 /3.
-7 ,,,,,rdwounsumininorIMMAIWIf
141 ,SIA14.1017SWl
I I
FIGURE 9. DOWB BATTERY OIL RESERVOIR
AND GAS BLEED VALVE
choice of any of these three 115 volt, 60 cycle,
single phase inverters: number one, number two,
or emergency. In addition there are two special
purpose inverters: one which powers the 250 watt
mercury vapor search lamp from the main battery
and one which powers the 400 cycle, 3 phase, di-
rectional gyro from the auxiliary battery.
Five electrical penetrators, Figure 10, lead
power and signal circuits through the pressure
hull. Each penetrator contains 37 conductors: 29
#16 AWG leads, 4 #14 AWG leads, and 2 coaxial
cables RG-186 A/U.
FIGURE 10. DOWB ELECTRICAL PENETRATOR
6. Main Propulsion
Four ducted main propulsion motors provide
four degrees of maneuvering freedom to the ve-
hicle: fore and aft thrust, vertical thrust, yaw
twist, and trim twist. Two "horizontal" propul-
sion units are in the deck plane of the vehicle,
canted outboard at 150. Two "vertical" units are
located fore and aft with their axes normal to the
deck plane. The propulsion motors deliver two
shaft horsepower to 18 inch diameter propellers at
486 rpm.
9
Figure 11 shows one of the oil filled, pressure
compensated, three phase induction propulsion mo-
tors. A pressure compensating system pressuriz-
es the internal volume of the motor 5 psi in excess
of ambient to insure that any seal leakage will be
outward; an oil reservoir on each motor contains a
5% reserve volume. A planetary 6.25:1 speed re-
ducer is driven by the motor armature and drives
the output shaft on which the propeller mounts. The
speed reducer, a development of the General
Motors Research Laboratories, Reference 6,
known as the "friction drive" resembles a planetary
reduction gear with one major exception: there are
no gears, only wheels and rings with smooth con-
tact surfaces. Friction between the elements de-
velops the output torque. An essential feature of
the GM friction drive is that the inter-element con-
tact friction is a function of the output torque,
thereby providing high efficiencies at low torque
levels and the capability of generating large output
torques with no slippage. High efficiency and low
radiated noise are the virtues of this speed reducer
of most importance in this application.
FIGURE 11. DOWB PROPULSION MOTOR
Each propulsion motor is driven through a pro-
pulsion controller, Figure 12, housed within its
own pressure vessel in the fairing. The propulsion
controller mediates among three elements: the op-
erator, the power source, and the motor. It re-
ceives speed and direction command signals elec-
trically from the operator in the pressure hull, re-
ceives actual speed signals from the motor, and
converts the 120 volt DC voltage from the battery
to a three phase AC driving signal of the proper
frequency to drive the motor. The controller unit
automatically adjusts phase rotation frequency to
maintain a constant slip frequency with respect to
armature rotation speed, thus producing high mo-
tor efficiency throughout all speed ranges, high
starting torque, and short response time.
 FIGURE 12. DOWB PROPULSION CONTROLLER
7. Sensing Systems
Three environmental sensing systems, the op-
tical system, the TV system, and the integrated
sonar system, provide to the operators information
on the vehicle's environment.
FIGURE 13. DOWB OPTICAL DOME
Optical System
A pressing need in the design of underwater The integrated sonar system contains the following
vehicles is improved viewing capability: field of units:
view, visual acuity, and operator comfort. DOWB's
optical system, interposed between the external Precision Sonar
light field and the observer, brings the image to Underwater Telephone
the observer rather than vice-versa, which is the Fathometer
rule in most existing vehicles. DOWB's observers Beacon.
view the surroundings from a comfortable seated
position. The system provides full hemispheric Figure 14 is a block diagram of the integrated
visibility, top or bottom, for each of two observers sonar system; Table VI summarizes system
The optical axis is coincident with the polar axis of characteristics.
the spherical pressure hull. An optical dome con-
taining a 1800 wide angle lens assembly is mounted SONAR
TRANSDUCER
UPWARD
FAT HAM PHONE
on the outboard side of each hatch, Figure 13. HEAD
SCÁNNER
TRANSDUCER
Light gathered by the dome is refracted and trans- MECHANISM
o

mitted through the plexiglass port in the center of 2 COAX I AL:

the hatch, into the optical relay tube, and into the CABLES

central optical assembly where it is formed into HORIZONTAL

separate images for each observer. The arrange- SCAN INDI ACTOR

SONAR
(CRT) (PPP
ment of the optical system is shown in Figure 3. ELECTRONICS
VERTICAL
Each observer may choose independently to see the I SCAN INDICATOR
"upper" or "lower" hemispheres. The observers' ) (CRT) (type E)

field is similar to a PPI presentation in that it rep- MANIPULATOR FATHOMETER

resents an area with the vehicle at the center. Rel- INTERFACE UNITI_ INDICATOR
IDVM)
ative bearing in the image field represents relative
bearing of the object; radial distance however rep- TO RECORDER COAX IAL

resents zenith (or nadir) angle, from 00 at the cen- CABLES

ter to 90° at the edge of the field. A removable ELECTRONICS

IFATHOMETER
sunshade which blocks out the sun through 90° in SWITCHING

bearing and all elevations above 450 may be insert- VOICE UNDERWATER UNIT

ed into each eyepiece. An illuminated reticle marks MODULATION TELEPHONE

ELECTRONICS
every 30°of bearing and every 30° of zenith angle. I AUDIO is
DOWNWARD
OUTPUT
FATHJUW PHONE
Integrated Sonar System TRANSDUCER

Because sea water is relatively transparent to FIGURE 14. BLOCK DIAGRAM DOWB INTE-
acoustical energy, sonar provides the primary
means of underwater detection and communication. GRATED SONAR SYSTEM

10
 Precision Sonar
Azimuth Elevation U/W
Beam Beam Fathometer Telephone Beacon
Carrier Frequency 225 175 30 8.05 16
(kHz)
Modulation PM (P1) PM (P1) PM (P1) FM (F3) PM (P1)
Pulsewidth 0.5 0.5 10 4
(ms)
Pulse Rep. Rate Variable (See Below) 0.33 0.1
(13P s)
Output Power (peak,
acoustic)(watts) 100 10 1 6 10
Receiver Bandwidth 20 20 3 2
(kHz)
Beamwidth 3x45 3x3 Up - 30 (cone) Up - 180 45 (cone)
(°) Down - 10 (cone) Down - 180
Display Type P(PPI) Type E Digital Speaker
(7" CRT, P7 Voltmeter
Phosphor) (1' res.)
Range Capability 570 on 0.1 sq yd
(yards) target
1500 on beacon
Range Scale/Scan 1000/3/0.835
Rate/Pulse Rep. 500/5/1.67
Rate 100/25/8
(yards/deg per 50/50/160
sec/pps)
Notes Auto Scan Sectors Compatible 7 day life
340° with UQC
30° at any angle
Maximum Power
Drain (watts) , 273 70 100

TABLE VI INTEGRATED SONAR CHARACTERISTICS

The precision sonar is used for small object
location, terrain avoidance, navigation, mapping,
and beacon (or transponder) acquisition. It operates
two beams in the "searchlight" mode, a vertical
"fan" which indicates in a PPI scope, and a "pencil"
beam which indicates in a Type E scope (range vs
elevation angle). The vertical fan searches in azi-
muth; the pencil beam examines targets and terrain
in vertical section. Transducers for both beams
mount on the manipulator assembly on the TV cam-
era; they train with the manipulator but elevate in-
dependently of the arm. A selector switch on the
operator's console chooses one of two mechanical
modes of operation; manual or automatic scan. In
manual training is under the control of the manipu-
lator operator through the manipulator control box;
in automatic scan the entire manipulator assembly
(with the transducers) will train back and forth over
a 300 or 3400 azimuth range at any chosen central
bearing.
The underwater telephone and fathometer
share the upward and downward beaming transduc-
ers. A selector interlock system connects the last
11
unit chosen to the desired transducer and reverts
any unit which was previously connected thereto to
"stand-by". The fathometer indication is a digital
readout which contains an attachment point for an
analog recorder. A "false bottom" discriminator
circuit prevents any readings less than a preset
depth interval; thus with an approximate knowledge
of the distance to the bottom or the surface, spuri-
ous reflective layers can be ignored.
TV System
As seen in Figures 3 and 15, a television cam-
era and underwater light attach to the auxiliary
flange of the manipulator assembly; they train with
the manipulator but elevate independently of the
arm. The camera covers a field well over a hem-
isphere in solid angle and oriented forward; it thus
views an otherwise blind laminar volume between
the upper and lower optical fields. Two 9 inch
monitors are provided; the second will serve a sec-
ond camera which can be mounted aft. For launch-
ing and recovery the camera along with the "fore-
arm" of the manipulator house in the vertical motor
 Angular
Degree of Angular Indic-
Freedom Limits ation Speed, Etc.
Shoulder
Rotation 370o Yes 2. 5 RPM
Shoulder
Pivot 320° Yes 2.0 RPM
Elbow
' Pivot 320° Yes 2. 1 RPM
Wrist
Pivot 328o Yes 2.2 RPM
Wrist
Rotation Continuous No Torque-8-in. lb
Speed-5 RPM
'FIGURE 15. DOWB MANIPULATOR Hand
Grip - No Travel-0-4 in.
tube; the underwater light is removed. Table VII Force-0-120 lb
lists the DOWB's present TV system hardware. Speed-35 in./min
Auxil-
Camera Vidicon OEC Model 110 iary o
Flange 340 Yes Torque-160 in.lb
Monitor 9"Sony Model PVJ - 3040 Speed-1.9 RPM
U/W Light 250W Mercury Vapor OEC Weights
Model LDC-250 (lb) Air Water
TABLE VII TV SYSTEM EQUIPMENT Dry 153
Fluid
8. Manipulator Filled 185 105

As armament is to a military submarine, so Reach (Shoulder Axis to Finger Tips) - 49 inches

the "arm" is to a submersible work boat; it is es- Weight Handling Capacity (at maximum
sential to the accomplishment of the primary mis- reach) - 50 lb
sion. DOWB has an electro-mechanical manipulat-
or with six "degrees of freedom", Figure 15. In TABLE VIII MANIPULATOR
event of entanglement the oil filled, pressure CHARACTERISTIC SUMMARY
compensated manipulator is jettisonable. In addi-
tion to the "arm" the manipulator mounts an auxil- hydroxide. Assuming 100% CO2 removal, the con-
iary flange opposite to the shoulder pivot. The aux- trol objective is to supply just enough oxygen to re-
iliary flange, training with the manipulator but ele- place that which is removed by metabolism. The
vating independently, provides a mounting for the monitoring instruments keep track of the atmos-
TV camera, underwater light, and precision sonar pheric composition; the basic instruments are a
transducers; Figure 15 shows the cabling for these continuously reading oxygen concentration indicator,
units extending through the auxiliary flange. A two a thermometer, a continuously reading hygrometer,
speed switching circuit, powered from the 120 volt and an aircraft altimeter which summarizes the net
main battery and the 30 volt auxiliary battery, con- effects in terms of pressure. Since the scrubber
trols all six arm functions plus the elevation of the capacity is large and its efficiency is high, carbon
auxiliary flange. Table VIII summarizes manipu- dioxide and carbon monoxide are monitored inter-
lator functions and capabilities. mittently by hand operated instruments. Air forced
through a desicant stack keeps humidity low.
9. Atmospheric Control
The altimeter is a sensitive indicator of
The atmospheric control systems consist of the change. For DOWB's pressure hull volume of 140
oxygen replenishment system, the CO2 removal cu ft a one percent increase in oxygen or carbon di-
system, the humidity and temperature control sys- oxide percentage will cause a decrease in altitude
tem, and the atmospheric monitoring system. The of 277 feet. Unfortunately temperature and relative
oxygen replenishment and CO2 removal systems humidity also cause indicated altitude changes. Fig-
operate together. Oxygen is supplied from a high ure 16 provides a means for calculating altimeter
pressure flask through a reducing valve, a flow con- corrections for changes in temperature and relative
trol valve, a rotameter flow indicator and then to humidity in order that the effects of gas concentra-
the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is removed in a tion changes may be found. Since the corrected al-
forced ventilated scrubber stack containing lithium timeter reading is the most sensitive indicator of

12
 500
opening of top hatch in seas which otherwise
15°
would swamp vehicle.
11. Quality Assurance Program
o Quality is assured by instruction, inspection,
documentation, and test. The following procedures
were invoked:

Engineering specifications were issued for

2 -500
major systems and components, including:
pressure hull, hatches, fairing, internal
NORMALIZING
GRID
structure, optical system, manipulator,
propulsion system. These specifications
required specific material certification and
R. H. 0%
inspection documentation, written manu-
R. H. 10% facturing procedures, and testing. In the
R. H. 20%
case of the pressure hull an independent
inspection agency was retained to provide
R. H. 30%
detailed inspection and certification during
R. H. 40% the manufacturing period, Reference 4.
-1500 R. H. 50%

R. H. 60%
Contractor specifications were required on
R. H. 70%
other systems, including sonar, TV, in-
verters, underwater lights.
R H. 80%

