Chapter 3 Single Phase Flow - v2017 - 1

Chapter 3 Single phase flow hydrodynamics Version 2017/1 41
Chapter 3
Single phase flow hydrodynamics
In this chapter we discuss single phase flow characteristics which are essential for the
description of multiphase flow. We will also have a brief look at
• Dimensional analysis, which is a methodical way for construction of correlations in fluid
dynamics and physics in general.
• Similarity analysis, which is the theoretical basis for scaling of experiments from “small
scale” to “full scale”.
We start with the two latter items due to their importance also for single phase theory
presented in this chapter.
3.1 Dimensional analysis and similarity

Dimensional analysis is simply an application of the principle of ”dimensional homogeneity”,
which means that the right hand side (rhs) and left hand side (lhs) of any physical equation
should be identical concerning units.
Example 3.1: Hydrostatic pressure

Derive the equation for hydrostatic pressure (P) in a fluid, based on fluid density (ρ),
gravitational acceleration (g) and depth in the fluid (h ).
Solution: Assume there is a polynomial dependence of P on the other quantities.
Thus P = ρ a ⋅ g b ⋅ h c The trivial solution for the exponents a, b and c to ensure dimensional
homogeneity is a = b = c =1. Check this for yourself, based on the units!
Thus the well known law P = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h may be derived on pure dimensional arguments. This
case is very simple and transparent, but even when many quantities enter a problem it is still
possible to apply dimensional homogeneity. This is the message of Buckinghams Π-theorem,
which will be discussed in the following section.
3.1.1 The Buckingham Π - theorem
The Π-theorem can be expressed in the following apparently insignificant way:
“Assume a process or phenomenon is described by n quantities Q1, …, Qn, which may be

pressure, density, velocity, etc. These quantities are in turn assumed to contain m different
units U1, …, Um (in most cases only combinations of meter, seconds, kilograms in the MKSA
system).
The process can instead be described by n-m dimensionsless groups Π1, …, Πn - m. “
However, this is in many cases a powerful tool to establish correlations in fluid mechanics.
Example 3.2: Prove the Buckingham Π-theorem.

Solution: Here we only give hints to solution. The most common way is by using a derivation
of the theorem which states that it is possible to express one of the dimensionless quantities
by the remaining n-m-1 quantities.
A particular form is the polynomial: Π 1 = Π α2 ,..., Π ωn− m (3.1)
42 Chapter 3 Single phase flow hydrodynamics Version 2017/1
A more general form is: [ ]

Π 1 = f Π 2 ,..., Π n − m (3.2)
The proof is straightforward when the polynomial is written in terms of units. A particular
proof is given by Rayleighs method. This method assumes a polynomial combination to
express one of the quantities (e.g. Q1) in terms of the remaining n-1 quantities as suggested in
example 3.1. Dimensional homogeneity imposes a relation between the n-1 exponents that
appear on the rhs of the equation. This leads to a system of m linear equations in terms of the
exponents, one for each unit. However, the system is underdetermined if n > m. Thus only m
exponents can be found, the other n-m-1 must be assigned some arbitrary constant.
From these the other m exponents may be expressed. The rest of the proof is left to the reader.
Note that Buckinghams Π-theorem can also be proved by making a product of all the
quantities as Q1a …Qnw and require the total product (Π) to be dimensionless, hence the Π in
the name of the theorem. This proof is nearly identical to the one given by Rayleighs method.
Example 3.3: Hanging pendulum

Determine the equation for the oscillation period of the hanging pendulum, in terms of
pendulum (wire) length and gravitational constant. Friction is neglected.
Solution: A hanging pendulum with small amplitude has a period of oscillation T, which
depends on wire length l and gravitational constant g. Using Rayleigh’s method we write
T = k ⋅ ga ⋅lb
where k is a dimensionless constant that serves the sole g l

θ
purpose of giving a correct numerical value for T.
The dimensions for T, g and l are as shown in the table
to the right. In terms of units we then obtain
a
s = (ms −2 ) ⋅ m = m a +b ⋅ s −2 a
b
 l Quantity Dimension
g
Thus we obtain the set of linear equations T s

second: 1 = -2a g m/s2
meter: 0 =a+b l m
l
with solution a = -½ and b = ½. Thus we get : T = k
g
By solving the equation of motions for the pendulum, we obtain the exact solution
1 l
T=
2π g
It is not possible to obtain the value of the constant k from dimensional analysis alone.
Experiments are required to determine k. A more complex relation is given in the next
example.
Example 3.4 Friction factor in pipe flow

Flow friction is related to the shear stress, τw , at the wall. Shear stress in turn is found to
depend on average flow velocity (U), fluid viscosity (µ), density ( ρ ) and pipe diameter ( D ).
Determine the relation between τw and the other quantities.
Solution: We may apply the technique based on the total Π product in Buckinghams theorem
to determine the relation between τw and the other quantities. There are n = 5 quantities in
this problem, with only m = 3 fundamental units. We then expect n-m = 2 dimensionless
groups Π1 and Π2 from the analysis, thus there will be a relation
Π 1 = f (Π 2 )
We form a total product of all the quantities Quantity kg m s exponent

and write τ a ⋅ U b ⋅ ρ c ⋅ µ d ⋅ D e = Const τ 1 -1 -2 a
where a, … , e are unknowns to be U 0 1 -1 b
determines. We substitute units into the ρ 1 -3 0 c
product and get 3 equations relating the µ 1 -1 -1 d
exponents, one for each unit. The units for the D 0 1 0 e
quantities given in the following table.
We then obtain the following underdetermined set of equations:
kg: a+c +d = 0
m: -a + b – 3c – d + e = 0
s: -2a – b – d = 0
Solution:
Only 3 equations allow only three unknowns to be determined, c = A+B
while two must remain undetermined. We may choose these two d = – 2A – B
to be e.g. a = A, b = B and obtain for the other: e = 2A + B
Matlab example: Use Matlab to find the solutions of the underdetermined system using the
Symbolic Toolbox.
Solution: The substitution of a = A and b = B is shown in the Matlab program below.

