B.S Nishat Education

B.
S Nishat Education
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831.1
Q.1: How can we build our education system on the Islamic foundations of educations
ANS: Importance of Education in Islam
Islam is the religion of peace, ^d it is one of the most sacred and trustworthy religions, which has given us guidance
in every aspect of life. Islam has given us education with knowled Quran is the most sacredhich has no limits.
book The
of Allah Holy ,
revealed
on Prophet Muhammad and enriched messages to the humanity. for the upliftment guidance
Education is the knowledge of putting one's potentials to maximum proper right path in this world.
This importance of education is basically ior two reasons. Education makes man a right thinker. Without education,
no one can think properly in appropriate con u. It tells man how to think and how to make
decision. The second reason for the importance of educatic at only through the attainment of education,
man is enabled to receive information from the exter . It is well said that "Without education, man is as though in a
closed roc with education he finds himself in a room with all its windows open towards outside world.
This is why Islam attaches such great import revealed, the first word of its first verse w The reflective book of Holy
Quran is so ri continues forever, this book is not likely to be read to its end. Every day it conveys a new message to
the humanity. Every morning, it gives u^ntwv thoughtful ideas and bound us in the boundaries of ethics.
Islamic Education is one of the best systems of education,nowledge and education.
which makes an ethical When
groomedtheperson
Quran with
beganalltothe
be '
that is, read..
content and meaning that if the history of human thought
qualities, which he/she shou’d have as a hum^ being. The Western world hr TL u the wrong image of Islam in the
world. They don't know that our teachings are directly given to us from Allah, who is the creator of this world, through
our Prophets.
The Muslims all over the world are thirsty of acquiring quality education. They know their boundaries and never try to
cross it. It is the West, which has created a hype that the Muslim are not in a path of getting proper education. They
think that our education teaches us fighting, about weapons, etc., which is so false. This is true that there are certain
elements, which force an individual to be on the wrong path, because as we will mould a child, they will be like that,
but it doesn't mean that our religion teaches improperly to us.
Our Holy Prophet (SAW), said,
Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave.
And:
Seek knowledge even [if it is to be found in a place as distant as China. At the battle of Badr, in which our beloved
Holy Prophet (SAW) gained victory over his foes, seventy people of the enemy rank were taken to prison. These
prisoners were literate x In order to benefit from their education the Prophet declared that if one prisoner teaches ten
Muslim c x ' now to read ^d write, this will serve as his ransom and he will be set free. This was the first school in the
history of Islam established by the Prophet himself with all its teachers being non-Muslims. The Sunnah of the Prophet
shows that education is to be received whatever the risk involved.
Today, the Muslims are acquiring good ideas, thoughts, knowledge, and skills, from all corners of the world. The world
is moving very fast, and in this industrialize world, It is the duty of the teachers to give quality ethical integrated
education to the Muslim students worldwide, because children are invaluable assets of future generations.
The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) encouraged all Muslims to acquire knowledge and share it. He said:
B.S Nishat Education
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"Acquire knowledge, for he who acquires it in the way of Allah performs an act of piety; he who speaks of it, praises
the Lord; he who seeks it, adores Allah; he who dispenses instruction in it, bestows alms; and he who imparts it to
others, performs an act of devotion to Allah." (Bukhari, Muslim)
All the teachers of either secuto or religious education should give more attention to the pupils inside the classroom. It
is necessary that in the Islamic system that we should consider these dear children as our own children, ^d put aside ^1
other considerations, and rise above all such things and realize our duty and our mission. We should raise the stod^ds
of education and attend to the needs of these children. We should realize
our duties with earnestness and awaken to the sense of respcMasjl ility. It has been seen that there are certain uld
teacher who are not fulfilling their duties with keen interest^ w sake like to request all the teachers that for the lildren
of God, for the sake of your revolutionary duty, teach the < with devotion and dedication.
It is important that we advance our work through discussions,

debates, studies, and through proper distribution of work among ourselves.
We must never forget that we are living in an Islamic State, and our aim should be simultane . x io create both an
independent as well as an Islamic culture in character. Independence and richness of content are indeed among the
characteristics of the Islamic culture. Our system is an ideological system.
We should make our child enthusiastic, dynamic, and this search should pervade every corner of our society. We
should aspire them to be truthful and sincere.