-2000 111111111111111 RH.100%

15 20
1-°c
I I
60 65 70
1') F
FIGURE 16. DOWB PRESSURE HULL
ALTIMETER CORRECTION
FOR TEMPERATURE AND
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
atmospheric conditions oxygen flow rate is adjusted
in response to this instrument. Oxygen concentra-
tion readings are used to confirm the purity of the
atmosphere. Table DC summarizes the atmospher-
ic control system performance characteristics and
hardware.
10. Handling
Three lifting eyes attached to the pressure hull
at the top hatch insert forging permit handling by
crane. Four additional items of detachable equip-
ment serve handling functions but do not offer par-
asitic weight during operations:
Towing Frame - Provides towing eye
forward
Spreader Bar - Provides hard handling
eyes outboard of beam amidships
Freeboard Extender, Lower - Increases
freeboard to 57 inches for personnel trans-
fer in seaway using top hatch
Freeboard Extender, Top - Completely
encloses portable fairwater to permit
R. H. 90% Formal, controlled working plans were
25 30 used for the manufacture of parts and
I I 1
assemblies.
75 80 85
A shop test program requiring formal test
reports was followed. This included in-
spection, operational, and pressure
testing. Table X summarizes the pressure
test program.
Sea trials are to be conducted. These in-
clude ballasting and trim, dock trials,
underway surface trials, towing and hand-
ling, personnel transfer, shallow submer-
gence, surface and submerged propulsion,
jettison trials, replenishment at sea
(battery and air charging, chemical resup-
ply), air revitalization, and deep
submergence.
References
J.W. Mayor, Jr., et al., "Alvin, 6000-Ft Sub-
mergence Research Vehicle," SNAME, Ann.
Meeting, Oct 24, 1966, Paper No. 3
E. L. Attwood and H. S. Pengelly, "Theoretical
Naval Architecture," Longmans, Green and Co.
(1956)
H. E. Rossell and L. B. Chapman, "Principles
of Naval Architecture-Vol. II," SNAME (1958)
E. M. Briggs, J. J. Jones, R. C. DeHart, "Fab-
rication Inspection and Experimental Stress
Analysis for the Deep Ocean Work Boat,"
Southwest Research Institute (Jan 1967)
Martin Usab, " 'Intrusion' is a Versatile New
Process for Thermoplastics," Western Plastics
Technical Report No. 66, Oct 1960

13
DOWB Interior Volume, Nominal 140 cu ft
Nominal Respiration Ftates: Per Man Per 2 Men
02 1.0 scf/hr 2.0 scf/hr
186 scc/min 372 scc/min
CO2
0.8 scf/hr 1.6 scf/hr
149 scc/min 298 scc/min
CO2 Scrubbing Effctiveness:
Chemical Absorption at 60% Eff. LiOH 4.46 scf/lb
NaOH 2.68 scf/lb
Scrubber Flow Rate 20 scf/min
Atmosphere Change Time 7 min
Atmospheric Replenishment Chemical Supply:
160 scf 160 man hours
02 (in 2 Q80SCF Flasks)
LiOH* 25 lbs 139 man hours
NaOH* 40 lb 134 man hours
Instrumentation:
02 Indicator Teledyne, Inc. TAI Series
Model 320 Cell Type B-1
02 Flowmeter Brooks Instrument, Rotameter
Model 1110 Sapphire Float
Scale 50-500 scc/min
CO2 Indicator Scott Draeger Ch 251 (1%)
Ch 235 (.1%)
CO Indicator Scott Draeger Ch 289

Either LiOH or NaOH is used, not both.

TABLE DC DOWB ATMOSPHERIC CONTROL SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

No. Max. Pressure

Equipment Cycles (psig) Notes
Pressure Hull 4 3300 Reference 4
10 3000
Propulsion Pressure
Vessels 2 3300
5 3000
Pressure Transducer
Housings 2 3300
Penetrators, Electrical 2 5000 12 hour soak at
5000 psi
Penetrators, Piping 4 3300 With pressure
10 3000 hull
Inboard Pressure Piping 2 4500
Main Batteries 1 3000 Discharged at
pressure
,

TABLE X DOWB COMPONENT PRESSURE TEST SUMMARY

14
No. 61311

A SUBMARINE DESIGN FOR WORK AND RESEARCH

BEAVER MARK IV
by

F. G. ARCHBOLD
North American Aviation, Inc.
Anaheim, California

Paper No.
67-371

AIAA/SHAME Advance marine

whims meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by Arnerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given ta author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonrnember Price$1.50)
1.08
 A SUBMARINE DESIGN FOR WORK AND RESEARCH
NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION BEAVER MARK IV
F. G. Archbold*
Manager, Submarine Construction
Ocean Systems Operations, North American Aviation, Inc.
Abstract
Beaver Mark IV is a small deep diving submarine
that will perform real-life work tasks in the ocean; will
be capable of active oceanographic research tasks - as
opposed to simply observing; and will be able to easily
and quickly transfer men from the surface to underseas
habitats.
This paper will discuss the design to achieve this
flexible capability. It describes the design approach in
which attention is directed, not only to the functional
requirement for each subsystem, but also to the inter-
action of the parts which form the whole. The dominant
characteristic of this small submarine is that it is a
"work system."
Safety, high reliability, good viewing, multiple
manipulation with interchangeable tools, maneuverability,
control systems related to the various work functions,
a diver lockout, and a mating capability are the major
elements that have been worked into a balanced design.
Because it is a workboat for industrial purposes,
economy and ease of maintenance have been watchwords
throughout the planning and design.
The Beaver Mark IV is being designed and con-
structed by North American Aviation, Inc.
I. Introduction
The Deep Manned Vehicles Workshop held at the
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute in November 1966
was an informative and enriching experience to those
attending. The views that evolved came from a sub-
stantial and representative group of scientists and
engineers actively engaged in this field. Dr. Allyn C.
Vine in summing up the session noted, among other
things, that he had observed a crystallization of a
feeling among many of us present, that a "first plateau"
had been reached in the deep vehicle field. He further
noted that this plateau, albeit somewhat shaky, might be
the point at which the goals for the new vehicles being
developed could now properly be expanded with greater
emphasis placed on improving the efficiency of accom-
plishing work tasks, of data taking and exploration, and
in the use of t.he vehicles to transfer men to underseas
habitats.
Unquestionably, it becomes important to extend the
"time on the bottom" during any given operation. One of
the important criteria for judging the effectiveness of
the next generation of vehicles no doubt will be how much
actual tuiderseas work can be accomplished during a
deployment rather than just getting down and observing.
The concept and design of the Beaver reflects a
recognition of this trend. The characteristics noted
above have importantly influenced the preliminary
studies and design that have been carried out during the
past nine months.
*Member, Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers
1
Program Objectives
The first step in the Beaver Mark IV program was to
establish the potential missions. This was accomplished
under the direction of Dr. Andreas Rechnitzer, Director,
Ocean Sciences. A matrix of missions and employment
for a deep submersible appropriate to the current period
of oceanographic development was prepared in which
tasks and missions were identified, evaluated, placed
in an order of priority, and ultimately assembled in
logically related groups. A number of the staff of
Ocean Systems Operations, representing a broad spec-
trum of interest and experience, contributed to this
analysis and from it the following vehicle capabilities
as objectives of the design were derived:
MISSION ANALYSIS
RESULTS'.BEAVER MKT TO PAVE S BASIC CAPABILITIES
WORK VEHICLE
PERFORM USEFUL WORK-CARRY MAXIMUM' UTINSELS" HEAVY
EMPHASIS ON VIEWING FOR BOTH PILOT MANINLATOR OPERATOR .
SCIENTIFIC VEHICLE -
PERFORM SCIENTIFIC DATA GATHERING LARGE FLEXIBLE PAYLOAD
DIVER LOCK-IN/LOCK-OUT VEHICLE
PERFORM AS A STABLE OR MOBILE PLATFORM TO surrou
oivING OPERATIONS
HABITAT LOCK-ON VEHICLE
TRANSFER PERSONNEL. TO SUB-SURFACE HABITATS AT NORMAL
ATMOSPHERE. MULTIPLE LOCK-ON ADAPTATION TO SURFACRSOMERGED
DECOMPRESSION CHAMBERS 4 SUBMARINE ESCAPE CHAMBERS
PASSENGER VEHICLE
SEPNE AS A CUSTOMER DEMONSTRATION PLATFORM
CARRY MAXIMUM OF PERSONNEL
Slide 1
Work Vehicle A vehicle that can perform
useful work while carrying a minimum of scientific
equipment and personnel, and a maximum number of
"utensils."
Scientific Vehicle A vehicle that can perform
scientific data gathering while carrying a minimum of
personnel and a maximum scientific payload.
Diver Lock-In/Lockout Vehicle A vehicle
that can perform as a stable mobile platform for pur-
poses of diver lock-in/lockout exercises utilizing
standard and esoteric gas mixtures with conventional
and experimental diver equipment.
Habitat Lock-On Vehicle A vehicle that can
perform as a mobile lock-on platform for atmospheric
habitats. Multiple exchange lock-on adaptation capa-
bility should further exist with submersible and surface
decompression chambers. Consideration should be
given to adapting this lock-on capability to submarine
escape chambers.
Passenger Vehicle A vehicle that can serve
as a customer demonstration platform while carrying a
minimum of equipment and a maximum of personnel.
 Before going into deta.ils of the Beaver, I would like,
in the interest of an orderly- presentation, to touch briefly
on the process we at North American Aviation use for the
development of a new vehicle or equipment and
which is being used on Beaver Mark IV. It involves the
use of a formal method of dealing with overall "systemP
considerations, the first step of which was the establish-
ment of the desired capability discussed earlier.
While there is nothing new or unique in thoroughly
considering, at the start of a program, the total required
characteristics for a design, nor in insistence on overall
schematics for subsystems before detailing them, we
have found it advantageous to require a specific and
formal series of steps which are commenced prior to
actual design and continue through delivery.
Imposing this internal discipline which involves all
matters relating to the vehicle from concept to post-
delivery operations has been very effective in reducing
oversights and surprises. The process is an iterative
one and includes an exchange between all segments of
effort carried on throughout the life of the program.
Each significant decision is compared to a plane of
reference that considers the total system effect of the
decision. The goal is to assure that all system objec-
tives are achieved. Cost control runs parallel with the
program and is obviously one of the elements that enter
into the tradeoff for each choice of action. Throughout
this process there are documents published at appro-
priate milestone points which delineate the results of the
analysis or design. This is called a Systems Engineering
Data Manual.
Upon completion of the Mission Analysis, the
Engineering Department established a set of require-
ments which would produce a vehicle capable of fulfilling
the objectives. This was followed by the preliminary
design of the vehicle and the establishment of design
criteria for subsystems and components. The actual
design of the vehicle then began in depth.
It is worthy of emphasis to note that safety and
reliability are considered inherent characteristics of a
design and form a part of each of the steps that lead to
a completed vehicle. The design review process which
occurs at each milestone, examines the safety, reliability
and failure modes in the same depth as strength of
structure, choice of materials, etc.
At about the same time as the commencement of
preliminary design, program scheduling and long lead
material planning are undertaken. As the preliminary
design matures, planning begins in earnest for vehicle
construction, shop tests, and sea trials.
Early in the design process, an appraisal is made
as to what quality verification testing will be required
and testing is initiated. This item, as well as others,
are determined in accordance with a certification plan.
At the same time, studies are started on what logistic
and facilities support will be needed during construction
and trials as well as for the post delivery operations of
the vehicle. The studies are followed by implementation
which is time-phased to the program.
An abridged chart summarizing the steps involved
is shown in Figure 1. Lines of information flow have
been omitted in the interest of simplicity. However, it
should be emphasized, there is a continuing flow of ideas
between each stage.
2
II. General Characteristics
The Beaver is 25 feet long, and is designed for
operations to 2000 foot depth. The submarine dimen-
sions allow air-lift in large cargo planes, such as the
C-124A, C-133A, C-141, as well as several others.
The hull lines are shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 is a
preliminary arrangement drawing. The Beaver carries
a pilot and an observer or manipulator operator in the
forward pressure hull, and two divers or passengers in
the after hull. The hulls are spherical and are con-
nected by a trunk. The after sphere has a skirt that is
integral with it and is designed so that various adapters
for mating can be bolted on. Diver operation can be
conducted from this sphere. A third observer can be
accommodated in the forward sphere for limited periods.
Sufficient buoyancy- has been provided for a payload of
2,000 pounds. Two manipulators are provided which
can be located on any of the four mounting locations on
the forebody.
Slide 2
Considerable attention has been given to the sub-
ject of pilot and observer visibility, and ten viewports
have been provided in the forward sphere. An extend-
able boom with a light that can be localized above the
normal work area, and a pan and tilt array with a TV
camera, strobe light, still and movie camera and a
mercury vapor light are provided on the forebody to
further enhance observation. The TV presentation will
be immediately in front of the pilot.
The Beaver will be capable of 5 knots for short
periods and a 12-hour endurance at lower speeds, with
a life support capability in each sphere for 44 hours.
Propulsion is provided by an inverted Y configuration of
three electrical motors and propellers that can be
rotated about their axes. A variable ballast and trim
system allow the vehicle to change pitch, roll, accommo-
date all the changes in buoyancy that are anticipated
while operating, and compensate for an increase or
decrease of payload after submerging.
The submarine will be equipped with a suit of
sensors that can be altered as Beaver's utilization
develops the need. Among the original equipment
planned will be a heading reference suitable for inter-
facing with a doppler navigator at a subsequent date,
water velocity sensors, pitch and roll indicator and an
X-Y plotter. A magnetic compass is provided for back
up. An underwater telephone with the upper transponder
 MISSION ANALYSES

(capabilities desired)

VEHICLE REQUIREMENTS

(to satisfy Mission Analysis)

Program Scheduling
PRELIMINARY DESIGN COMPONENT DESIGN CRITERIA

Planning for:
Long Lead Material Items DESIGN Design Reviews
Construction
Quality Control
Quality Verification of Components
Testing
Trials, Evaluation &Acceptance
Logistics & Support Facilities
For All of Above

Logistics & Facilities Support CONSTRUCTION Quality Control &Inspection

TESTS

DOCK &BUILDERS TRIALS

EVALUATION & ENDURANCE TRIALS
ACCEPTANCE &CERTIFICATION TRIALS

DOCUMENTATION

POST DELIVERY OPERAIIONS

Figure 1. System Engineering

A IV Id sr
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r .