Variables involving symbolic calculations can be handled by Matlabs Symbolic Toolbox if
declared as symbolic, using the function “sym” (for declaring a single variable) or “syms”
(multiple variables).
% Equation system:
% kg: A + c+d =0
% m: -A + B - 3c - d + e = 0
% s: -2A - B -d =0
% Moving the constants A and B to the RHS, gives the equation system
% 1c + 1d + 0e = -A
% -3c - 1d + 1e = A-B
% 0c - 1d + 0e = 2A+B
% So the system becomes
% LHS*x = RHS, where
% LHS = ( 1 1 0)
% (-3 -1 1)
% ( 0 -1 0)
clc
syms A B x
LHS = sym([1,1,0;-3,-1,1;0,-1,0])
INVLHS = inv(LHS)
RHS = sym([-A;A-B;2*A+B])
x = INVLHS*RHS
The result of the calculation is shown in the Command Window of the Matlab GUI in the
figure below. Check that the solution is the same as given on the previous page.
Dimensionless groups
Substituting the values for a,…,e into the original product, and collecting terms with
corresponding exponents, we get:
A B
τρD 2  UρD 
 µ2  ⋅  µ  = Π

 
Π1 Π2
We see immediately that Π2 is the Reynolds number. However, Π1 is not easily recognizable,
although the solution is correct.
Note! Always verify the solution by checking that the groups are dimensionless.
1
We have found previously in chapter 2 that τ = f ⋅ ρU 2
2
where f is a function of the Reynolds number. We can obtain the form by combining Π1 and
Π1 τ
Π2 into a new group: Π= ′ =
1
Π2 2
ρU 2
Check this. This illustrates a fundamental and important property of solutions obtained:
From one set of dimensionless groups Π 1 ,  , Π N , we may always form a new set Π 1′ ,  , Π ′N
by recombination of groups from the first set by the fundamental operations of calculus (+, - ,
* , and / ).
3.1.2 Similarity
Similarity is a concept which in physics has a meaning roughly equivalent to its mathematical
origin. Two different physical systems A and B are similar provided they have:
1. Geometrical similarity: Length ratios and angles in A are the same as in B.

2. Kinematical similarity: Velocities ratios in A are the same as in B
3. Dynamical similarity: Force ratios in A are the same as in B.
3.1.3 Similarity in flow based on Navier-Stokes equation

A physical system may be described by its equations of motion. Examples are Newtons 2.law
in mechanics and Navier-Stokes equations in fluid mechanics. We will study how the ratio
between forces in a fluid system appears naturally from the equations of motion when we
make them dimensionless. The ratios between forces appear in dimensionless groups of the
type we found in dimensional analysis, e.g. the Reynolds number. Consider the Navier-Stokes
equation
 
∂u   
ρ + ρ u ⋅ ∇u = -∇p + µ ∇ 2 u - ρg iy
∂t

The equation may be written more compact by introducing the material derivative, e.g. for u
 
Du ∂u  
= + u ⋅ ∇u
Dt ∂t
Thus we may write
 
Du 
ρ = -∇p + µ ∇ 2 u - ρg iy
Dt
This equation is made nondimensional by introducing dimensionless quantitites for length,
time, velocity and pressure as shown in the table below
Quantity Characteristic quantity Dimensionless quantity

 
Length L x′ = x / L
 
Velocity U u′ = u /U
Time L/U t ′ = tU / L
Pressure ρU2 p ′ = p / ρU 2
In most cases of pipe flow, the pipe diameter is used as characteristic length L, while U is the
mean flow velocity. The characteristic pressure is taken as the dynamic pressure 12 ρU 2 , since
the static pressure is of no relevance, at least in incompressible flow. By introduction of the
appropriate dimensionless quantities we obtain

U 2 Du ′ U2 µU  
ρ ⋅ = -ρ ∇ ′p ′ + 2 ⋅ ∇ ′ 2 u ′ - ρg iy
L Dt ′ L L
or by reorganizing

Du ′ µ  gL 
= -∇ ′p ′ + ⋅ ∇ ′ 2 u ′ - 2 iy
Dt ′ ρUL
 U

1 / Re 1/Fr
Thus we have obtained a dimensionless equation where the viscous term is divided by the
Reynolds number. The flow conditions are thereby introduced in this prefactor. The higher the
Reynolds number, the less important is the viscous term. Correspondingly, we find the Froude
number (or rather the inverse)
U2
Fr =
gL
as a prefactor to the hydrostatic term. Thus a high Fr makes the gravitational forces less
important. From this analysis we see that the physics of a problem depends only on the Re and
Fr, since the equations are otherwise identical.
Exercise: Derive the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation
µU
Exercise: Scale P using instead of ρU 2 . Show that in this case the Reynolds number
D
will appear associated with the convective term. In addition show that the gravitational term
now gets associated with a Stokes number instead of the Froude number.
Example 3.5: Slug flow in a full scale two phase flow pipe S is investigated by a small scale
model pipe M. In both cases oil is used as liquid. The pipe diameter in S is D and in M it is d.
Determine whether it is possible to obtain equal value of Reynolds number and Froude
number in the two systems.
Solution: The Froude number and Reynolds number are seeked equal in the two systems. The
oil has density ρ and viscosity µ. Thus;
ρUD ρud
1. Re S = ↔ = Re M which requires that U . D = u . d or U = u . d/D
µ µ
2 2
U u U 2 u2
2. FrS = ↔ = FrM which requires =
gD gd D d
d2 1
Substituting U from 1 into 2, we obtain 3 = which implies d = D. Thus with only one
D d
fluid we cannot obtain dynamical similarity in the two systems.
Example 3.6: We reconsider the previous example and want to investigate slug flow in S by
the small scale model pipe M. The full scale system contains oil, while water is used for S.
In this case we require also the Weber number to be identical in the two systems. Is it possible
to have equal value of all three numbers? And, can water be used as test fluid?
Solution: The Weber number is defined by

ρU 2 d
We =
σ
where σ is the surface tension. We now require
ρ UD ρ ud ρ µ d d
1. Re S = S ↔ M = Re M equivalent to U = M ⋅ M ⋅ ⋅ u = K ⋅ ⋅ u
µS µM ρS µS D D
U2 u2
2. FrS = ↔ = FrM
gD gd
ρ U 2D ρ u 2d
3. WeS = S ↔ M = WeM
σS σM
Having chosen a model liquid, we have fixed ρ M , µ M and σ M . Thus in 1, K is fixed.
Substituting for U from 1 into 2 and 3, we get
K 2d 2 1
• 2’: 3
= which implies that D 3 = d 3 K 2 . This may together with the substitute
D d
for U into 3 to give:
ρS 4/3 ρM ρS ρM µM 4/3 ρM
• 3’: K = or equivalent: ( ⋅ ) =
σS σM σ S ρS µS σM
σM ρ µ
This gives the final scaling relation: ( ) ⋅ ( M )1 / 3 ⋅ ( M ) 4 / 3 = 1
σS ρS µS
which should be used for selecting the test fluid. For water and oil we have typical
fluid properties as in the table below
Fluid Density Viscosity Surface tension

(kg/m3) (mPa.s) (N/m)
Oil 800 2 30
Water 1000 1 70
The left side of the scaling relation then yields a value 0.997 d = D / K2/3 = 0.13 D
which is a fairly useful approximation although not perfect. u = U D/d = K2/3 U = 7.7 U
However this implies that K = 1.6 and consequently
This means that the diameter is downscaled to 13% while the velocity is nearly 8 times higher
than in the full scale case. As an alternative to selection of testfluid one may select the test
pipe diameter. In this case however, conditions will be put on density, viscosity and surface
tension. This might not be possible to fulfill in all cases. Thus fluid choice might be more
attractive in cases like this. Note also that it is not in all cases that the scaling relation can be
fulfilled.
Exercise: In another application the test fluid may be freely chosen, while diameter in the test
system is fixed. Derive the scaling relation for dynamical similarity if only the Reynolds
number and the Weber number is of importance.
3.1.4 Important dimensionless groups in fluid dynamics