Self-sacrifice and generosity, love of freedom, the resolve for resistance and headstrong perseverance, the courage to
welcome martyrdom-all these are the new values of the new generation, which should be taught according to the
teaching of Islam.
Referencesfedit]
A
1. Jump up Jonathan Berkey (2004). "Education". InRichard C. Martin
(ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference USA.
2. A jUmp up to;- ---- Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press (Kindufdition).
p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.
3. A Jump up to:2 - a EppMus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition).
p. 210. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9. '
bcd
4. A Jump up to:a "Islam - History of Islamic Education, Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education".
education.stateuniversity.
5. A Jump up to:a b "Muslim educational attainment around the world". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life
Project. 2016-12-13. Retries '. 1-10.
6. A Jump up to:a b "Economics my limit Muslim women's education wire than religion". Pew Research Center. Retrieved
2019-11-10. "V
7. A "The Muslim gender gap in education is shrinking". Pew Research Center. Rrteieved 2019-11-10.
Q.2: Write a detail note on naturalism?

ANS; In philosophy, naturalism is the idea or belief that only natural (as opposed to supernatural or spiritual) laws and
forces operate in the universe. Adherents of naturalism assert that natural laws are the rules that govern the structure
and behavior of the natural universe, that the changing universe at every stage is a product of these laws.
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Naturalism is not so much a special system as a point of view or tendency common to a number of philosophical and
religious systems; not so much a well-defined set of positive and negative doctrines as an attitude or spirit pervading
and influencing many doctrines. As the name implies, this tendency consists essenti^ly in looking upon nature as the
one original and fundamental source of all that exists, and in attempting to explmn everything in terms of nature. Either
the limits of nature are also the limits of existing reîty, or at least the first cause, if its existence is found necessary, has
nothing to do with the working of nature agencies. All events, therefore, find their adequate explanation within nature
itself. But, as the terms nature ^d natural are themselves used in more than one sense, the term naturalism is also far
from having one fixed meaning.
— Dubray 1911
"Naturîsm can intuitively be separated into an ontological and a methodological component", argues David Papineau.
"Ontological" refers to the philosophical study of the nature of being. Some philosophers equate naturalism with
materialism. For example, philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that nature is best accounted for by reference to material
principles. These principles include mass, energy, and other physical and chemical properties accepted by the scientific
community. Further, this sense of naturalism holds that spirits, deities, and ghosts are not real and that there is no
"purpose" in nature. Such an absolute belief in naturalism is commonly referred to as metaphysical naturalism
Assuming naturalism in working methods as the current paradigm, without the further consideration of naturîsm as an
absolute truth with philosophical entailment, is called methodological naturalism.^
With the exception of pantheists—who oelieve that Nature is identical with divinity while not recognizing a distinct
personal anthropomorphic god—theists challenge the idea that nature contains all of reality. According to some theists,
natural laws may be viewed as secondary causes of God(s).
In the 20th century, Willard Van Orman Quine, George Santayana, and other philosophers argued that the success of
naturalism in science meant that scientific methods should also be used in philosophy. Science and philosophy are sai<|
to form a continuum, according to this view.
Origins and history
The current usage of the term naturîsm "derives from debates in America in the first half of the 20th century. The self-
proclaimed 'naturalists' from that period included John Dewey, Ernest Nagel, Sidney Hook and Roy W
Currently, metaphysical naturalism is more widely embraced than in previous centuries, especially but not exclusively
in the natural sciences and Ihe V v - iierican. analytic philosophical communities. While the vast majority of the
population of the world remains firmly committed to non-naturalistic world views, prominent contemporary defenders
of naturalism 'zo. .alnralislic theses and doctrines today include Kai Nielsen, J. J. C.
Smart, David Malet Armstrong, Da neau, Paul Kurtz, Brian Leiter, Daniel Dennett, Michael Devitt, Fred Dretske, Paul
and Patricia Chun-h. v lario Bunge. Jonathan Schaller. Hilary Kornblith, Quentin Smith, Paul Draper and Michael
Martin, among many other academic philosophers.
According to David Papineau, contempor^y naturalism is a consequence of the build-up of scientific evidence during
the twentieth century for the "causal closure of the physical", the doctrine that all physical effects can be accounted for
by physical causes.