Figure 2. Hull Lines

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th
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t z,versrawrao
01 PA. e I7LE
VE,A1,41

PRO

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ter
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POSE UNE
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71.0.,6u A in kIEr< Ir IWO EVO (IE MOP SO, A
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Figure 3. Preliminary Arrangement Drawing

of the searchlight type and the lower transponder of the for emergency escape. A similar valve is planned for
doughnut type will be located at the upper and lower the after sphere for diver use, plus piping and a valve
surfaces of the hull. An altitude and depth sonar to give for future use in supplying gas for deeper diving opera-
height above bottom and distance from the surface will tions.
be provided together with a temperature-compensated
depth gauge. A scanning sonar located in the upper fore- Electric penetrators will be installed in the thick-
body will provide the pilot with a PPI presentation. A ened area of the pressure hulls where the trunk is joined
radio will be provided for surface communications. to them.
Throughout the design phase, provision for flex- Nine viewports are provided in the forward half of
ibility to expand the Beaver's utility has been kept upper- the control sphere, plus a small one in the hatch. In
most in our minds. As an example, we are including in addition to those that can be seen on the slides, there is
the flooded structure arrangements for bolting on pods one on the port side near the pilot's head. One small
at various locations of the hull to carry scientific viewport is also located in the lower hatch in the after
equipment and sampling devices. sphere.
III. Detailed Characteristics The pressure hull will be supported in the flooded
structure on elastomer pads so that no direct loading
Pressure Htdl due to lifting or handling will be transmitted to the
The pressure hull consists of a 7 foot sphere pressure hull.
forward and a 5 foot 5 inch sphere aft which are joined
by a 25 inch diameter tunnel. The material is HY100
steel, and a Safety Factor of 2 has been employed in the
design. The nominal thickness of the forward hull is CONTROL CABIN
.481 inch and the after hull is .387 inch with a machin-
ing tolerance of + . 030 inch in each case and close
sphericity requirements. A 25 inch access hatch is
located on the upper portion of the forward hull, and a
25 inch diver lockout hatch is provided in the lower
portion of the after hull. A 24 inch hatch in the after
compartment isolates it from the connecting trunk. A
skirt which is integral with the after sphere carries the
hatch hinge mechanism and will be configured to receive
various adapters for mating with underseas habitats,
-
decompression tanks, and escape trunks of submarines.
The lower hatch in the after sphere is so designed as to
be capable of withstanding internal as well as external
sea pressure. No piping or mechanical penetrations of
the pressure hulls are planned with the exception of a
valve in the forward compartment for equalizing pressure Slide 3

BEAVER CHARACTERISTICS

Personnel 4 or 5
Operational Depth 2,000 ft
Factor of Safety 2
Speed Maximum clean hull - 5 knots
Continuous 2 1/2 knots approx.
Endurance time @ 2 1/2 knots 12 hours
Enckirance life support system 44 hours
Number of viewports Forward Sphere - 10
After Sphere - 1
Maneuverability 6 degrees of freedom
Hull Dimensions:
Length overall 25 ft
Height 8 ft 6 inches exclusive of removable motor
Beam 9 feet 6 inches exclusive of removable motors and guards
Weight in air 27, 000 lbs approximately
Total battery capacity 55 Kilowatt Hours
Payload 2,000 lbs
Droppable Weight Batteries 2500 lbs
(2) Manipulators 400 lbs
Variable Ballast Trim System 1474 lbs water
Condition "N" submerged
(2) External Hatches 25 inches in diameter
Main Ballast System Approx. 48 cu. ft; 3000 lbs air pressure at surface
GM 0.5 ft min.
BG 0.3 ft

6
Control Sphere Arrangement Flooded Hull Structure
Man-in-the-loop consideration has dominated the
arrangement of the equipment of the forward sphere.
All of the equipment will be located so that the lower
forward portion of the sphere, with its multiple view-
ports, is available to personnel for direct viewing.
Under cruise operation the pilot, while in his seat on
the port side, will have a presentation from the sonar
and the television camera directly in front of him,
together with the instruments reporting heading,
velocity, depth, trim, and the controls of the vehicle.
The vehicle controls are portable and can be moved to a
location at the viewports from which the Beaver can be
conned while the pilot is looking directly at an object
ahead or below. The observer or the manipulator
operator's seat is on the starboard side and can be
folded up to improve access to viewport. The manip-
ulator controls will be in a portable box on the star-
board side so as to be at hand for all viewing locations.
In the course of discussions on viewing at the
Woods Hole Workshop, a comment was made by one of
the pilots of the French Archimede. He noted that he
had not found one optimum position for the body in view-
ing but rather felt the ability to shift around and use
different muscles was really the important considera-
tion. In view of the extensive ex-perience of that Slide 4
speaker, we have attached considerable weight to this
observation and have attempted to achieve this in the The external hull will be formed from aluminum 5086
control sphere, particularly for the observer. for fixed structure and large easily removable panels of
Two of the viewports have been located to have a
fiberglass. The manner in which loads will be carried
by the strength members of the flooded structure can be
view of the work area that will be most important when seen in Slide 4. Attention has been given in the design
the manipulators are in the upper-shoulder alternate to achieve simplicity for fabrication in which the port
location. It has been noted that an extendable light and starboard sides will be built up separately, then
boom on the port forebody will bring light directly over joined with the top open. The flooded structure can be
the point at which work will be accomplished with the substantially completed, and many of the components
arms. installed prior to joining the pressure hull to it. The use
of watertight and blocked electrical penetrators with
The life support in the control cabin consists of a screwed connections at the external boundary of the
self-contained oxygen supply, and a lithium hydroxide pressure hull will facilitate making up wire harnesses
carbon dioxide removing system with 44 hours endur- while there is good working room in the pressure hull
ance. Two Mark 6 SCUBA packs are provided for cavity of the flooded hull. Closeout will occur near the
emergency breathing. Figures 4 and 5 identify the end of the construction period when the pressure hull is
equipment as presently contemplated and arranged. lowered into place and followed by the upper section of
the flooded structure. This sequence has the advantage
Diver Lockout (Aft) Sphere Arrangement of reducing interference during assembly. It permits
cabin work in the pressure hulls to proceed in parallel
The after sphere will accommodate two men in with work on the outer hull, and it facilitates achieving
diver's equipment. The hatch has been sized at 25 economies in total construction cost.
inches to permit them to go through it without removing
their diving gear. The arrangement is shown in Flooded Hull Arrangement
Figure 6. A self-contained oxygen supply and a lithium
hydroxide carbon dioxide removal system will be pro-
vided with instrumentation suitable for pressurized
conditions. Internal air bottles sufficient for diving
activities to 200 feet are planned for the first of the
Beaver operations. As subsequent need arises for FLOODED HULL ARRANGEMENT
diving operations at increased depths, additional bottles MARKER BOUY PROPULSION MOTOR
will be provided external to the sphere for mixed gases
POWER DISTR
which will be supplied through piping and a valve
installed during original construction. No structural FWD HATCH TRUNK

changes in the pressure hulls will be required to add

this capability. Pressure equalization is obtained
through a valve provided for this purpose. The lower
AFT TRIM
hatch to the sea and the hatch to the tunnel are designed
for diver lockout and for internal pressurization equal ANCHOR
to 1, 000 foot depth to permit decompression in the after HP AIR
sphere and to permit transfer to a decompression tank VAR BALLAST-ROLL TANK
under pressure.
STBD MBT
HYDRAULIC
INVERTERS
BATTERIES

Slide 5
7
 TV Sag-We,'
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erfi24"-r/-
427; .47,4ve-L
,GL-7,/?-1 _re21%3-o9
40/..s/oz.4y

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2is,14 /t//r
e rIZZA/ .a/S,Z49/ A'44 /EL /47/1/AP'
Figure 4. Control Sphere
8
 0.05Y?ZLf-4/4%.0.44/lE
...1;2440:e ad-azely

I I I

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oxy<jevg/
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Figure 5. Control Sphere

9
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OXY454eV
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Figure 6. Diver Lockout Sphere

10
 Slide 5 depicts the principal components housed
within the flooded structure. Particular emphasis has
been given in the design to providing maximum access to
all equipment and to the internal portions of the hull.
The slide shows the general relationship of the two main
ballast tanks of approximately 24 cu ft capacity each, a
combination variable ballast and trim system, the pro-
pulsion motors and their inverters, the power distribu-
tion packages, four main battery containers, anchor
windlass, the air bottles for the main ballast system,
the marker buoy and the hydraulic system. Also con-
tained within this structure will be the two auxiliary
battery containers, the water pumps for the trim and
ballast system, the control motors for rotating the pro-
pulsion pods, and the external sensor packages.
Variable Ballast System
We have elected to use salt water in a combination
variable ballast and trim system (Figure 7). It will be
capable of changing trim + 30° and of changing heel
+ 100 by pumping water between a tank located in the
after portion of the flooded structure and between 2 tanks
located port and starboard near the center of gravity of
the vehicle.
The tanks are sized to accommodate, by pumping
water in or overboard, all changes in buoyancy that are
anticipated due to variation in water temperature and
density, and the effects of depth on the pressure hull,
as well as to compensate for an increase or decrease of
payload of 200 lbs after commencing a dive.
Battery and Electrical Subsystems
BATTE
FILL
Ii
INERTING OIL
CRECK VALVE
L-,=-
BLEED
PWR LE AD
BLEED
LEAD-ACID
CELLS
DRAIN
COMPENSATING OIL RESERVOIR
Slide 6
A heavy duty lead-acid battery immersed in oil,
compensated to sea pressure, has been selected. The
main battery will have a 40 KWHr capacity and will
provide 120 volts. It will be carried in four droppable
containers with a total of 60 cells connected in series.
The auxiliary battery will have a 15 KWHr capacity
and will provide 30 volts. Fifteen cells will be connected
in series in each of two containers. In addition, a
500 watt hr silver-zinc battery is provided in the control
sphere for emergency purposes.
One of the features of this installation is that the
battery gases are kept separate from the compensating
oil surrounding the battery. The schematic shows how
this is achieved. The battery gases from the electrolyte
move through baffles into oil-filled compensated
tubing and are discharged through a mercury vent valve
having no mechanical parts. The oil covering the
electrolyte will be replenished from the main compen-
sation oil supply, but a check valve will prevent back
flow into the oil surrounding the batteries. A small
positive-pressure over sea pressure will be maintained
through the compensat ing tank. The system is being
discussed at length by Mr. Norman Kuska, at another
session so I will not go into any more detail about it.
We have tested a limited prototype arrangement to
2700 psi and are pleased with the results.
A preliminary main battery power and distribution
schematic is shown in Figure 8 and a similar system for
the auxiliary battery is shown in Figure 9.
An electrical loads schematic is shown in Figure
10. The external lights, camera and TV circuits are
schematically shown in Figure 11 (both are preliminary).
Hydraulic System
The hydraulic system is schematically shown in
Figure 12. Its principal function is to provide power
for the manipulators with some ancillary and backup
functions on other systems. It will be a 3000 psi
system and follows conventional practices.
Propulsion
PROPULSION VECTORS
2v
o
7
------ BLEED S
--;..., 3
Hg FI LL 3
RELIEF STRAIGHT AHEAD 3
VALVE
2.
Hg YAWING MOMENT
VENT
-OVERFLOW SIDE MOTION
sump
2
.r
PWR LEAD
VERTICAL MOTION 45° SIDE MOTION
ACID BOTTLE
W/ BAFFLES
GAS-LADEN OIL
Slide 7
ELECTROLYTE
COMPENSATING
OIL
The propulsion system consists of three pro-
peller pods in an inverted Y arrangement. The motors
can be rotated individually about their axes and will be
controlled by the pilot through the means of a portable
control box. The vehicle will be capable of 6 degrees
of motion which will be achieved by the manner in
which the three pods are oriented with reference to
each other and to the hull. Slide 7 is a simplified
presentation of some of the orientations which will
produce the more common type of vehicle movements.
This arrangement has additional advantages in terms
of hovering.
We have selected oil-filled and compensated AC
motors with inverters for the reason of the increase
in efficiency and other advantages that can be achieved.
Slide 8 shows a group of relative efficiency curves
which summarize our inquiries into this subject.
11
 4 t.

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Q3')DIFF. PumP VALvE
I VN/ AV1 POS/T.L'N
[EMERELIEF
VALVE,
Low PREs5.
QL) DIFF, Key. '2 WAyTo cowqcN PcgT
Pump IIAL1;1 PC)SITION vALVE
FILTER 2W 2 PosiTit
vALvs
<4ECPZ. V4Lve -HP,Er
F Low
N0TE: 4Lt. vALves

Figure 7. Variable Ballast and Trim System Schematic (Preliminary)

 UPPER PORT ST BD
120V SYSTEM
TYPICAL 30VDC PROP PROP PROP /20V DC 0/L FILLED
AMR HR. tIETER
TRIP CIRCUIT 120 V MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR DISTRIBUTION 80X
TOTAL
IN PRESS.HULL CHARGER VOLTS
LOAD AMPS
ri BAT CONTANER
_

If CELLS
-
30)..
I
(-)
CBI
#2 BAT. COATA/Nrn
K3 -
45cy-Lis , ..-L.
1-0 1 <
T
11 30 V be + S HUN T

o K1
Clii
43 BAZ CONTAINER Il

/5 CELLS =
I .30V DC ( K4 3 K5 (' K7 )
_ _J

(2B/
*4 BAT CON7i9/N.E/t K2 KI

I IS CELLS I

ri
L
-
30V DC
__
--- ,
o

30V DC CONTROL NO. I.I. NO. 2 30V D.C. CO34, T4

PRESS OPIZED HULL HYD.SYSTPfr' HYD . SYSTEM SURIZED HULL
rROPULSION ,4,10TOR5

Figure 8. Main Battery (120V) Power and Distribution System (Preliminary)

 TYPICAL 30VDC
TP/P L7PCLI/ TENDER SERVICES
/Al PRES.S.SPIIEPt -
(BATTERY CHAR6ER EXT. POWER
BAT. C44,7AINEA,
I I

131 A's
_L
/5-CELLS' ---4-,
I
[I1-0 30 V DC 1 I
T
L _ __I A' I 'T
0 II
C8/ A'6

BIIT.C647A/NR

/5CELLS cx)
130VDC I
rL__ A2
o
CB/
t(3 A'4

30V DC
OIL FILLED
DISTRIBUTIDA BON

AMIN PoWE R SATTERy CNAR6ER E.ATERNAL AMER -PRESSLRE SPHERE

'V.--
PRESSURE SP4ERE

Figure 9. Auxiliary Battery (30V) Distribution System (Preliminary)