A short survey of important dimensionless groups is presented here for reference.
ρUD
• Reynoldsnumber Re = expresses the relation between inertia forces and viscous
µ
forces. Here D is a characteristic length which is typical or important for the flow (pipe
diameter, obstruction size, liquid depth, etc.). In many cases there may be several
dimensions describing the problem. In that case also several Reynoldsnumbers will appear
in the problem, or the Reynoldsnumber may be expressed in terms of several
characteristic lengths. For flow in annulus there will be two length scales, due to an outer
and inner diameter. When the Reynoldsnumber is small, the dissipative (viscous)
mechanisms are important, provided the flow does not involve to strong gradients in space
and time. At high Reynoldsnumbers (typically > 4000) the flow becomes turbulent.
U2
• Froude number Fr = gives the ratio between inertia forces and gravity forces (or
gD
buoyancy). The Froude number is imprtant in flows involving gravity waves. Fr may
describe the degree of wave resistance against a ship hull, as well as the degree of
slugging in a horizontal pipe line. It may be interpreted as the ratio of flow velocity U to
the velocity of long gravity waves on shallow water. When the Froude number is small the
gravity forces keep the liquid interface between two fluids plane. While at large Fr the
dynamical pressure ρU 2 starts to dominate and waves are easily generated
ρU 2 D
• Weber number We = is the ratio between dynamical forces and surface tension. A
σ
drop with diameter D falling with a velocity U in air will be closely spherical if the Weber
number is small. In horizontal stratified wavy two phase flow the Weber number could be
given by the flow velocity U and D being either the pipe diameter, the liquid height or a
typical wavelength or amplitude. At large values of We the capillary effects are small,
while they will dominate at small We.
D
• Strouhal number Str = f is associated with the characteristic frequency that is
U
generated when a fluid stream passes a restricting bluff body. If D is the dimension of the
restriction and the flow velocity is U, the Str may be used to relate the frequency at
various flow velocities, since it is found that Str is practically constant over large domain
of Reynolds numbers. This is applied in the Vortex meter for flow measurement. It
consists of a pipe segment with flanges to be fit to the pipeline where measurement is to
be carried out. Inside the meter a rod (“bluff body”) is placed transverse to the flow. In
turbulent flow where the effect of viscosity is small, a pressure oscillation is set up
between the two lateral sides of the rod. This is well known as the “singing” around house
corners and flag rods. The frequency may be detected by a ∆P pressure sensor or a
D
microphone. The velocity is then calculated as U = ⋅f
Str
µU
• Stokes number Sto = expresses the friction forces relative to gravity forces.
ρgD 2
U
• Mach number Ma = where c is the sonic velocity in a flowing medium. At supersonic
c
flow shock waves become an important characteristic of the flow.
3.2 Viscous flow

In this section we will primarily study viscous flow. In the next section turbulence will be
studied. The Navier-Stokes equation
 
∂u   
ρ + ρ (u ⋅ ∇)u = -∇p + µ ∇ 2 u - ρg iy
∂t
 
contains a “troublesome” term ρ (u ⋅ ∇)u most often referred to as the convective term. This
apparently simple term actually is a sum of 9 individual terms. Physically speaking it is
responsible for viscous instability and is the ”reason for existence” of turbulence. It mixes the
local flow velocity components with all the derivative of the velocity components. Expressed
in another way, the flow velocity in a given direction is coupled to the transversal velocity
components and can be free within the limits set by the continuity equation. Transverse
instability is not appreciable at low Reynolds numbers because it would set up excessive shear

flow which is effectively damped by the viscosity term µ∇ 2 u . At a critical Reynolds number
the inertial energy in the flow becomes strong enough to sustain
instabilities and make them ”live” long enough to generate new Turbulence transition
instabilities. Normally one refers to a transition region of Re 2000 < Re < 4000
for transition to turbulence from 2000 to 4000.
As Re increase beyond 4000 the instabilities become more and more pronounced. We need
Reynolds numbers higher than 105 - 106 to obtain what is sometimes referred to as isotropic
homogeneous turbulence. This is an idealised picture of turbulence which will be discussed in
more detail in the section about turbulent flow.
In steady state laminar one dimensional flow (straight pipe) we may neglect the convective
term. However in expanding or contracting pipe sections this term is important, and it will
occur in connection with Bernoullis equation.
Example: Derive the friction factor for steady-state laminar flow from the Navier-Stokes
equation.
Solution:
From Navier-Stokes equation we may in this case neglect both the explicit time derivative
term as well as the convective term. Thus the whole left hand side vanishes. Since we intend
to study only the frictional forces the gravitational force may be neglected as well, and we
have
 
0 = -∇p + µ ∇ 2 u or ∇p = µ ∇ 2 u
This is a vector equation, but we will consider only one dimensional flow in the z-direction
(cylinder coordinates) along the pipe. Since the flow is assumed uni-directional the other
components are zero ( u r = uθ = 0 ). In a circular pipe the steady-state solution for flow
velocity u z (r ) is only dependent on r (distance from pipe centre). We consider then only the
component of the above simplified Navier-Stokes equation in z-direction which becomes
∂P 1 ∂ ∂u z (r )
( r ) = µ[ (r )]
∂z r ∂r ∂r
This equation is solved to obtain the velocity profile u z (r ) in terms of pressure gradient. Next
we integrate the velocity profile to find the average pipe flow velocity U in terms of the
pressure gradient. This relation is then simply reordered to express pressure gradient in terms
of U.
r ∂P ∂ ∂u (r )
• Rearranging the equation yields (r ) = (r z ) , which may be integrated to
µ ∂z ∂r ∂r
1 r ∂P ∂u (r )
give (r ) = z . This equation may be used to find u z (r ) , renamed simply to
2 µ ∂z ∂r
1 r ∂P
u(r) by rewriting it in differential form: du (r ) = (r ) ⋅ dr
2 µ ∂z
• By integration from pipe centre (r’ = 0 ) to pipe wall (r’ = r), we obtain:
1 r ′ ∂P 1 r 2 ∂P
r r
∫0 du (r ) = u (r ) − u (0) = ∫ 2 µ ∂z (r ′) ⋅ dr ′ = 4 µ ∂z
From this expression u(0) is determined by the condition that u(r=R) = 0. Thus
1 R 2 ∂P
u (0) = −
4 µ ∂z
which is replaced in the previous equation to give
1 R 2 ∂P r r
u (r ) = − [1 − ( ) 2 ] = u max [1 − ( ) 2 ]
4 µ ∂z R R
which shows that the velocity profile is parabolic with the
maximum at the pipe centre. In one-dimensional flow the
Why is umax apparently
partial derivative may be replaced by ordinary derivative,
negative?
thus
1 R 2 dP
u max = −
4 µ dz
• Integrating the velocity profile over the pipe cross section (area integration) we have
1
R
2π u max R r dP 2π 1 4 1 4
U = ∫ u (r )2πr ⋅ dr = ∫ [1 − ( ) 2 ]r ⋅ dr = [ R − R ]
A0 A 0 R dz 4 Aµ 4 2
dP R 2
Since A = πR2 we get U = − ⋅ . By reordering and simple manipulation we get
dz 8µ
dP 8µ 4 16 1
= 2 ⋅U = ⋅ ⋅ ρU 2
dz R D ρUD 2
µ
When we compare this result with the general expression from chapter 1 and from the
dimensional analysis,
dP 4 1
= ⋅ f ⋅ ρU 2 16
dz D 2 f =
ρUD
we obtain the friction factor in laminar flow as an exact µ
analytical result
3.2.1 Some other important relations for laminar flow
Average velocity related to the maximum of the velocity profile
Cross sectional integration (averaging) of the velocity profile give, from the previous section
u max R r 2 1
=U 2 ∫ [1 − ( ) ]2π=
r ⋅ dr u max
πR 0 R 2
This applies in steady state laminar pipe flow. Note however that the laminar profile may be
disturbed e.g. by bends or restrictions (valves). Thus this result and also the laminar flow
profile are restricted to stabilised situations.
Pump effect
dP
Pumping with constant velocity U gives rise to a steady state pressure gradient along the
dz
pipe (note that in most of this book we use x as the flow direction). The pumping effect PE
may be expressed as: PE 1 = work done pr. unit time = pump force times flow velocity.

work in time dt
F ⋅ dx dP
Thus PE = = F ⋅U = ⋅ L ⋅ A ⋅U ∝ K ⋅U 2
dt
 dz
 
time pump force in pipe
with length L
Here we have used the previous result that the pressure gradient is proportional to U, thus K
now contains all other quantities than U. The first part of this equation applies to all steady
state situations, even turbulent flow. However, the latter part PE=K.U2, is the laminar relation.
It is found in the next sections that the pressure gradient is proportional to U1.8 in strong
turbulence, thus the appropriate expression for effect would be PE=K.U2.8.
1
The symbol used for effect is normally P. However P is here used for pressure, thus PE is used here to avoid
confusion.
Matlab example: Find the average velocity U from the laminar velocity profile using the
Symbolic Toolbox.
Solution: We use the int function from the Symbolic Toolbox, integrating definite from r=0
to r=R as shown in the small Matlab program below (left window). The result is shown in the
Command Window of the Matlab GUI.
% Area average of the velocity profile

% u(r)= umax *(1-(r/R)^2)
clear
clc
syms umax r R
K = umax/(pi*R^2)
% Area average
U = K * int((1-(r/R)^2)*2*pi*r,r,0,R)
3.3 Turbulent flow

From a fluid engineering point of view the most dramatic effect of turbulence is the strong
increase of friction. This may be seen e.g. in the plot of friction factor in chapter 2. This
increase may be understood when the velocity profile is considered.
In developed turbulent flow the common way to express the velocity profile is based on the
power law form:
r n
u (r ) = u max [1 − ]
R
where n ranges from 1/5 in weak turbulence, to 1/7 in strong turbulence. Compared to the
parabolic laminar flow profile the turbulent profile is flat with a relatively higher velocity
closer to the pipe wall. Thus the velocity has to fall to zero at the wall in a much shorter
distance. Thus the shear becomes stronger, and with it the friction.
Another important feature is the relation between cross sectional average velocity and pipe
centre line velocity (umax). It is shown later that
2u max
U= for the turbulent flow profile.
(n + 1)(n + 2)
Statistical aspects of turbulent flow

The velocity components fluctuate in turbulent flow. The fluctuations are largely random, i.e.
there is no way to predict the time variation. One may only describe average values.

For steady-state situations it is useful to describe the velocity at a given position r at a given
instant t, as a sum of an average velocity and a fluctuation. For space component i (i = x, y, z)
we may write
Rules for averaging operation on statistical variables
  
u i (r , t ) = U i (r , t ) + u ′(r , t ) i
1. Additive and commutative rule:
The average velocity is calculated as u+v = u + v = v + u
2. Distributive rule + constant exiting average:
  1
t
 k ⋅ (u + v) = k ⋅ u + k ⋅ v
U i (r , t ) = u i (r , t ) ≡ ∫ u i (r , t ′) ⋅ dt ′
T t −T 3. Associative rule – role of constant k and function w:
Time averaging u follows the same k ⋅ (u ⋅ v) = k u ⋅ v and (u ⋅ v) ⋅ w = u ⋅ (v ⋅ w)
simple rules as averages u discussed 4. Dependent stochastic variables: u ⋅ v ≠ u ⋅ v
in chapter 1.
< > is a general averaging symbol. Time averaging is just a special
type of averaging.
Exercise:
Show that u i′ (r , t ) = 0 . Show also that for two stochastic functions f and g defined by
f = f + f ' and g = g + g ' , we have the relation f ⋅ g = f ⋅ g + f ′ ⋅ g′
We will return to a statistical description later in this chapter, where it will be shown that
turbulent shear stress arises as naturally by time averaging of the Navier-Stokes equation.
3.3.1 Roads towards turbulence

As the Reynolds number Re increases, there are various instabilities that arise which may lead
to turbulence at the critical Re. An important instability in pipe flow is detachment, or
boundary layer separation. This is well known e.g. as winds blow over small fences. It is also
an important aerodynamic property for aeroplane wings and cars, since detachment leads to
downstream eddies and therefore influence air resistance.
Other types of instabilities are large scale instabilities which may occur in shear fields in the
vicinity of walls. These are small amplitude waves transverse to the main flow direction
known as Tollmien-Schlichting waves. At higher Reynolds numbers theses waves develop
into turbulent eddies. Ragnar Fjørfoft a Norwegian meteorologist, showed that a necessary
condition for instability of the laminar velocity profile is the creation of an inflection point.
3.3.2 The structure of turbulence
In developed turbulence the wall shear rates du dy

and transverse eddy momentum is so high that
instabilities cannot be damped by viscous dissipation. Turbulence is therefore primarily a wall
phenomenon, although the turbulent eddies spread into the central part of the pipe, and there
initiates new eddies. However, experiments also show that although the turbulence is created
near the wall, the zone very the wall is laminar. This is called the viscous or laminar sub-
layer. In this layer the flow velocity is very small (zero at the wall) and thus easily damped by
the viscosity. This leads to a more complicated total velocity profile than discussed initially in
this section. As a preliminary summary we have
• The fully turbulent zone. This zone - which covers most of the pipe cross section - is
adequately described by the powerlaw profile. Note however, that the flow profile is a
time averaged picture. At a certain instant the profile may differ very much from the
idealised mathematical expression.
• In a transition zone close to the wall, typically a millimeter away, the power-law relation
must cease. One may easily show that the power law profile leads to infinite shear forces
at the wall, and thus is mathematically unfavourable. Here we find a transition zone before
we enter the
• The laminar or viscous sub- layer immediately outside the wall. Here the shear stress may
be assumed to be constant. Thus the velocity profile must be a linear function of distance
from the wall.
The turbulent zone