 / 20VDC
+
(,?Er) 120VDC (REF) /20VDC (REF) 120V DC + T,_)
(,,?(F.) 1204 DC
o o
C83 -- 0
CB2 E_ _ C C84
ELECTRICAL.
DISTRIBUTION
BOX
R3 R2 R5
OIL-FILLED R4

AUX. 8US

s'tÌ
N ++ +
IN IERTER INVERTER INVERTER
/NVERTER 30410C A/11,1
(POR T) CONTL.
(STBD) HYD. SYS.
(TOP)
-->> PRESS HULL

PORT TBD TOP HYD. PUMP

PROPULSION PROPULSION PROPULSION MOTOR
MOTOR MOTOR MOTOR HP.
tip. HP HP. 801/ 30 6GCPS
eov JO 60 CPS . 80V SØ 60CPS 80V 30 4.0CP5

Figure 10. Preliminary Electrical System Schematic Loads Propulsion and Auxiliary Power
 PRESSURE SPHERE
7--

GONTAU.S

DIVER
LOCKOUT
toiTEH LJTE

STROBE- ft I f- -7
U16fi7 7o/4t.1 *2 TV IIIr7ppin
2 7:143AT II
S'S.TR2O84.1 ST3ROBEI
F-
UNIT CAMERA LCAMERA LÇANDS.4 601409 _..LL /6HT LI6NT
PAN ASSY 1, IRO,/ Zorv (FUTURE PROVIS/ON)
J 15,0W

cONTROI. 5
PRESS.SPHERE

30VDC
() 3OV DC
T I I OII. FILLED
)-(f) IL
DISTRIBUTION
BOx
II II i _LI Ii
-T-RFF 7)(3 7.47 7:6(6-7

PARrar
ASSY
FLA2LJ6N fo.2 Rah) r3 FLOOD 041100D ;snoop Bowl it6HT (35-6 ...,60w)

Figure 11. External Light, Camera, and TV System (Preliminary)

 ,......-
'T.
151......."-T

.....), k4 Irt... ,-.).t-tA

Figure 12. Hydraulic System (Preliminary)

 Work Operation and Manipulators

PERFORMANCE CURVES
z-EFFICIENCY (Y.)
80-
AC MOTOR (GEARED)
70
DC MOTOR HYD
60 DC MOTOR (GEARED)--

50

40
AC MOTOR I HYD
30

ZO

10
2,KTS 3ITS 41(15 5,KTS
o

Slide 8

Slide 10
IV. Beaver Capabilities
In Slide 10, the Beaver is performing a work
Observation or Data Acquisition operation by means of one manipulator positioning the
submarine and the other performing the operation.
Several manipulators have been built, tested and
evaluated in tanks. Improvements are continuously
being made. This experience, plus the simulation
studies we conduct on the effect of man-in-the-loop in
manipulator operations, has provided the basis for a
continuing program of upgrading, which is carried on
to optimize this very important adjunct of the vehicle.

Slide 9
Slide 9 gives a view of the Beaver in normal
operation for observation or data acquisition in which
the pilot is in his seat and the observer at a porthole.
If desired, for a limited time, two observers can be at
the portholes.
Using points of attachment built into the original
flooded structure, it is expected the pods containing
special sampling and data-taking equipment will be
attached to various portions of the hull to expand the
range of scientific missions of which the Beaver is
capable. Likewise it is expected to be able to fit coring
devices and bottom sampling tools at a later date. The
built-in flexibility of being able to remove equipment,
particularly in the diver's sphere and to replace it with
other devices, plus the relatively large payload alloca-
tion which was made in sizing the vehicle, makes this
possible.
Slide 11
It is our present intention to carry a rack of four
exchangeable tools in addition to the tool on the arms.
These can be exchanged at the worksite while submerged
adding versatility to this device and expanding the work
tasks the Beaver will be capable of performing. It is
presently planned that these will be stowed on the port
side forward. These tools consist of a hookhand
(Slide 11) which can be rotated, a stud gun (Slide 12),
a cable cutter (Slide 13), an impact head (Slide 14),
and a centrifugal pump (Slide 15). This is but the
beginning of what will be an expanding group of tools
and work capabilities.

18
 Slide 12
Slide 15

Diver Operations

Slide 16
It was noted previously that specific design
features to support diver operations have been included
Slide 13 in the after sphere. Slide 16 depicts one situation of
divers at work. At time of delivery an air pressuring
system within the after sphere will be provided that
will permit diver operations to 200 feet. Capability
for operations at a greater depth will be added.
The ability to hover, the high maneuverability,
the provisions for underwater telephone, lighting,
photography, and the ability to use ground tackle will
result in an excellent diver support platform.
The structure has been designed to permit internal
pressure equivalent to 1000 foot depth. This will permit
the Beaver not only to operate with divers at depths
greater than 200 feet, but also to surface with divers
still under pressure and to be lifted onto a decompression
tank for purposes of transferring the men to the tank.
This will eliminate the need to tie up the vehicle while
the men go through their decompression cycle, which
becomes particularly important as the divers go to
greater depths.
Slide 14

19
Persoimel Transfer Another very important planned use of this
submarine is for the transferring of personnel and
equipment at atmospheric pressure to underseas
habitats. We believe that in many fields of oceano-
graphic development and exploration this mating capa-
bility will prove extremely useful and will enhance the
value of this submarine to potential users. The slide
shows Beaver mated to an underseas structure in a
typical evolution.

V. C onclusion
The features we have incorporated into the
Beaver design give ample evidence of our conviction
that the time is appropriate to bring emphasis to bear
on developing increased ability to perform useful work
tasks with manned submarine vehicles.
It is my opinion that Beaver and similar vehicles
will contribute most valuably toward accomplishing the
many worthwhile tasks that lie awaiting in the seas
Slide 17
around us, in expanding our knowledge, and in
helping to garner needed resources from the
ocea.n.

20
io. 61-312

MANNED SUBMERSIBLE DEVELOPMENT

by

KENNETH R. FITCH and RAYMOND J. MUNZ

Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, New York

Paper No.
67-372

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

mimes meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astrondutics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N.Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)
1.08,12.15
 MANNED SUBMERSIBLE DEVELOPMENT AT GRUMMAN

Kenneth R. Fitch and Rayrnond J. Munz,

Project Engineers,
Grumman Ocean Systems Department
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation
Bethpage, L. I., New York

Introduction
The exploration and exploitation of the world
oceans has been greatly stimulated in recent times
by the development of an ever-increasing number
of manned submersible vehicles. The vehicles to
date range from small, lightweight and highly
maneuverable vehicles such as Alvin, Deepstar
4000 and the various Star series boats to the
larger, heavier and less maneuverable vehicles
such as the Aluminaut and Auguste Piccard. In
addition, the bathyscaphs Trieste and Archemede
have permitted manned exploration of the greatest
depths. Thus, a large selection of submersibles
is presently available, each more or less tailored
for a specific range of mission tasks. It is inter-
esting to note that most of the available vehicles
are relatively small with a limit on the number of
occupants from 2 to 4. The habitability afforded
by the majority of these small submersibles is
also extremely limited providing free volumes of
from 35 to 60 cu ft/man. These values compare
with approximately 53 cu ft/man for the Gemini
spacecraft. The limited mobility afforded the
occupants in the small submersibles is perhaps
the major influence which dictates the small
amount of submerged stay time permitted.
Within the next few years, we at Grumman
anticipate an increasing need for larger, more
habitable submersibles which will be capable of
operating at continental shelf depths for periods
of days rather than for periods of hours. Some of
the benefits to be derived from this approach
include:
It provides a vehicle which can carry groups
of scientists or teams for research into the
research area at the same time thus per-
mitting simultaneous observation of the same
undersea phenomenon.
Trained scientific team members need not be
cross trained in boat operation in order to
provide operating crew backup.
It permits continuous submerged observation
for long periods of time and in relative
comfort.
It permits observer rotation and relief in
search type missions.
It provides absolute payload capability for
large amounts of internally carried equipment.
This equipment can be of conventional design
-1-
and need not be specially developed to fit into
small irregular shaped spaces.
Recognizing the need for a large, long stay
time submersible capable of providing habitability
for six or more occupants, Grumman has under-
taken the development of a prototype vehicle. The
submersible will evolve from a design conceived
by Jacques Piccard and will be similar in certain
respects to Piccard's earlier mesoscaph PX-8,
the "Auguste Piccard." The code name for the
first prototype vehicle is PX-15. The PX-15 is
being constructed in Europe, with completion of
tests expected in early 1968.
The PX-15
Gulf Stream Drift Mission
The first anticipated use of the PX-15 will be
to perform a submerged drift in the Gulf Stream
from a point near Miami, Florida, to a point off
Halifax, Nova Scotia, a distance of approximately
1450 nm. This mission was conceived by Jacques
Piccard and will permit a team of scientists to
remain in the depths of the Gulf Stream continu-
ously for several weeks and achieve a comprehen-
sive survey of day-to-day phenomenon. In addition
to the scientific value of such a venture, we will
derive a considerable amount of useful experience
in the operational problems associated with a large
submersible. The lessons learned during this
mission will assist us in determining what design
changes, if any, will be required for later
missions.
Preliminary studies have indicated that the
most suitable depth to be explored during the first
drift is about 200 meters. However, from this
depth it is expected that periodic excursions will be
made up to 100 meters and down to 400 meters. At
200 meters depth, the temperature in the middle
of the stream will be between 15° and 17°C. As
the temperature of the stream increases to.ward
the east, the drift can be controlled by monitoring
the temperature changes and periodically propel-
ling the submersible back to the desired isotherm
The average speed of the Gulf Stream off the
Arnerican shore is about 4 knots at the surface,
 1.5 to 2 knots at 200 meters and I knot at 400 Figures 1 and 2. A summary of the vehicle's
meters depth. In addition, the stream flow varies chief characteristics follows:
with the time of the year, providing higher speeds
in May and lower speeds during October. With an Weight 130 tons
average submerged depth of 200 meters, the Length 48'
average speed of the PX-15 is expected to be 1.5 Beam 13'-4" without motors;
to 2 knots for the entire trip. Thus the distance 18'-6" with motors
traveled per day will be between 36 and 48 nm. Height 20'
The anticipated mission duration will, therefore, Max. Operational. 2000 ft.
be between 4 and 6 weeks. Depth
Collapse Depth 4000 ft.
Since the PX-15 will remain continuously sub- Battery Capacity . 750 kwh (1000 hr. rate)
merged throughout the mission, it will not be able Propulsion four 25-HP, three-phase,
to determine its position accurately in latitude and variable-frequency
longitude. It is essential that all data recorded electric motors
during the drift be correlational with respect to Power Conversion two variable-frequency,
depth, latitude, longitude and time. For this solid-state inverters
reason, a surface support vessel will be used to powering the main
track the course of the submersible throughout its propulsion motors
drift. The support vessel will be equipped with two fixed-frequency,
suitable communications and navigational equip- solid-state inverters
ment to permit position fixing with respect to powering the propulsor
shore installations while establishing the position pod rotational motors
of the submersible with the aid of sonic detection one fixed-frequency,
gear.
solid-state inverter
powering various on-
At the start of the mission, the PX-I5 will be board equipment
towed to its dive point off Miami. Self-propelling Visibility 29 viewports (placed to
to the dive site does not appear practical in view permit all around
of the limited amount of electrical energy that can visibility)
be provided. A tow to port at the termination of Payload 5 tons minimum
the drift will also be required. Much of the exter- Life Support 6 men for 4 weeks plus 2
nal configuration of the vessel must, therefore, weeks emergency reserve
be designed to withstand the wave slap conditions Emergency Drop- 5 tons
resulting during the towing operations. pable Ballast
Max. Submerged . in excess of 4 knots
A primary requirement of the mission will be Speed
to permit silent, stable operation at various depths.
As a result, the PX-15 has a variable buoyancy The structural arrangement of the hull, shown
capability which will permit precise adjustment of in Figure 3, consists of a ring-stiffened cylinder
vehicle displacement. In order to minimize the with hemispherical end closures. The hull is
requirements on the variable buoyancy system, fabricated of 1-3/8-inch thick steel plate having a
the PX-15 has been designed to have a bulk modu- yield strength of 80,000 psi. Structural rings
lus greater than that of sea water, i.e., it will be spaced uniformly along and inside the hull provide
less compressible than its surrounding environ- sufficient support to the shell to permit safe opera-
ment thereby permitting the vehicle to establish tional depth to 2000 feet while maintaining a mar-
any desired equilibrium depth. The compres- gin of safety of 2 on hull collapse. This combina-
sibility characteristics of the PX-15 are such that tion of hull plating and reinforcement also provides
a difference in ballast of one pound will effect a a hull bulk modulus in excess of 400,000 psi.
change in depth of approximately 10 feet at con-
stant temperature. However, the actual change in In order to permit relatively easy modification
ballast required to provide a predetermined change of the hull for future missions, the initial design
in depth is rather complex since it is affected by makes use of a hull mechanical joint located near
the change in water temperature with depth and the the center of the hull and employs integral hull
heat generated within the cabin by both occupants flanges which are bolted together. Low pressure
and equipment. As a result, the vehicle is not sealing is provided by a conventional "0" ring seal
expected to arrive at a stable equilibrium depth or while high pressure sealing is provided by metal to
even a small amplitude system before one day or metal contact of the machined mating surfaces.
more after a dive has been initiated unless the This separation joint will permit future hull modi-
variable ballast system is used actively. fications for more advanced vehicle uses which will
Configuration be discussed subsequently.
The general arrangement and the current Two "soft"main ballast tanks are mechanically
internal arrangement of the PX-15 is presented in attached to the hull, one on each side, and provide

-2-
 48.73'