du 2
For fully turbulent flow the shear stress can be modelled as τ = ρ l 2 ( ) .
dy
Here l is a length which is connected to the size of the turbulent eddies and is often referred to
as Prandtl’s mixing length. This expression allows us to calculate l as a function of r. In
steady-state turbulent flow this is easily calculated by force balance considerations.
Exercise: Derive Prandtl’s mixing length in steady-state turbulent flow as a function of

distance r from the pipe centre.
Solution: We first show that τ is a function of r. Since the velocity profile u( r) is known, it
dy and then l follows immediately. To find τ consider a section
is straightforward to calculate du
of the pipe having length L and cross section area A. The pipe radius is R and the perimeter
associated with R is O. In steady-state flow the friction force balances the pressure force, thus
dP dP R
τw ⋅O ⋅ L = ⋅ A⋅ L →τw = ⋅ where we use O = 2πR and A = πR 2
dx dx 2
and τw = τ(R) is the shear stress at the wall. In steady-state flow this also applies to any fluid
cylinder segment inside the pipe.
Assuming a fluid cylinder with radius r we get (using o = 2π r )
dP dP r
τ (r ) ⋅ o ⋅ L = ⋅ a ⋅ L → τ (r ) = ⋅
dx dx 2
We thus get that the shear stress is proportional to the distance from the centre of the pipe
r y
τ (r ) = τ W ⋅ = τ W ⋅ (1 − )
R R
du
where y = R-r is the distance from the pipe wall. Combining this with τ = ρ l 2 ( ) 2
dy
we get the relation
τW y y
(1 − ) u * (1 − )
ρ R R
l= =
du du
( ) ( )
dy dy
τW
The quantity u* = is called the friction velocity or sometimes the wall-friction velocity,
ρ
since it is defined by the friction and having dimension of velocity. If the velocity profile is
known, it is straightforward to calculate du
dy
. The friction velocity can be calculated from the
pressure gradient and the density ρ. The mixing length is of technical importance in many
situations ranging from chemical reaction speed in chemical plants, burning velocity in
combustion, friction factor in pipe flow as well as mixing and dispersion of gas bubbles in
two-phase flow.
The viscous sub-layer

In the viscous sub-layer the flow is laminar, thus the relation between shear-stress and shear
rate is as follows
du
τW = µ = const
dy
The velocity at the wall is zero, and we obtain the velocity profile
du τW τW u *2 ⋅ y µ
u( y) = ⋅y= ⋅y= ⋅y= where ν = is the kinematic viscosity
dy µ ρ ⋅ν ν ρ
We may introduce the dimensionless velocity u+ and distance y+, which gives the
dimensionless profile
u u *⋅y Laminar layer velocity profile : u + = y +

u+ ≡ = ≡ y+ thus
u* ν
The viscous layer is very thin, typically having a dimensionless thickness yW+ = 11.6 .
Other researchers state the value yW+ = 5 .
This profile is often referred to as “law of the wall”.
The turbulent layer

The turbulent velocity profile may be determined from the previous relation
u * (1 − Ry )
l=
du
( )
dy
If we restrict the analysis to regions close to the wall (typically y/R < 0.01) we may write
du
u* = l ⋅ ( )
dy
Prandtl hypothesised that the mixing length increased with distance from the wall in this
region, l = k.y. Prandtl’s student Nikuradse in his measurements(1930) found k = 0.4. By
inserting l, and rearranging the equation we obtain the differential equation
u * dy
du = ⋅
k y
u*
By indefinite integration we obtain u ( y ) = ⋅ (ln y + C ) . The constant C is found by using
k
u*
the condition u = umax at y = R (pipe centre), thus u max = ⋅ (ln R + C )
k
By taking the difference between the two expressions, we obtain
u max − u 1 R
= ln( )
u* k y
Inserting the value 0.4 for k and using Briggs’ logarithm this transforms to
u max − u R
≈ 5.76 lg( )
u* y
Note that umax is developed for the near wall region and therefore not really comparable to the
umax for the full pipe profile. It will be removed from the equations by requiring that the
velocity profile of the laminar and turbulent regions is continuous:
Connecting the laminar and turbulent regions

u
The two velocity profiles must equal at the edge yw of the laminar region, where = 11.6
u*
Combining with the turbulent solution at y = yw, we get
u ( y w ) u max R u max R
= − 5.76 lg( ) = 11.6 thus we find = 11.6 + 5.76 lg( )
u* u* yW u* yw
Also we transform the argument of the logarithm, and get
u( y) y ⋅u *
= 5.5 + 5.76 lg( )
u* ν
or in dimensionless form Turbulent layer velocity profile: u + = 5.5 + 5.76 lg( y + )
This profile is often called “the universal velocity profile”.
A unified near wall profile

The two velocity profiles are continuous at y = yw. However, the derivatives are not
continuous. In the range 5 ≤ y + ≤ 30 , which is referred to as the buffer layer, the velocity
profile is something between linear and logarithmic. Spalding (1961) suggested a single
formula which covers the whole wall region up to y + > 100
+ + − kB  − ku + + (ku + ) 2 (ku + ) 3 
y =u +e e − 1 − ku − −  k=0.4, B=5.5
 2 6 
Note that this equation is transcendent and has to be solved numerically if u+ is to be

calculated as a function of y+. For plotting purposes it may be sufficient to have a relation
between u+ and y+, in which case one may express y+ as a function of u+ as above.
The connection between velocity profile and friction factor

Since friction is related to the shear rate du
dy it is obvious that also the velocity profile and
friction factor must be connected. For power-law velocity profiles of the turbulent type
r
=u(r) u max [1 − ]n
R
it may be shown that it is connected to the Blasius type friction factor f = C ⋅ Re − m by the
m
relation n = . The n = 1/7 velocity profile thus is connected to the m = 0.25 friction
2−m
factor. It is also possible to show that the wall velocity profile is directly related to the
1
Nikuradse-Colebrook friction factor = −0.8 + 2 lg(Re f M )
fM
where fM means that the friction factor is of Moody type.
3.3.3 Turbulence models

It is possible to illustrate the consequence of the Prandtl mixing length in a conceptually
simple way. Assuming turbulence in a shear field with velocity profile u(y), there is a shear
rate du
dy . Consider two nearby points (1) and (2) along a line in y-direction away from the pipe
wall. The distance between the points is l and is taken as representative for the mixing length,
typically the diameter of the turbulent eddies. Then there will be a difference between the
velocities at the two points given by
u ′ = u 2 − u1 .
There is then an obvious relation appearing from the velocity profile
du
u 2 = u1 + ⋅l
dy
If homogeneous isotropic turbulence may be assumed, there are fluctuations in all directions
with the same amplitude, so that v ′ = u ′ . We the have the expression for turbulent shear stress
du 2 du du
τ R = ρ v ′u ′ = ρ (l ) = ( ρl 2 )( )
dy dy dy
du
Comparing this expression with the relation used in laminar flow τ = µ
dy
du
we may write in a similar way a turbulent shear stress τ R = ε
dy
du
where we have introduced the eddy viscosity ε = ρ l 2
dy
We note that the eddy viscosity depends on shear rate and thus in some respect resembles a
non-Newtonian viscosity. However, the analogy with non-Newtonian fluids is superficial. For
ordinary non-Newtonian fluids (polymers) the mechanism is on a molecular level, while the
turbulent eddy viscosity in fact is a consequence of (complete) removal from molecular
viscosity.
Exercise: Find out about the van Driest mixing length in the literature or on internet. (The
van Driest mixing length progressively suppresses the mixing length as y+ diminishes 2.)
Turbulence from time averaging of the Navier-Stokes equation

We will show in a little more rigorous way how the turbulent shear stress τ R arises naturally
by time averaging of the Navier-Stokes equation. It is a vector equation, but for simplicity
(with no loss of generality) we consider only one spatial component ( i ) of the Navier-Stokes
equation. We introduce as defined in the beginning of section 3, the flow variables (pressure
and velocity essentially) as a sum of a mean value and a fluctuation. We use the notation that
the mean value is written with large letters, while time dependent values are written with
small letters. The fluctuations are primed (‘).
Velocity: u i = U i + u i′
Pressure: pi = Pi + pi′
2
Fastflo manual page 212
On macro length scale and limited time resolution it is practically impossible to keep track of
detailed fluctuations. For engineering purposes it is of little interest to keep track of individual
fluctuations. However we shall see that they have large scale consequences, giving rise to new
terms in the Navier-Stokes equation. We consider first the continuity equation under the
assumption that the flow is incompressible.
∂
The continuity equation ∑ ∂x
i
(U i + u i′ ) = 0
i
∂ ∂
can be time averaged to give: ∑i ∂x (U i ) + ∑i ∂x (ui′ ) = 0
i i
The last left side term vanishes because the time average of fluctuations are zero. Furthermore
∂
U i = U i and thus we obtain ∑i ∂x (U i ) = 0
i
∂
Inserting this in the starting equation gives ∑i ∂x (ui′ ) = 0
i
We introduce in similar way average + fluctuation for the Navier-Stokes equation
∂ ∂ (U i + ui′) 1 ∂ ( P + p′) ∂ 2 (U i + ui′)

(U i + ui′) + ∑ (U j + u ′j ) =
− +ν ∑
∂t j ∂x j ρ ∂xi j ∂x 2j
∂
By time averaging and by using the previous result ∑ ∂x
i
(u i′ ) = 0 we obtain the following
i
equation which is form equivalent to the original Navier-Stokes equation.
∂ ∂U i 1 ∂P ∂ 2U i ∂
U i + ∑U j =− +ν ∑ −∑ (u ′j u i′ )
∂t j ∂x j ρ ∂xi j ∂x j
2
j ∂x j
We now consider a steady-state two dimensional system with i = x and j = y, and get
∂U ∂U 1 ∂P ∂ 2U ∂ 2U ∂ ∂
U +V =− +ν + ν − [ (u ′v ′) + (u ′v ′)]
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x  ∂x2
∂y 2
∂
  ∂y
x 
1 2
The terms named 1 and 2 disappear. Both U and u ′v ′ is independent of x.

The two last terms in the remaining equation then give
∂ 2U ∂ 1 ∂ ∂U
ν − (u ′v ′) ≡ [µ − ρ u ′v ′]
∂y 2
∂y ρ ∂y ∂y
The term ρ u ′v ′ is called the Reynolds stress. The negative sign may indicate that the
Reynolds number decreases the viscosity and thereby the friction. However: this is not the
case. One usually finds that u’ and v’ are anti-correlated; thus if u’ is negative v’ is positive
and vice versa. In that case the time average u ′v ′ < 0 and we may write
∂ 2U ∂ 1 ∂ ∂U
ν − (u ′v ′) ≡ [µ + ρ u ′v ′ ]
∂y 2
∂y ρ ∂y ∂y
dU
Total shear stress may then be written τ total = µ + ρ u ′v ′ , which is a sum of viscous and
dy
turbulent shear, as discussed earlier.
3.4 Other important flow phenomena

We include some other important contributions to dynamics in two-phase flow. The most
important basic theory is Bernoullis equation which will be considered briefly. We also
discuss the Marangoni effect which depends on surface tension. Bernoullis equation describes
pressure in flow as a function of velocity changes due to acceleration. It explains a lot of
phenomena like slug flow, aeroplane wing lift, and Venturi flowmeters. The Magnus effect
describes the movement of a rotating ball (e.g. footballs and tennis balls). Transverse forces
arise which causes the ball to move sidewise.
3.4.1 Bernoullis equation

Bernoullis equation
1 2
ρu + p = const
2
is derived straightforward from the Navier-Stokes equation. It expresses simply that the sum
of pressure energy and kinetic energy is constant. Bernoullis equation is valid only if the flow
friction is negligible. Paradoxically, this most often happen in strong turbulence, where the
friction is very strong. Another criterion for validity is that the flow must be steady-state (no
explicit time dependence: ∂∂t = 0 ). The hydrostatic pressure must also be neglected. It is
possible to validate Bernoullis equation
1. Locally: along a stream line

2. Globally: provided the flow is irrotational (defined by ∇ × u = 0 )
This is shown in the following examples.
Stream, streak and path lines:
Example: Show that Bernoullis equation is valid along a • A streamlines picture is created by all
streamline. arrows tangent to the flow at a certain
Solution: Typical for a streamline is that all particles close instant. A good illustration is a aerophoto
to the line flows parallel to the line. We let u be the of a river with rivergrass showing the
instantanous flow
velocity along the streamline, and v be the velocity normal • A streakline picture is set up by all
to the line. The spatial directions are l along the streamline particles which at some earlier time has
and r is normal to the line. We simplify the Navier-Stokes passed through a certain fixed point. This
equation by demanding steady-state and remove viscous is seen in pictures where a path is set up
force and hydrostatic force from dye injected from a needle at some
position
  • A path line is the history line (path) of a
Then we have only ρ (u ⋅ ∇)u = -∇p . In the proposed single particle in a given interval.
coordinate system it becomes For steady state flow streamlines, streak lines
∂ ∂ ∂p ∂p and path lines coincide.
ρ[u + v ](u, v) = −( , )
∂l ∂r ∂l ∂r
∂u ∂u ∂p
We consider only the component along the streamline ρ[u +v ]= −
∂l ∂r ∂l
∂u
Now v = 0 → v =0
∂r
∂u ∂p
The simplified Navier-Stokes equation then becomes ρ ⋅ u =−
∂l ∂l
∂ 1 2
which is equivalent to ( ρu + p ) = 0 .
∂l 2
Bernoullis equation follows immediately from this expression.
The following example illustrates global validity of Bernoulli’s equation.