FIGURE 1. PX-15 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

OBSERVATION AREA
FRESH COLD WATER TANKS LAVATORY INVERTERS AND MESS

SHOWER FRESH HOT WATER TANKS

PLAN VIEW

TRANSFER CHAMBER
BUNKS (SMALL ITEMS TO SURFACE) COCKPIT FOWARD HATCH
AFT HATCH

LADDER FORWARD TRIM TANK

(PORTABLE) WASTE TANKS (6) LIQUID OXYGEN TANKS

VIEW LOOKING OUTBOARD-PORT SIDE

FIGURE 2. PX-15 INBOARD PROFILE

-3-
additional buoyancy to the vehicle when it is sur-
faced. This additional buoyancy provides adequate
freeboard to permit ingress-egress through either
of the vehicle's two hatches. These main ballast
tank assemblies are normally completely flooded
during submerged operations. Diving from the
surface is accomplished by permitting water to
enter these tanks from the bottom while air is
vented off at the top. After surfacing, stored com-
pressed air, carried in high-pressure tanks lo-
cated in faired compartments above the main bal-
last tanks, is valved into the main ballast tanks at
the top, blowing out the entrained water at the
bottom.
Variable buoyancy control is provided by two
pressure-resistant ("hard") tanks located beneath
the hull in the lower keel section. The vehicle is
neutrally buoyant near the surface when these
tanks are half full of water. Allowing water to
enter or blowing water out by compressed air pro-
vides vertical maneuvering capability for the
vehicle within its operational depth limit.
Electrical power is supplied by lead-acid
batteries housed in the free-flooded keel section.
These batteries are pressure-compensated to sea
ambient, and consist of up to 378 individual cells
VIEW A-A
VIEW C-C
DETAIL X
FIGURE 3. PX-15 STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENT
-4-
connected in series-parallel. They provide 168
VDC to two fixed frequency inverters which power
the propulsor positioning motors and 336 VDC to
two variable frequency inverters which power the
main propulsion motors. In addition, the battery
provides 112 VDC for exterior lighting and 28 VDC
for on-board equipment. It is interesting to note
that the weight of batteries carried is roughly 25%
of the vehicle gross weight.
Propulsion for the PX-15 is provided by four
25-hp, AC electric motors powered from two
variable-frequency, solid-state inverters. This
configuration provides speed control of the vehicle
and sufficient power to propel the submerged PX-
15 to speeds in excess of 4 knots. In addition, the
propulsion motors can be fully reversed and ro-
tated in the vertical plane thus providing up, down
and reverse thrust capability. By applying forward
thrust with the motors on one side of the vehicle
and reverse thrust with the motors on the other
side of the vehicle, the PX-15 can make still-
water turns within its own length. The degree of
sophistication displayed by this propulsion system
is not required for the Gulf Stream drift mission.
It is incorporated into the vehicle at this time to
permit study of large vehicle maneuvering re-
quirements.
VIEW B-B
DETAIL Y
 Life support provisions for a mission duration
of up to six weeks have presented a number of
interesting problems. The design of the various
life support elements is based, in part, on the
metabolic requirements of the crew which are
summarized in Table I. In addition to these
requirements, a supply of water is required for
washing and toilet facilities.
As shown in Table I, approximately 500 lbs.
of oxygen will be required. Containment of this
amount of gas in standard high-pressure cylinders
would have resulted in an unacceptable oxygen
supply system weight of 5,000 lbs. However,
liquid oxygen (LOX) stored in standard containers
was found to weigh only 1,000 lbs. In addition,
the minimum rate of vaporization of the liquid
oxygen was found to be below the minimum oxygen
consumption rate for 6 crew members, thus making
it ideally suited for the drift mission.
Purification of the air requires control of CO2,
odor and contaminant levels, the latter being
generated by man's metabolic processes and by the
equipment and materials within the hull. Lithium
hydroxide is used for CO2 absorption. In order to
conserve electrical power, the LIOH will be used
in panel configurations located throughout the
vehicle to permit the natural convective currents
within the cabin to circulate through them. These
panels also contain activated charcoal for odor and
certain contaminant removal. Contaminants which
are not processed by the charcoal will be neutral-
ized by an active odor removal unit which consists
of a chemical absorbing section and a catalytic
burner section. This burner will be activated
periodically whenever the contaminants reach sig-
nificant levels. Contaminant levels will be deter-
mined with "Drager" gas detector tubes. Approx-
imately 40 different detector tubes will be available
to monitor the range of anticipated gas contami-
nants. Since many contaminants can be toxic even
in small concentrations, careful control of all
equipment used in the cabin is being exercised in
order to minimize the source of potentially dan-
gerous contaminants. This passive system has
been demonstrated in a 100-hour test of the PX-15
life support and waste management system*.

Table I
Life Support Requirements
PX-15

Item W W Remarks

#/Man-Day 6 Men
42 Days
# Total

Intake:
Food 1.23 311 Freeze dried and heated
for use. 2800K Cal/day.
12-40-48 diet. Food
does not include water.
Water (Tot) 6.00 1,512 Potable stored.
Oxygen 2.00 504 Moderate activity levels.
Total 9.23 2,327 Total input.

Outgo:
CO2 2.25 567 Gaseous.
Water (A) 3.10 781 Urine.
Water (B) 2.68 676 Respiratory.
Water (C) 0.85 215 Perspiratory.
Water (D) 0.22 55 Feces (water only).
6.85 1,727 Total Water
Feces 0.13 33 Feces (solid only).
Total 9.23 2,327 Total Output

*Grumman OSR-67-1 A Four Day Manned Test of the PX-15 Life Support System - F. J. Abeles

-5-
 A considerable quantity of water will be re-
quired by the crew during the drift mission. In
addition to the 1, 512 lbs. of potable water indicated
in Table I, an additional amount of 1, 512 lbs. is
provided for washing. Half of the potable water is
stored in tanks which are in good thermal contact
with the hull plating, thus providing cool drinking
water. The remaining potable water is stored in
superinsulated tanks at approximately 210° F . This
water will be used in the reconstitution of freeze
dried food. Stored hot water was chosen in pre-
ference to electrically heating cold water primarily
on the basis of minimum weight and electrical
energy. Approximately 22.5 kilowatt hours of
energy would be consumed from the battery to heat
the water. For a lead-acid battery, this energy
is equivalent to 1, 500 lbs. of battery weight. The
superinsulated tanks, on the other hand, weigh
440 lbs.
Temperature and hurnidity control of the
cabin atmosphere appears to be controllable by
purely passive means. Based on a sedentary crew
activity level of 400 BTU/Hr/Man and an average
heat generated by cabin equipment of 680 BTU/Hr.,
it appears that the cabin temperature will remain
between 63°F and 81°F for the expected range of
sea water temperatures in the Gulf Stream without
the need for cabin wall insulation. The uninsulated
cabin walls will condense atmospheric moisture
and maintain a relative humidity between 40 and 70
percent during the drift.
For missions in colder water, active heating
and dehumidification will be used.
Future Development
The operational advantages of large payload,
passenger comfort, long submerged stay time, etc.
accrue to the large submersible at the expense of
maneuverability. In the PX-15 the loss in maneu-
verability has been partly overcome through the
use of relatively larger motors than are usually
found on submersibles. The four 25 HP propulsors
provide a power-to-weight ratio comparable to
smaller vehicles now operating.
The use of larger motors results in a loss in
cruise performance due to electrical power losses
in conversion. As a consequence, the specific
range of the PX-15 is not as high as it might be.
The low specific range is not of practical signifi-
cance for the PX-15's first missions -- the Gulf
Stream Drift and Investigation of Large Submer-
sible Operations and Handling. Follow-on con-
figurations envision the use of alternate propulsion
configurations which greatly improve the submer-
sible's range and powered endurance.
Although the PX-15 embodies many advantages
of a large submersible, its initial configuration
will not possess several advantages which a large
vehicle can provide. These are: relatively large
payload-pickup capability at operating depth, and
bottom-sit capability providing a stable base for
-6-
payload lift and other operations with a manipulator.
To provide these capabilities the following are
required:
a landing gear for bottom sitting
a larger variable ballast capability for payload
pickup
a larger attitude trim capability for off-center
payload pickup
a manipulator
emergency systems for ballast dump or jet-
tisoning to ensure safe recovery in the event
of abnormally high breakout forces or fouling
of the manipulator or landing gear.
Future versions of the PX-15 will probably
incorporate the landing gear and manipulator with
their supporting systems. Grumman designs are
currently on the boards as part of a design study
of our follow-on vehicle -- the Grumman Submer-
sible #1 or GSV-1. These designs are directly
applicable to later versions of the PX-15 as well.
One highly desirable aspect of large submer-
sibles is their potential for adaptation with a diver
lock-out capability -- something like a mobile
Sealab -- with mission durations of approximately
seven days or more. We believe that the ability
to send divers out on-the-spot at the time of the
first visual sighting of an underwater find, and to
remain on the site for extended time, will repre-
sent a significant improvement in capabilities over
current systems. Grumman's follow-on vehicle,
thé GSV- 1, will incorporate this capability.
The GSV-1
The GSV-1 is an adaptation of the PX-15
design and will provide greatly increased capabili-
ties for undersea work. It is primarily directed
toward commercial exploitation of the ocean's
resources.
As previously described, the PX-15 hull is
being built with a mechanically joined splice at
about its mid-point. This will make it possible to
use either the PX-15's forward section, or its
twin, to complete the GSV-1 vehicle after its new
sections have been qualified.
The GSV-1 is currently in the Preliminary
Design stage. Its present configuration is shown
in Figure 4. Its resemblance to the PX-15 is
obvious. A characteristics summary comparison
is shown in Table II.
The GSV-1 configuration incorporates a land-
ing gear, manipulator, and diver lock-out capabili-
ties. The landing gear is of the twin pontoon type
and offers several advantages:
It can be made self-buoyant, thereby pre-
serving the reserve buoyancy of the hull which
provides for payload lift.
It provides tankage volume which can be par-
titioned and used both as a large variable
 Table II
GSV-1 PX-15
Weight 173 ton.s 130 tons
Length 61 ft. 9 in. 48 ft.
Beam 19 ft. 18 ft. 6 in. with motors
Height 22 ft. 10 in. 20 ft.
Maximum Operating Depth 2000 ft. same
Collapse Depth 4000 ft. same
Battery Capacity >750 kwh 750 kwh (1000 hr. rate)
Propulsion (2) 25 hp (4) 25 hp
(1) 7.5 hp steerable
Payload >9 tons 5 tons minimum
Life Support 3 men fwd) 2 wks 6 men for 4 wks plus 2 wks
6 men aft ) emergency reserve
Emergency Droppable Ballast 5 tons same
Max. Submerged Speed approx. 4 kts. >4 kts.

62'

16 5.6"

13 3.4,-

FIGURE 4. GSV-1 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

ballast tank for payload pickup and as a vari-
able trim tank to permit off-center payload
pickup.
It provides a stable base for using the mani-
pulator on the bottom.
It provides a convenient mounting place for
specialized payload containers.
It provides a low pad pressure for sitting on
unconsolidated bottom soils.
The gear may present some problems with re-
spect to bottom breakout forces. For this reason,
it has been designed so that each bottom surface is
a steel plate shoe weighing several thousand
pounds which can be pyrotechnically released as
emergency ballast. The steel plate also serves as
armor for the tankage against bottom irregular-
ities. It will also be possible to jettison the entire
landing gear assembly for emergency purposes.

-7-
Consequently, the GSV-1 manipulator system can
be added to the PX-15 without major retrofit.
Gross location of the manipulator is achieved
by means of a swinging linkage which allows the
whole mechanism to be stowed aft alongside the
battery box-keel as shown in Figure 6.
Manipulator capabilities will include a 500-
pound lift at a reach of 10 feet. The working en-
velope is shown in Figure 7.
The bottom-sit/payload pickup capability is
shown in Figure 5. Depending upon the mission,
a 5,000 lb. pickup or a 5,000 lb. bottom-sit can be
provided by varying the internal ballast load.
The manipulator is of relatively conventional
design having eight degrees of freedom. It is
operated from a crew station located at the forward
end of the boat. This crew station is located in the
section of the boat which is obtained from the PX-
15 or is a twin of the PX-15's forward section.