Example: Show that Bernoulli’s equation is valid generally for a flow if ∇ × u = 0 is fulfilled.
Solution: To prove this result we recall the simplified Navier-Stokes equation
 
ρ (u ⋅ ∇)u = -∇p
  1     1 2
Furthermore we need the vector identity: (u ⋅∇)u ≡ ∇(u ⋅ u ) − u × (∇ × u ) ⇒ ∇u
2 2
The rest of the proof is left to the reader.
The Koanda effect

The Koanda effect is a consequence of
Bernoullis equation. An example of the
Koanda effect is shown in figure 3.13.
A jet coming from a nozzle to the left
on the figure will be drawn towards the
nearest wall. This is caused by a back
flow close to the the wall.
The back flow is set up due to continuity to conserve volume when the fast jet flows forward.
The fluid is caught up by the jet at the exit and accelerates to the right. This requires energy
which is taken from the pressure. A lowered pressure between jet and wall thus forces the jet
to the wall.
Similar phenomena are seen between

two close jets, as illustrated on the
figure to the right. The pressure is
lowered between the two jets due to
the re-circulation zone, and the two
jets may merge into one.
The Magnus force

The Magnus force is an consequence 
of Bernoulli pressure variation for Vrel
rotating bodies moving in fluids. Velocity relative
The transverse Magnus force is given by to surrounding fluid
  
FT = Cρ ⋅ Vrel × ω

Spin ω

where Vrel is the velocity relative to the fluid, 
 FT Magnus force
ω is the particle spin vector, ρ is the density, ( conventional)
and C is a geometry factor of magnitude close to 1.
There are two common flow regimes of the Magnus effect referred to as the
• “positive” or “conventional”, and the
• “negative” or “anomalous”
Magnus effect. These are shown in the next figures. The conventional effect gives the force in
accordance with the above figure. In this case the stagnation point is shifted counter
clockwise, i.e. in the rotation direction, and the “wind speed” as seen from the ball becomes
highest on the “right side” in this figure. The ball moves from right to left in both figures.

FT Turbulent
Laminar separation
separation
Turbulent Turbulent

FT separation separation
a) ”Negative” or ”anomalous” Magnus force b) ”Positive” or ”conventional” Magnus force

( Re<Recr ) (Re>Recr)
The negative Magnus force is observed at low Reynolds numbers. In this case the “wind
velocity” at the ball boundary on the upper side can be lower than the value required for
turbulence, while the lower side develops a turbulent boundary layer due to higher apparent
wind velocity and stronger shear. A turbulent boundary layer dissipates more energy and thus
the pressure is reduced more on the lower side. This causes a downwards deflection.
In dispersed flow with bubbles and droplets the Concentration profile

rotation is normally set up by the velocity profile.
As shown in the figure, a droplet with upward rise
velocity will rotate counter clockwise and will
experience a force directed towards the wall.
This may lead to a higher concentration of bubbles
close to the wall.
In real flows a variety of different concentration
profiles are found. There is a complexity of flow
effects which set up the observed profiles, and even
CFD simulation will have problems with accurate
prediction of dispersed multiphase flow. 
FT
Nevertheless this is an important issue, since
various engineering problems are associated with Wall
the concentration profile. It concerns water droplets Velocity
profile
and wetting of walls, and thus is important for corrosion problems. In the same way it also is
important for erosion caused by particle movement. In gas liquid flow a higher concentration
of gas bubbles close to the wall may reduce the heat conduction between wall and liquid, and
thus influence heat exchangers, and sub-sea pipeline flow temperature.
3.4.2 Flow driven by surface tension

Marangoni convection is flow which is driven by variations in surface tension. Examples are
• “Tear flow” - which can be observed on the wall above the wine in wine glasses.
• Surface movement in Benard convection. This flow is often called Marangoni-Benard
convection.
The “tear flow” in wine glasses is due to a varying alcohol-water concentration in the vapour
over the wine surface. The surface tension is a function of the difference in concentration in
the vapour and in the flow tears.
The surface tension effect in Marangoni-Benard convection is similar to what happens if a

small amount of washing detergent is dropped onto water. If some dust is present on the
water surface, the flow pattern is easily seen.
The figures below illustrate the two types of flow.
Magnified view Cooled free boundary
Tear band Hot spot
Heating from below
a) Marangoni convection b) Marangoni-Benard convection. The hot

in wine glass spot at the top of the liquid has a higher
temperature than the rest of the surface.
The surface tension is lower here than for
colder liquid and the flow from the hot spot
increases compared to if the effect of surface
tension reduction can be neglected.
Matlab example: This last program in this chapter illustrates the graphing and animation
capabilities of Matlab. Run it and watch the figure where particles are following a vortex
stream like flow out of a bathtub.
load wind
[sx sy sz] = meshgrid(80,20:1:55,5);
verts = stream3(x,y,z,u,v,w,sx,sy,sz);
sl = streamline(verts);
iverts = interpstreamspeed(x,y,z,u,v,w,verts,.025);
axis tight; view(30,30); daspect([1 1 .125])
camproj perspective; camva(8)
set(gca,'DrawMode','fast')
box on
streamparticles(iverts,35,'animate',10,'ParticleAlignment','on')
3.5 Turbulence modelling of multiphase flow

Turbulence in multiphase flow is affected by the presence of interfaces and particles. An
indication of the influence is given in the paper quoted below.
Reference: Technical Note: “Law of the wall for two-phase turbulent boundary layers”, A.A.
Troshko, Y.A. Hassan (pdf copy)
3.6 Further references