6000
(r)

ii 5000

4000

a_ 3000
o
2000
o
1000
>--
r""=11
o
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
BOTTOM - SIT FORCE-LBS

FIGURE 5, PAYLOAD PICK-UP FIGURE 6. MODEL OF GSV-1

CAPABILITY ON THE BOTTOM

SWING AXIS
CP
"Zb
cD
9-
MANIPULATOR

BOOM
Lil-B° A° Af
OA' CH' PO'
MAX.P POI" Pf
fAIN 006pAl",,H
N4AX. L.t:r FE4""
M

MIN

472-4"-

4.5)

FIGURE 7. GSV-1 MANIPULATOR REACH VS PAYLOAD

-8-
 GSV-1 diver operations are carried out from hull. A diving compartment formed by a closure
the aft compartments of the boat. This is shown dome similar to the one forward was considered.
best in the Inboard Profile, Figure 8. The GSV-1 It was rejected because of advantages to be gained
is divided into three compartments. The forward from the smaller separate ball, as follows:
compartment is similar to that of the PX-15. It Axis of the diving hatch can be vertical.
houses the operational subsystems of the vehicle -- Permits use of an overhead hatch to facilitate
propulsion an.d maneuver, trim and depth, naviga- transfer of saturated diving personnel to a
tion, communications, caution and warning, etc.-- surface decompression chamber.
and the operating crew. It is kept at sea level Small diameter permits cleaner aft body
pressure at all times. Life support is similar to fairing and reduced drag.
the PX-15's. A small diameter chamber mounted off-center
provides greater diver clearance for a given
The forward compartment is forrned by a landing gear length.
closure dome when the new aft section is spliced to A mechanically joined diving chamber can be
the PX-15's forward section. The dome is a part easily reconfigured as experience is gained
of the new assembly. The second, or midsection with diver systems or can be replaced with
compartment is designed for operation at either sea special purpose ball modules for such tools
level pressure or at ambient water pressure for as coring or drilling.
saturated diving operations. Systems will be quali- Diver egress-ingress can be monitored with
fied for hyperbaric operation to 1, 500 feet but direct vision view.
expendables and replaceable diver gear will be
sized for 800 feet operation. This is expected to Diver operations could be carried on without
be the practical depth limit for extended dives in the use of a separate, third chamber by providing
the early period of GSV-1 operation. a hatch in the end-bell of the hyperbaric chamber.
However, this configuration would practically
Six divers can live and work completely self- eliminate a particularly attractive mode of diver
operations called bounce or yo-yo dive at Grumman.
sufficient for saturated diving periods of up to In a yo-yo dive, the divers are pressurized to am-
seven days in the midsection compartment. Com- bient water pressure in the small ball while the
plete housekeeping and life support facilities are remainder of the vehicle is held at one atmosphere.
provided. The principal areas are identified in The divers operate outside while being monitored
Figure 8. by a tender who is a member of the diving team and
is at hyperbaric pressure in the small ball. At the
Diver Lock-Out conclusion of the work period -- perhaps as long as
Diving operations are conducted through a four hours -- the divers return to the ball and the
bottom hatch in the aft section compartment. This diving team is decompressed to one atmosphere.
compartment is a separate ball eight feet in At depths below several hundred feet, the divers
diameter -- smaller than the basic hull's 10 feet never reach complete saturation so the decompres-
diameter -- and is mechanically joined to the basic sion times -- even for several hours out -- are

FIGURE 8. GSV-1 INBOARD PROFILE

-9-
relatively short. Preliminary Grumman studies
indicate a complete turn-around from one atmos-
phere to ambient to one atmosphere could be made
in about 8-10 hours. This appears to be a practi-
cal diver team work cycle since the men are
resting during the decompression period. Further-
more, once the divers return to one atmosphere,
they will rest more comfortably and be able to
complete a debriefing without the complications of
garbled communications in the hyperbaric helium
environment.
Using the small ball for yo-yo diving con-
serves pressurizing gases if they are dumped upon
decompression, or the energy used to recompress
the gases to storage pressure. The third chamber
for diving also permits several dive teams to
alternate using the yo-yo technique.
A helium-oxygen environment will be used for
the GSV-1 diver operations to 800 feet. Systems
will be designed to withstand operating pressures
to 1,500 feet but will be sized for 800 feet opera-
tion due to a projected diver limitation. The yo-yo
dive technique looks sufficiently attractive that
Grumman believes the forward and midsection
chambers will often operate together at one atmos-
phere. Accordingly, a large 4-foot diameter hatch
will be provided in the closure bulkhead between
the forward and mid-sections to permit relatively
easy passage. The interior hatch to the diving
ball will have a 30-inch diameter clear opening
and the bottom diving hatch will have a 36-inch
clear passage to accommodate divers with equip-
ment.
Incorporating a hyperbaric chamber and diving
chamber in the GSV-1 requires changes in design
approach for these chambers compared to the PX-
15. No trapped air pockets can be permitted unless
the equipment and structure have been designed to
withstand an external pressure of about 670 psi
(equivalent to ambient water pressure at 1,500
feet). Orifices for venting must be sized to limit
pressure differentials during rapid pressurization.
Generally, decompression will be slow for diver
physiological reasons. The original PX-15 ring
stiffener design, Figure 3, is a box section which
is sealed after stress relief. In the GSV-1 mid-
section., these stiffeners must either be vented or
redesigned. A T-frame design is being studied.
All systems with internal fluids at ambient
cabin pressure, such as the water supply and waste
management system or emergency wet cell bat-
teries, must be vented or pressure-compen.sated
to work in the GSV-1 aft chambers. Without
special design features, it is difficult to employ
common systems in such areas as water supply
for chambers operating at different pressures.
Common systems are possible for gas supplies
where storage pressure is greater thanthe working
pressure of either chamber. In the GSV-1, sepa-
rate systems will be used for water supply, waste
management, environmental control and life
-10-
support. Common supplies will be used for Oz
and electrical power.
The use of separate systems has an additional
advantage. It permits the aft sections of the GSV-1
to be developed as "man-rated" chambers at the
working pressures of depths to 800 feet. It is
possible to conduct this development on land since
the pressure vessel is designed to withstand high
internal pressure in order to decompress satura-
ted divers slowly with the GSV-1 at the surface.
It is anticipated that all of the hyperbaric systems
development will be completed before a front end
is joined. It will also be possible to check out the
operations of the diver system and diver lock-out
in shallow water operations before the final assem-
bly of the GSV-1 with its front end.
Other Modifications
Other modifications to the basic PX-15 under
consideration for the GSV-1 are less obvious on
first inspection. These modifications are in the
areas of functional subsystems performance.
One principal modification will be in the Pro-
pulsion and Maneuvering System where the sub-
stitution of an active rudder is planned using a low
HP motor with a ducted propeller. This can be
seen on the General Arrangement Drawing, Figure
4. The low HP motor can also be employed for
low speed cruise between 1 and 2 knots offering a
significant improvement in specific range -- n. mi!
kw-hr. -- and powered endurance for holding posi-
tion in a current. The drawing shows only two of
the PX-15 25 HP motors retained for obtaining
vertical thrust, fast acceleration, maximum speed
and rapid in-place yaw rotations. This is planned
pending results of actual PX-15 operation with the
four motors and analysis of the maneuverability
requirements.
The PX-15 Navigation and Guidance subsystem
will be augmented in the GSV-1 to achieve capability
for self-navigation near the bottom. Addition of a
doppler sonar (for long-range bottom navigation)
and a device for interrogating bottom emplaced
transponders (for local navigation) are being
considered. A forward-looking sonar will provide
an obstacle avoidance capability. A digital com-
puter and X-Y plotting board will be used to pro-
cess and display data.
The PX-15 communications gear will be aug-
mented by an intercommunications system between
compartments and divers, through which surface
communication can be fed. A surface buoy with
R.F. handline will be added for emergency and
recreational communications from the surface.
Sound powered phones will be required for diver
communications.
The foregoing modifications to a PX-15 type
submersible -- added landing gear with payload
pickup and bottom-sit capabilities, manipulator
installation and capabilities for saturated and yo-yo
diving from the boat at depths to 800 ft. --
represent the principal near term avenues of
manned submersibles development at Grumman.
The GSV-1 embodying these changes will be in
development through 1968 and should be available
for use in mid-1969. By 1970, we at Grumman
believe that the utility and performance capabili-
ties of the large manned submersible will have
been demonstrated, leading to greater and greater
demand for services.
No. 61-313

THE DESIGN FOR A SELF-CONTAINED, ARTICULATED,

ONE-ATMOSPHERE UNDERSEA SUIT
by

GIUSTO FONDA-BONARDI and CHARLES PETER BUCKLEY

Litton Industries
Beverly Hills, California

Paper No.
67-373

AIAA/SNAME Advance marine

vehicies meeting
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA/MAY 22-24, 1967
First publication rights reserved by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N. Y. 10019
and Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 74 Trinity Place, New York, N. Y. 10006
Abstracts may be published without permission if credit is given to author and to AIAA/SNAME. (Member Price-75c; Nonmember PriceS1.50)

12.15
 THE DESIGN FOR A SELF-CONTAINED, ARTICULATED,
ONE-ATMOSPHERE UNDERSEA SUIT

Giusto Fonda-Bonardi* and Charles Peter Buckley**

Litton Industries
Space Sciences Laboratories
336 North Foothill Road, Beverly Hills, California

Abstract vehicles alone are not enough to accomplish the

myriad tasks associated with the economic explor-
In response to the need to extend man's ability ation and exploitation of the resources on the con-
to explore and exploit the world's undersea re- tinental shelves of the world.
sources for longer periods and at greater depths,
many underwater vehicles have been developed The services of individual divers are indispen-
over the last few years. However, underwater sable for many tasks and must therefore comple-
vehicles are not enough; the individual diver's ment the use of underwater vehicles and systems.
function is complementary to that of the vehicle.
Currently underwater work capabilities are
Because severe restrictions are imposed upon severely restricted by a superabundance of prob-
his activities by cold, narcosis and decompress- lems. The diver's time on the bottom, first of
ion problems, means must be found to improve all, is limited by cold and by decompression con-
his efficiency. The solution is an articulated one- siderations. The deeper the diver works, the
atmosphere diving suit that allows the diver to more pronounced are the effects of nitrogen nar-
work under atmospheric pressure at depths down cosis. The equipment and the personnel needed
to 600 feet. to back up the diver, i. e. , the compressors,
emergency decompression chambers, standby
Articulated and armored diving suits are not divers, etc. all contribute to further reduce the
new. Earlier suits, although adequate, were ex- mobility and effectiveness of the diver working on
tremely cumbersome and lacked mobility. Litton the bottom. Helium-oxygen systems, moreover,
Space Sciences Laboratories has pioneered hard, although they alleviate some of the traditional
pressurizable protective assemblies for space diving problems, only compound others.
applications and their advances in suit technology
have overcome life support and mobility problems. A one-atmosphere diving suit offers a solution
to many of these problems.
The program that Litton has mounted, beginning
in 1964, to adapt this suit technology to the under- The articulated, one-atmosphere undersea suit
water field is the subject of this paper. Litton's under development in the Space Sciences Labora-
one-atmosphere suit is the first to reflect an tories of Litton Systems, Inc., at once abviates
understanding of anthropomorphic mobility with the restrictions imposed by cold, narcosis and
the abandonment of cumbersome ball joint artic- decompression problems and provides improved
ulations in favor of the lower torque and more mobility, range and efficiency. Its articulated,
physically compatible rolling convolute joints. pressure-resistant shell allows the diver to re-
main u.nder normal atmospheric pressure while
The design parameters and fundamental design working at depths limited only by the mechanical
constraints underlying the development of a strength of the shell and the mobility of the joints.
practical one-atmosphere suit are discussed, The insulation incorporated into the suit protects
together with the development and testing of the him from the cold. Returning from any depth can
typical joint sections that demonstrate the feasi- thus be accomplished directly and immediately
bility of the concept. without need of decompression stops.
These advantages are so obvious and so well
known that one may well ask why one-atmosphere
One of the more pressing ocean engineering suits are not extensively used. The answer is
problems is the need to extend man's ability to found in the great difficulty of implementing an
work under water for longer periods and at greater adequate compromise between structural strength
depths. The array of underwater vehicles devel- and mobility. The engineering problems are so
oped over the last few years by both industry and severe that almost two centuries of determined
government agencies is testimony to the efforts attempts did not succeed in producing a workable
being made to solve this problem; but underwater model until recent technological advances placed
the required sophistication within reach of the
engineer.
*GFB -Director Applied Research The one-atmosphere suit Litton is developing
**CPB -Manager, Underwater System Development will be self-contained. The life support system

1
 built into the suit will incorporate conventional
CO2 scrubbing and oxygen storage in order that
the replenishment of the life-support system can
be quickly and easily effected. Bottom time of 2
to 6 hours at depths up to 600 ft will be possible.
Tending requirements, because of the elimination
of air lines, will also be minimal. These capa-
bilities should find wide utility in the offshore
construction and offshore petroleum industries.
Those techniques the offshore oil industry now
depends uponfor connecting gathering lines to
completed wells for example can be greatly sim-
plified by the extended bottom time the one-
atmosphere suit makes possible. The installation,
maintenance and protection of submarine pipeline
and cable systems connecting offshore drilling and
production structures will also be greatly
facilitated.
These suits should also assist the U. S. Navy
in conducting its underwater operations. These
would include:
The search and retrieval of objects at depths
where the use of current diving techniques is im-
possible or impracticable, such as downed air-
craft and/or special equipment carried by the
downed aircraft.
The installation of submarine pipeline supply
syste,ins providing part of the logistical back-up
of an amphibious landing.
The development, installation and maintenance
of special harbor defense systems.
In addition, a fully-armored diver will be
immune from attack by sharks, jelly fish, and
other injurious marine organisms.
The one-atmosphere diving-suit will also offer
a readily available means for engineering and other this suit is provided by means of what today is
supervisory officers uninitiated in the diver's
world for making detailed personal inspections
under water. This will be increasingly important
as efforts are made to readapt U. S. coastlines to
maximize the commercial and military utility of
the available waterfronts and harbors.
The articulated, one-atmosphere suit's unique
capabilities, Litton feels, will earn it a vital role developing a workable suit. The state-of-the-art
in underwater activities. It is important to keep
in mind, however, that this role will be a com-
plementary one. The armored diving suit, as
these suits have been termed traditionally, will
not and cannot supplant existing techniques. Scuba
systems, for example, will certainly continue to
be used in shallow work. One-atmosphere suits
will not assume the pioneering role Sea Lab is
playing in enlarging the scope of man's underwater quired watertight integrity by covering the suit
activities. Nor will the Litton suit have the far-
ranging survey and search capability of existent
underwater research vessels.
The one-atmosphere suit's major role, Litton
feels, will be in deploying the mass of underwater
workers that the economic exploitation of the con-
tinental shelves will require. Anyone familiar
with divers will agree that the good ones are
highly-trained specialists, who are at the same
time highly-motivated and somewhat temperamen-
tal. In order to go deep, divers must be superior
physical specimens in top shape with a built-in
immunity to risks. They must, moreover, have
acquired a good working knowledge of the physio-
logical effects of pressure and the various gas
mixtures utilized in deep diving. Otherwise they
would not be able to work confidently while sub-
jected to these sometimes disconcerting and dis-
turbing effects.
It is easy to understand, therefore, why good
divers are already in short supply. And as under-
water activity increases, this scarcity could reach
critical proportions. The one-atmosphere suit
offers one sensible means of restoring this situa-
tion. With it, the average construction worker,
rigger, welder or fish pond operator can be put
down to the underwater work site in a self-
contained air atmosphere, under the physiological
working conditions familiar and reassuring to him.
The history of the development of articulated,
one-atmosphere diving suits roughly parallels
that of the hard hat diving suit. Progress in re-
cent years, though, has not kept pace with that of
the hard hat and other compressed gas diving
systems. In the late 1930's however, observation
chambers and articulated suits were the only
means of getting below the 300 ft limit for com-
pressed air diving.
Articulated diving suits generally have been
designed around one of two basic types of joint,
the bellows or the ball and socket. The Taylor
suit, designed in 1838, is representative of the
first. (See Figure 1) The joint articulation in
termed a convoluted joint. This type of joint
utilizes a bellows-like arrangement of ring stiff-
eners and fabric (in this case, leather). This
joint system is essentially a forerunner of the
type of joint used in today's space suits. One of
the oddities of the Taylor suit is the fact that the
hands and feet are left unprotected, destroying
whatever hopes the designer might have had in
of the time obviously was not up to handling these
difficulties, which is not surprising. Even today,
the design of the glove is still a critical problem.
A more sophisticated version of the above suit
was designed by Tasker in 1881. (See Figure 2)
He proposed to use a one-atmosphere suit articu-
lated with bellows joints and to provide the re-
with an ordinary flexible diving dress. One of
the major problems facing the designers of this
type of suit then was the lack of a suitable fabric
 Figure 3. Philips Suit, Figure 4. The Car-
1856 magnolle Freres Suit,
1882
Figure 1.
The First Articu-
lated Armored Suit, Figure 2.
By Taylor, 1838 The Tasker Suit, 1881

for the bellows joint. Pressures of 135 to 270 psi

were more than the available fabrics could with-
stand.
Other early designers, when faced with this
problem, relied upon ball and socket joints to
provide articulation. An early example shown in
Figure 3 is the Philips suit (1856). This suit did
not provide articulated fingers but utilized pincers
operated from inside the suit. The Philips suit
actually quite closely resembles the 1930 articu-
lated suits used in the salvage of $5 million in
gold from the S. S. Egypt. Other early designers
we re:
Figure 5. The Day Suit, Figure 6. The
Carmagnolle Freres (1882), who used concen- 1897 Restucci Suit,
tric spheres kept watertight by strips of water- 1904
proof linen secured to both parts of the joint and
folded so as to roll upon itself; (Figure 4).
John and George Day, 1897, who designed an
intriguing-looking suit (Figure 5) that relied on excess of external water. In order to do this,
ball and socket and rotary joints for articulation. and keep the interior of the suit at one atmosphere,
The interesting thing is that according to contem- a separate supply of high pressure air had to be
porary reports, it relied on knife edge bearings provided. The drawback of such an intriguing
rather than ball bearings for reducing friction idea, as was pointed out by Sir Robert Davis k1)
within the joints. In terms of the technology of was that there was at that time no way of keeping
that day, this prol;ably was not a workable answer the air flow properly adjusted.
to the problem of providing low-torque joints.
Today, however, knife edge seals again are be- An interesting fact about these early suits is
ginning to look attractive to the designers of they did anticipate many of the techniques used
watertight rotary seals. currently in both space and one-atmosphere diving
suits.
Restucci who in 1904 prepared a design, (Fig-
ure 6), in which he proposed to keep the joints Another such suit, representing still another
dry by feeding the air at a pressure slightly in approach, is the suit designed by Victor Campos

3
(1 91 9). This suit, shown in Figure 7, utilized
oblique, rotary joints to provide articulation. This
suit is similar in concept to the "hard" suit NASA's
Ames Laboratory is investigating for space work.
The only articulated suit with a credible per-
formance record, however is the Neufeldt and
Kuhnke (1 91 3 to present). Variations of this suit
were used by an Italian salvage company to sal-
vage the gold off the S. S. Egypt, sunk in 438 ft of
water. A large protuberance was built onto the
back of the suit to act as a ballast tank. The suit
also contained a self-contained life support sys-
tem. First versions of the suit had 12 ball-and-
socket or spherical joints, later versions had only
six in order to make it easier to keep the suit
watertight. These patented joints, shown in Fig-
ure 8, utilized two rows of bearings in order to
reduce friction between the inner and outer spher-
ical surfaces. The joint was kept watertight by
rrxeans of a strip of rubber so configured that the
pressure of the water tended to push it down on
the polished surface of the ball. A variation of
this suit is currently being offered for sale by
Roberto Galeazzi Ltd; (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Galeazzi Suit
In recent months, however, it has become ap-
parent that the role of these newer devices, too,
is somewhat specialized. These devices, the sub-
mersibles, the robot manipulators, and the
helium-oxygen diving systems, are expensive to
maintain and operate, are highly complex, and
require extensive supporting organization. It is
equally apparent that a suitable system has yet to
be developed for handling fast-developing survey,
salvage, and sub-sea repair operations on an
economically sensible scale. Such a utilitarian
system must have a good depth capability, ade-
quate mission time, be easily transportable, re-
quire a minimum of support equipment, and be
easily deployable into and out of the water. These
requirements are met effectively by the one-
atmosphere articulated suit. The mobility prob-
lems hampering earlier one-atmosphere suits,
Figure 8. The Neufeldt moreover, have been solved by recent state-of-
and Kuhnke Suit the-art advances in suit technology pioneered by
Litton.

Figure 7. The Campos The Litton suit is the first one-atmosphere

Suit, 1919
These Neufeldt & Kuhnke suits, and the later
modifications of this design, although adequate
enough for the job at hand, were not very sophis-
ticated in design. They were extremely cumber-
some and their ball-joint articulations left much
to be desired with regard to mobility(2). These
limitations, when combined with state-of-the-art
advancements in helium-oxygen diving techniques
and the design of miniaturized submersibles and
robot manipulators, have tended to obscure the
advantages of the one-atmosphere suit.
diving suit to embody the combination of an under-
standing of anthropomorphic mobility with the
sophisticated utilization of the latest material and
engineering advances. A prime factor underlying
this success has been an abandonment of ball joint
articulations in favor of the lower-torque and
more physically-compatible rolling convolute joint
Litton has developed, as well as the use of modern
materials such as teflon, neoprene, butyl and
nylon.
Litton's technical insight, which has made pos-
sible a workable one-atmosphere diving suit, is
the outgrowth of the company's long experience in
development of pressure-protective suit systems

4
for use in space. Since 1955, Litton has been de-
veloping and pe rfecting the art of building c onstant-
volume anthropometric pressure suits. This
understanding of the physical and engineering con-
straints involved in developing workable articula-
tion under pressure resulting from Litton's space
suit programs provides the basis on which the one-
atmosphere diving suit is being developed.
The Litton space suit has been designed specif-
ically to perform useful work in space and, as
such, differs significantly from the "emergency
only" character of the currently-used fabric suits.
The outstanding characteristic of the Litton suit is
its mobility. This results from the suit's ability
to maintain a pressurized, constant-volume exo-
skeletal enclosure while accommodating nearly
the full range of body motions with minimal energy
expenditure by the suited subject. Conversely, the
ability to move freely in a soft, or fabric, suit is
physically limited by the tendency of the suit and
its articulations to seek maximum volume (mini-
mum energy) positions. This causes the soft suit
articulations to become rigid in a single position,
or to flop in a bistable manner from one minimum
energy position to another. Figure 10. The Litton Mark I Suit

The key to Litton's success in achieving con-

stant volume in a practical articulation can be
found in its concept of the rolling convolute jointP)
This joint, through the use of rigid, directionally-
restrained rings, permits the joint fabric to roll
easily in a controlled and volume-compensating
manner through its maximum range of movement.
The development of this joint concept goes back
to 1957, when Siegfried Hansen designed and built,
under Air Force contract, a protective suit that
allowed a man to operate in a near-absolute vacu-
um. The purpose of the suit was to carry out
scientific experiments in which remote manipula-
tion was inconvenient, such as the study of the
geometry of electron guns for microwave tubes or
television tubes. This performance of scientific
experiments required a mobility of the arms and
hands far in excess of what was then the state-of-
the-art. The resulting design is shown in Figure
10. Points of interest are the rigid aluminum
torso and helmet combination, the use of rotary
seals at the wrist, and the peculiar arm structure.
Restraint against over-expansion was provided by
a series of metal rings joined in a Cardanic chain,
and flexibility by a series of rolling convolutes.
As a result of the experience gained in several
years of use of this suit in a vacuum chamber,
new criteria were established that could be applied
equally well to diving suits and space suits. Basic
requirements are:
Safety
Mobility
Comfort
From an engineering point of view the require-
ment of mobility is the most difficult. The human
body contains bones joined by articulations that
allow two kinds of movements; rotations and de-
flections (shaft-like and, respectively, hinge-like).
Complex motions, such as those allowed by a ball-
and-socket joint (shoulder, hip) can be resolved
into simple motions of the two kinds. The techni-
cal success of a rigid, articulated suit depends on
the availability of joints that can move like the body
articulations with minimum friction and volume
variation. The number, positions, and orientation
of articulations required to allow the human body
adequate freedom of motion must correspond quite
closely to the number, position and orientation of
the anatomical articulations present in the human
body.
When modern anatomical nomenclature is used,
the degrees of freedom that were found to be nec-
essary for adequate mobility are listed in Table I.
This table shows that there are 13 different articu-
lations to be mechanized. Of these nine are hinge-
like, two are rotational, and two can be mechanized
in different ways since the complex anatomical
motions are resolved into rotations about reference
axes found at inaccessible points inside the body
(shoulder, hip).
In the Litton suit, these hinge-like or flexural
motions are provided by the constant-volume con-
volute joint systems and the rotational motions by
rotary seals. The proper combination of the two
allows Litton to adjust the joint systems to con-
form to the human anatomy so as to place the geo-
metrical axis of the structure in coincidence with
the anatomical axis of the articulation.

5
 The progressive development of the Litton space
suit is shown in the following figures. (See Fig-
ures 11 and 12.) The progress shown in simplify-
ing and improving the design is rather remarkable(4)
The movement torques in the latest suit, the RX-4,
are less than 1 ft lb. The comparable torques in
fabric suits are in the order of 10 to 20 ft-lb.

L.
Iry NI
tottLsil 1
f'
11407
4111

MR IF
II
I i
Figure 13. Artist's Representation of the Proposed
Figure 11. The Litton Figure 12. The Litton Litton UX Underwater Suit
RX-1 Suit RX-3 Suit
TABLE I
An artist's representation of the underwater Wrist flexion-extension hinge
suit is shown in Figure 13. The similarity to the Wrist abduction-adduction hinge
space suit is evident, as are the differences due Wrist supination-pronation rotational
to the much higher stresses to which the suit will Elbow flexion hinge
be subjected. Litton is confident the space suit's Shoulder flexion-extension rotational (hinge)
successful pattern of development can be dupli- Shoulder abduction-adduction hinge
cated by its diving suit. Moreover, the progres- Ankle flexion-extension hinge
sive improvements already made in the design of Ankle abduction-adduction hinge
the basic elements of the prototype suit confirm Knee flexion hinge
this. Hip rotation rota.tional
Hip flexion hinge (rotational)
The technical problems found in the adaptation Hip adduction-abduction hinge
of Litton concepts to the diving suit are severe; Waist flexion hinge
primarily because the pressure differen.ce is 3.7
to 5 psi in the case of the space suit and 270 psi in pressure from zero to twenty atmospheres. This
the case of the diving suit. Moreover, the joints is compatible with the muscular strength of the
and seals in the case of the diving suit have to be man operating the joints.
absolutely watertight whereas in the space suit
some leakage can be tolerated. Figure 14 shows the basic structure of a rotary
seal for an articulated diving suit. The major
The design of the rotary seal is based on the applied force is axial thrust, equal to the applied
analysis of the forces that tend to close the seal pressure P multiplied by the area of the seal R2.
and prevent a leak as distinct from the forces that The axial thrust is absorbed by the main thrust
tend to cause friction. Conceptual separation of bearing consisting of two steel bearing races and
the two kinds of forces permits optimization of a row of large bearings. Another row of smaller
geometry and first order compensation of forces bearings forms an angular contact bearing that
so that the net torque required to turn the seal in- controls the concentricity of the elements and pre-
creases less than 30 percent for a change of applied vents separation of the seal under no-load conditions.

6
 SEALING CONDITION: Ps> P
Since we have seen that Pi remains essentially
TORQUE: T RK [Ps - Pl A constant, so does the torque. The area A is the
K ° FRICTION COEFFICIENT a.rea of contact between the sealing lip and the
A CONTACT AREA
THRUST
SEALING PRESSURE
sealing washer:
PS

AXIS
Figure 14. Basic Structure of a Rotary Seal for an
Articulating Diving Suit
The seal proper is formed at the interface be-
tween a sealing washer of relatively soft and slip
pery material (teflon) and a sealing lip of ground,
lapped and polished hardened steel. A seal is
formed when the mating parts are pressed to-
gether with a pressure sufficient to plastically de-
form the softer material so that it flows and fills
the microscopic surface irregularities of the
harder material. The major component of the
friction coefficient is due to the flow of the plastic
material out of the way of the microscopic promi-
nences of the harder material and into the micro-
scopic depressions. The sealing washer is backed
by an elastic washer (soft rubber) which is initially
squeezed at assembly by an amount sufficient to
create a pre-loading pressure on the seal. This
preload pressure Pi must be adequate to obtain
the required deformation of the plastic material
and therefore to form a seal. The elastic washer
is exposed to one side of the fluid pressure of the
external environment. When this pressure is in-
creased above the internal pressure, it is applied
to both sides of the sealing washer: directly on
the side of the sealing lip, as the fluid tries to
A = 2 Rd
where d is the radial thickness of the sealing lip;
it appears therefore that the torque can be made
as low as desired by making d thin enough. There
are, of course, practical limitations but they are
such that seals can be built with a net torque that
is acceptable for the intended application. As the
thrust load increases with the applied pressure, the
thrust bearing deflects elastically a.nd tends to
close the seal thereby increasing the sealing pres-
sure Ps beyond the value sufficient to create a
seal. This effect can be counteracted by under-
cutting the sealing lip so that it is supported by
what amounts to a very stiff diaphragm. The di-
mensions are chosen so that the sealing lip tends
to deflect away from the sealing washer by the
same amount by which the sealing elements tend to
come together.
Figure 15 shows typical test results from a 4-
inch seal intended for the wrist pronation-supination
axis of a diving suit. The effect of varying the
pre-loading pressure Pi as well as the effects of
the lip undercut are shown.
T (FI-LBS)
16
14
PRELOAD
.014
Ai
12

.
push the seal apart, and indirectly on the side of
the elastic washer, as the elastic washer transmits
the applied pressure as a hydrostatic pressure to

!PA..
10

all sides of the cavity containing it, including the

side formed by the sealing washer. If the dimen-
tions are chosen correctly, the result is that

61,5
8

11
eAA
008 0
Ps = P + P
6

and the sealing pressure Ps remains always higher

than the applied pressure P by an amount which
011WP - " . °5100°

4
stays essentially constant and equal to the pre- ,,. :"."'"" U.012
NDERC UT
IPJ::::::::::,..gll
loading pressure Pi, that was initially chosen to
be adequate to provide a seal. The torque T re- 2 - s.,
quired to turn the seal is equal to the tangential
force multiplied by the radius. The tangential
force in turn is equal to the coefficient of friction o
K multiplied by the contact area A multiplied by o 50 ilk 150 200 250 PSI

the net applied pressure.