Turbulence structure
Susan Kurien and Mark A. Taylor: “Direct Numerical Simulations of Turbulence
Data Generation and Statistical Analysis”, Los Alamos Science, pp.142-151, vol 29, 2005
Experimental aspects
Robert Ecke: “The Turbulence Problem - An Experimentalist’s Perspective”, Los Alamos
Science, pp.124-181, vol 29, 2005
Los Alamos Science articles may be obtained free of charge at

http://library.lanl.gov/cgi-bin/getfile?number29.htm
3.7 Exercises
1. Assume that viscous friction F against sphere with diameter d, which moves with constant
velocity v through a liquid with density ρ and viscosity µ .
a) Show that F can be written as
µ  ρvd 
F = 2 ⋅ φ   where φ (x) means “function of x”
ρ  µ 
b) Show that Stokes result for very low velocities: F = 3πµvd is in accordance with the
general formula above.
c) Emerald powder is shaken in a cylinder containing water, and is allowed to settle

afterwards. It was found that all the particles had settled after 1 minute and 40 seconds.
The water depth was 18 cm.
Calculate the smallest particle diameter, by assuming that the particles are spherical. Let
the specific gravity of emerald be 4.0 and water viscosity be 1.2 cP.
(Answer: d = 36.3 microns )
2. Show that wave resistance against a ship hull with length L can be expressed as
 Lg 
R = ρU 2 L2 ⋅ φ  2 
U 
A ship is designed for a standard velocity U = 12.5 m/s. At “corresponding velocity” for a
model at scale 1:40 one finds that wave resistance is 16 N when it is tested in fresh water.
Find the velocity of this model. In addition find the wave resistance for the prototype in
sea water with density ρ = 1025 kg/m3. (Answer: 1.98 m/s, 1050 kN)
3. Show that flow and wave resistance R against a surface vessel can be written as
 ν Lg 
R = ρU 2 L2 ⋅ φ  , 2
 UL U 
where density is ρ , and ν is kinematic viscosity of the liquid. The vessel has a
characteristic dimension l, U is the velocity and g is the acceleration of gravity.
4. A motorboat, 9 m long, is powered by a jet engine and drives at a speed of 320 km/h in
such a way that viscous resistance is negligible compared to wave resistance. A similar
model of the boat is 150 mm long and requires a force of 0.093 N to run on water at
corresponding speed. Calculate corresponding speed and thrust force from the jet.
Neglect air resistance. (Answer: 41.3 km/h, 20.1 kN)
5. Write the convective term in Navier-Stokes equation in full for

• The x-component in Cartesian coordinates
• The r-component in cylinder coordinates
du
6. Calculate the shear stress at the wall based on the equations τ = − µ and τ = f ⋅ 12 ρU 2
dy
in viscous flow. Can these equations be used in turbulent flow?
7. Show that the expressions for heat dissipation pr.unit time in a velocity shear field can be
2
dH  du 
written as = µ   where y is the distance from the wall. Where does the heat come
dt  dy 
from and where does it go?
8. Assume in turbulent flow that we have a “power-law” velocity profile given by

r
u (r ) = u max [1 − ] n . Show for this case that
R
2u max
a) The average velocity U in the pipe will be U =
(n + 1)(n + 2)
b) There will be a relation between the velocity profile and the friction factor
f = C ⋅ Re − m so that n = m/(2-m).
Hint: This may be done by assuming that u( r) is a function of r/R only. Further,
express the shear stress at the wall, τ W , by u( r) and r. Finally, assume that τ W is
explicitly independent of R, so that the exponent for R i the resulting expression for
τ W must be zero.
9. Calculate the thickness yw of the laminar zone in turbulent flow, for the case U = 1 m/s,
pipe diameter D = 10 cm. Density and viscosity is as for water.
10. Calculate ∇ × u (r ) for

a) A wheel which rotates at constant angular velocity ω .
b) Ordinary laminar flow in x-direction close to a wall. Let the x-component u ( y ) be the
only velocity component in the flow, where y is the direction away from the wall.
τ
Show that the absolute value is ∇ × u (r ) = .
µ
11. Explain why Bernoullis equation (“non-viscous”) can be assumed valid in strong
turbulence even though friction is large.
Answer: The condition of no friction for validity of Navier-Stokes equation should be

 
refined. The essential condition is that ∇ × u = 0 . As long as the viscous term µ∇ 2 u is
large compared to the convective term, this is not obeyed. However, as turbulent friction
 
becomes larger, the term ρ (u ⋅ ∇)u becomes more important, and equivalently the
viscous friction becomes negligible.
Matlab problems
12. Redo problem 8a) using Matlab. Hint: part of the Matlab program consists of the lines
K = umax/(pi*R^2)
U = -2*pi*R^2*K*int((s^n-s^(n+1)),s,1,0)
13. Recalculate the curl of u in problem 10 with Matlab.

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Chapter 3 Single phase flow hydrodynamics Version 2017/1 41

3.1 Dimensional analysis and similarity

Example 3.1: Hydrostatic pressure

3.1.1 The Buckingham Π - theorem

The Π-theorem can be expressed in the following apparently insignificant way:

“Assume a process or phenomenon is described by n quantities Q1, …, Qn, which may be

Example 3.2: Prove the Buckingham Π-theorem.

A more general form is: [ ]

Example 3.3: Hanging pendulum

where k is a dimensionless constant that serves the sole g l

Thus we obtain the set of linear equations T s

Example 3.4 Friction factor in pipe flow

We form a total product of all the quantities Quantity kg m s exponent

We then obtain the following underdetermined set of equations:

Solution: The substitution of a = A and b = B is shown in the Matlab program below.

1. Geometrical similarity: Length ratios and angles in A are the same as in B.

3.1.3 Similarity in flow based on Navier-Stokes equation

Quantity Characteristic quantity Dimensionless quantity

Exercise: Derive the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation

Solution: The Weber number is defined by

Fluid Density Viscosity Surface tension

3.1.4 Important dimensionless groups in fluid dynamics

3.2 Viscous flow

3.2.1 Some other important relations for laminar flow

Average velocity related to the maximum of the velocity profile

% Area average of the velocity profile

3.3 Turbulent flow

Statistical aspects of turbulent flow

3.3.1 Roads towards turbulence

3.3.2 The structure of turbulence

In developed turbulence the wall shear rates du dy

The turbulent zone

Exercise: Derive Prandtl’s mixing length in steady-state turbulent flow as a function of

The viscous sub-layer

u u *⋅y Laminar layer velocity profile : u + = y +

The turbulent layer

By taking the difference between the two expressions, we obtain

Connecting the laminar and turbulent regions

Also we transform the argument of the logarithm, and get

or in dimensionless form Turbulent layer velocity profile: u + = 5.5 + 5.76 lg( y + )

This profile is often called “the universal velocity profile”.

A unified near wall profile

Note that this equation is transcendent and has to be solved numerically if u+ is to be

The connection between velocity profile and friction factor

3.3.3 Turbulence models

Turbulence from time averaging of the Navier-Stokes equation

We introduce in similar way average + fluctuation for the Navier-Stokes equation

∂ ∂ (U i + ui′) 1 ∂ ( P + p′) ∂ 2 (U i + ui′)

The terms named 1 and 2 disappear. Both U and u ′v ′ is independent of x.

3.4 Other important flow phenomena

3.4.1 Bernoullis equation

The Koanda effect

Similar phenomena are seen between

The Magnus force

a) ”Negative” or ”anomalous” Magnus force b) ”Positive” or ”conventional” Magnus force

In dispersed flow with bubbles and droplets the Concentration profile

3.4.2 Flow driven by surface tension

The surface tension effect in Marangoni-Benard convection is similar to what happens if a

The figures below illustrate the two types of flow.

Magnified view Cooled free boundary

Tear band Hot spot

Heating from below

a) Marangoni convection b) Marangoni-Benard convection. The hot