Figure 15. Typical Test Results from a Four-
T = RKA(P2 -P)= RKAPi Inch Seal Intended for the Wrist Pronation-
Supination Axis of a Diving Suit

7
 A typical hinge-like articulation, embodying an
application of the rolling convolute principle to a
knee joint for use with a space suit is shown in
Figure 16. It consists of a number of metal hoops
that are nesting in each other. A rubberized fabric
sleeve is held captive between the hoops and acts
as the pressure barrier. The hoops contain and
shape the fabric so that folds or convolutes are
formed between the hoops. The axial load in this
case is pure tension, that can be conveniently ab-
sorbed by a flexible steel cable joining all the
hoops. The first and last hoops are welded to the
rigid portions of the suit structure. When the
a.rticulation is flexed the fabric convolutes roll in
and out of the spaces between the hoops, and the
symmetry is such that the volume generated on the
side that opens is exactly balanced by an equal
volume disappearing on the side that closes. The
net change of volume is therefore zero and no work
is done on the internal pressure, so that the only
torque to be supplied to bend the articulation is
associated with the internal friction of the fabric
and the cable.
WELD
FABRIC
HOOP
CABLE
FABRIC
, HOOP
FABRIC
RESTRAINT
SWAGED
BUSHING
SECTION AT CABLE
(ENLARGED)
SWAGED BALL
(EACH END OF CABLE)
Typical Hinge-Like Articulation,
1-'igure 16.
Embodying Application of Rolling Convolute
Principle to Knee Joint for Use with Space Suit
The articulation becomes more complicated
when it is designed to withstand a higher external
pressure, because the axial compressive load
must be absorbed by an adequately strong mechan-
ical linkage.
In the development of an entire articulated arm
or leg several convoluted joints of similar design
but of different sizes are integrated in an assembly
that follows closely the shape of the human body
and places the axis of each articulation near the
corresponding anatomical point. The articulations
are connected by rigid sections that can be changed
in length for adjustment to the individual inhabi-
tant's measurements.
Such a rolling convolute joint that has been
developed for the diving suit along these princi-
ples, has been investigated with encouraging
8
results at 240 psi and was subsequently re-designed
to improve results and produce an entire arm.
(Figure 17 presents the initial results.) The
mobility (convolute) joint was, in addition, tested
to destruction to develop confidence levels regard-
ing materials and fabrication techniques used. In
this test, the joint met the design specifications,
thoroughly proving the intrinsic worth of the con-
volute principle. Design improvements already
incorporated in subsequent test elbows will allow
the joint to withstand substantially greater
pressures.
20
15
10
DESIGN GOAL
100 200
PRESSURE (PSI)
Figure 17. Torque Test of Rolling Convolute Joint
Litton's efforts in the underwater suit field
began late in 1964. The initial efforts were cen-
tered on proving the feasibility of the concept.
This was done by the design, fabrication, and test
of a rotary seal and elbow convolute.
Current efforts are directed toward the develop-
ment of a wrist and glove. Divers rely heavily
upon their sense of touch in finding their way
around under turbid conditions.
So, in many ways, the development of a work-
able glove is the key to the usefulness of an under-
water suit. Litton has now designed and built a
prototype wrist joint providing 60° of freedom. A
mock-up of the thumb and knuckle articulation in-
dicates the problem of designing a workable hand
can be solved.
Description of Suit
The objective of the Litton Underwater suit
development program is to design and test an ar-
ticulated constant-volume undersea suit. The
overall design parameters and proposed capabil-
ities of the Litton underwater suit are described
in the following paragraphs.
Depth
The suit is designed to withstand a working
pressure of 270 psi (600 ft). Crushing depth is in
excess of 1000 ft, providing a safety factor ap-
proaching 2. All suit sections are made up of
spherical, cylindrical or conical elements in order
to best withstand the high hydrostatic pressures.
 Mobility
The rotary joints, which are essentially radial
bearings incorporating watertight seals, are placed
at the wrist, a-rm, shoulder, thigh and leg. The
torques required to turn the smaller rotary joints
such as the wrist seals will be less than 3 ft-lbs.
The larger joints will range upward to approxi-
mately 8 ft/lbs in the case of the thigh. Bending
or flexural motion in the arms and legs is pro-
vided by the constant-volume and convolute joints
which allow up to 1100 of planar motion.
The range of motions of the flexural and rotary
joints is given below in Table II. The combination
of these movements will allow the UX to move
across the ocean floor, climb over obstacles, and
move about in a swimming mode if necessary.
The range of elbow and shoulder movement is
shown in Figure 18 and demonstrates that there
is adequate arm mobility for the performance of
any underwater task.
TABLE II

Diameter Flexing Design Goal

Section Type (inches) Range Torque (ft-lb)
1. Shoulder Seal Rotary 13.0 360° 6
2. Shoulder Joint Convolute 10.25 90° 3

3. Arm Seal Rotary 6. 6 360° 3

4. Elbow Joint Convolute 7. 110° 2

5. Wrist Seal Rotary 5.2 360° 3

6. Wrist Joint Convolute 4. 5 70° 1

7. Hip Seal Rotary 17.0 360° 8

8. Hip Joint Convolute 10. 0 30° 3

9. Thigh Seal Rotary 9. 5 360° 5

10. Knee Joint Convolute 9. 0 110° 2. 5
11. Ankle Joint Convolute 7. 5 30° 2
12. Glove Convolute 0. 75 - 3. 5 0. 5

Buoyancy

The buoyancy of the Litton suit must be close

to neutral in sea water (nominal density 1.026).
Part of the suit weight must be in the form of
detachable ballast to provide:
Figure 18. Six Views Showing Range of Motion in
Adjustment for the weight of the individual Shoulder-Elbow Mobility
dive r
Positive buoyancy by jettisoning ballast to be allocated as follows:
Adjustment of the CG of the suit for attitude Thermal insulation 8.0 lb
control.
Life -Support System 15.0 lb
The dimensions of the suit are such to accom- Communication 15.0 lb
modate a 90 percentile man
leaving approximately 201.2 pounds for the man
The difference between buoyancy and weight is: and the disposable ballast. Assuming that the
433. 9 lb
man's weight is 18,5 pounds, the disposable bal-
-194.7 lb last will amountlo 16.2 pounds plus whatever ex-
cess is desired to provide nega.tive buoyancy for
239.2 lb sinking and walking on the sea floor.

9
 The stability of the suit with a 185-pound man
but without the life-support system and the dis-
posable ballast was computed graphically. The
metacentric height is approximately 0.5 inch; in
other words, the suit is in essentially neutral
equilibrium. An upright position can be assured
by locating the CG of the life-support system and
that of the disposable ballast below the center of
buoyancy of the suit. It should be noted that the
CG of the suit alone practically coincides with the
CG of the man standing in it, so that the man will
not experience any unusual equilibrium problems
when moving about.
Structural Considerations
Unstiffened suit elements will be used when
such simple forms can provide adequate structural
stability within the allowable weight.
The elasticity of these suit elements, more-
over, must approximate the compressibility of
sea water to provide a first order compensation
for the change of volume with compression. De-
sign pressure is taken at 450 psi, equivalent to
1000-ft depth, giving a safety factor of 2 at 500
feet. The suit material is 316 stainless steel
which provides the best possible corrosion pro-
tection for the structural elements, having
Density 0.28 pounds/cu. in.
Young's modulus E = 29 X 106
Yield point Kc = 65,000 psi
Poisson's ratio = 0.3
There are various criteria for the stability of thin
'shells under external hydrostatic pressure. The
simplest, based on the yield point is
t rP/Kc for cylinders and cones
t rP/2Kc for spheres
This criterion gives
t 0.0069 r for cylinders
t a 0.0035 r for spheres
The criterion based on the modulus of elasticity,
for a cylinder of length L between flanges (which
is always the case for the suit) is
2]2/5
o - 4')
t r [L P
12 /7r
and since L/r = 4 in the worst case (lower leg)
t 0.016 r
Since this criterion is more stringent than the
other it has been adopted in computing the skin
thickness.
10
Balance under compression is obtained when
t-r Ew (2. 5 - 2u)
Es
where Ew is the bulk modulus of water (330, 000
psi); hence
t = 0.021 r
which is close enough to the value given above to
provide first-order compensation.
Glove Parameters
The ultimate utility of the UX concept is depen-
dent to a large degree on the development of a
practical glove. In many cases a diver's hands
are his eyes because the diver's own movements
stir up so much sediment that the visibility is re-
duced to zero.
The essential degrees of freedom of the human
hand are ten, if the last two fingers operate as a
unit. Prosthetic devices for amputees have been
built with as little as zero degrees of freedom (a
rigid hook), one degree (pincers), two (three-
prong pincers) and more. Medical authorities
state that three-prong pincers offer an amputee as
much manipulative dexterity as he requires for all
normal tasks.
The glove Litton is developing for its under-
water suit will have considerably more dexterity
than the three-prong pincers and consequently
should be more than adequate for general under-
water use. For unusual tasks, specially con_fig-
ured tool-holding or prosthetic devices can be
affixed to the arm instead of the glove.
Life-Support and Environment Control
A self-contained life-support system will be in-
corporated into the suit to provide a mission time
of six hours. Provision for an additional four-
hour emergency will be included in the system.
The essential requirements for the life-support
system selected for the UX suit is that it be simple,
easily rechargeable, and absolutely foolproof. The
proposed system will be of the closed-cycle type
utilizing a breathing gas mixture of 21 percent
oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen. Preliminary esti-
mates indicate the oxygen replenishment capacity
of the system will be in the order of 0. 3 to 0.4 lbs
per hours. The amount of CO2 absorbent required
will be roughly in the same order of magnitude.
Insulation and a means of controlling the humid-
ity level will be incorporated within the suit to
assist in keeping the diver comfortable. The in-
sulation in combination with the diver's own warm
clothing should be adequate in protecting the diver
from waters as cold as 0°C. If environmental tests
indicate that metabolic heat generated by the
diver is insufficient to keep him warm, an auxiliary CO2 becomes available, such a device will be in-
heat source will be incorporated into the suit to
supplement the diver's body heat.
The water temperatures to which the divers are
exposed will vary from 0°C to28°C. Most operations
are conducted in cold waters, ranging upward in
temperature from 10°C to 20°C. This coldness of the
undersea environment has been one of the major
obstacles to prolonged deep diving. The internal
temperature of the Litton suit will therefore be
maintained at temperatures of 80°F ±3° (27°C) in
order that the diver dressed in the suit can with-
stand the cold water temperatures for the desired
times. (Relative humidity will be maintained at
approximately 40 percent).
Communications
The UX is designed to operate primarily as a
self-contained diving systems. Freeing the diver
from the encumbrance of cables will reduce tend-
ing problems and cable drag and will allow him
maximum freedom of action. Generally, however,
the diver will be lowered to the bottom by cable.
Once on the bottom, he will disengage himself from
the cable and proceed to the work zone. Under
these conditions, communications will be main-
tained by means of an acoustic communication
system. If the maintenance of clear communica-
tions is of critical importance, it will be possible
to substitute a standard diver's telephone system
for the acoustic system.
Instrumentation
Sufficient instrumentation will be provided in
the UX suit to ensure diver safety and allow him to
maintain his orientation in the underwater environ-
ment. Nevertheless, this instrumentation will be
kept to a minimum to both simplify the diver's
monitoring problems and reduce field maintenance
problems. The instrumentation provided will in-
clude gages for monitoring pressure and the amount
of replenishment oxygen remaining, plus a clock
and compass. In addition, if a suitable and reli-
able device for indicating the excessive build-up of
corporated into the suit. Lights, if required, will
be furnished in separate, self-contained battery
units.
Test Program
A full-scale hydrostatic and environmental test
program has been carried on parallel to the design
effort to accelerate the process of refining com-
ponent design. The Space Sciences Labora.tories
currently possess a 48-inch hydrostatic sphere
suitable for testing complete limb assemblies to
1000 psi. A smaller chamber for testing rotary
seals is also available.
The authors would like to acknowledge the kind-
ness of Siebe Gorman & Co., Ltd., Chessington,
England, for allowing us to reproduce the drawings
of the armored diving suits contained in Sir Robert
Davis' book, DEEP DIVING AND SUBMARINE
OPERATIONS. This book, the copyright to which
is held by Siebe Gorman, is without question the
definitive work on the early history of diving and
underwater exploration and makes fascinating
reading.
References
Davis, Sir Robert H., "Deep Diving and Sub-
marine Operations" (The Saint Catherine Press
Ltd. , London 1962) 7th ed., Book II Chapt. 4
p. 595.
Scott, David, "Seventy Fathoms Deep, " (Fabe,
& Faber Ltd., London) p. 129.
William Elkins, Space Sciences Laboratories,
Litton Systems, Inc. "Development of a
Constant-Volume Joint," Technical Memoran-
dum 64-47 (1964).
Space Sciences Laboratories, Litton Systems,
"Development of a Constant-Volume Pressure
Suit, " Interim Report, Contract NAS 9-1278
(1964) .
11