Description
According to Steven Schafersman, naturalism is a philosophy that maintains that;
1. "Nature encompasses all that exists throughout space and time;
2. Nature (the universe or cosmos) consists only of natural elements, that is, of spatiotemporal physical substance—mass-
energy. Non-physical or quasi-physical substance, such
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as information, ideas, values, logic, mathematics, intellect, and other emergent phenomena, either supervene upon the
physical or can be reduced to a physical account;
3. Nature operates by the laws of physics and in principle, can be explained and understood by science and philosophy;
4. The supernatural does not exist, i.e., only nature is real. Naturalism is therefore a metaphysical philosophy opposed
primarily by supernaturalism".
Or, as C^l Sagan succinctly put it: Cosmos is alb lhae is or evee wae or ever will be."
In addition Arthur C. Panto states that Naturalism, in recent usage, is a species of philosophical monism according to
which whatever exists or happens is patural in the sense of being susceptible to explanation through methods which,
^though paradigmatically exemplified in the natural sciences, are continuous from dommn to dommn of objects and
events. Hence, naturalism is polemically defined as repudiating the view that there exists or could exist ^y entities
which lie, in principle, beyond the scope of scientific explanation. Arthur Newell Slrahler stales: "The naturalistic view
is that the particular universe we observe came into existe.. d and has operated through all time and in all its parts
without the impetus or guidance of any supernatural agency." "The great majority of contemporary philosophers urge
that that reality is exhausted by nature, containing nothing ‘supernatural’, and that the scientific method should be used
to investigate all areas of reality, including the ‘human spirit’.” Philosophers widely regard naturalism as a "positive"
term, and "few active philosophers nowadays are happy to announce themselves as 'non-naturalists'".
Providing assumptions required for science
According to Robert Priddy, all scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential assumptions that are
untested by scientific processes; that is, that scientists must start with some assumptions as to the ultimate an^ysis of
the facts with which it de^s. These assumptions would then be justified partly by their adherence to the types of
occurrence of which we are directly conscious, and partly by their success in representing the observed facts with a
certain generality, devoid of ad hoc suppositions ."Kuhn also claims that all science is based on an approved agenda of
unprovable assumptions about the cl,, y r of the universe, rather than merely on empirical facts. These assumptions—a
paradigm—comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques that are held by a given scientific community, which
legitimize their systems and set the limitations to their investigation. For naturalists, nature is the only reality, the
"correct" paradigm, and there is no such thing as 'supernatural'. The scientific method is to be used to investigate all
reality, including the human spirit.
Some claim that naturalism is the implicit philosophy of working scientists, and that the following basic assumptions
are needed to justify the scientific method.
1. that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers. The basis for rationality is acceptance of an external
objective reality." "Objective reality is clearly an essential thing if we are to develop a meaningful perspective of the
world. Nevertheless its o .mence is assumed." Our belief that objective reality exist is an assumption that it arises from
a real world outside of ourselves. As infants we made this assumption unconsciously. People are happy to x is
assumption that adds meaning to our sensations and feelings, than
live with solipsism." Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in our own mind (which
would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else." that this objective reality is
governed by natural laws; Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys to knoweable principles that don't
depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think, know or how we behave. Hugh Gauch
argues that science presupposes that "the physical world is orderly and comprehensible."
2. that reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Stanley Sobottka said: "The
assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish. For the most part, science is the
discovering and explaining of the external world." "Science attempts to produce knowledge that is as universal and
objective as possible within the realm of human understanding."that Nature has uniformity of laws and most if not all
things in nature must have at least a natural cause. Biologist Stephen Jay
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Gould referred to these two closely related propositions as the constancy of nature's laws and the operation of known
processes. Simpson agrees that the axiom of uniformity of law, an unprovable postulate, is necessary in order for scientists
to extrapolate inductive inference into the unobservable past in order to meaningfully study it.
3. that experimental procedures will be done satiefnetorily without any deliberate nr nnintentinaal mistakes that will
influence the results.
4. that experimenters won't be significantly biased by their presumptions.
5. that random sampling is representative of the entirte pqputozon. A simnle random sample (SRS) is the most
rbasic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a popu investigator is guaranteed to choose a he
sample that represents! conclusions.
Metaphysical naturalism
Metaphysical naturalism, also called "ontological natui worldview and belief system that holds that there is
noi kind studied by the natural sciences, i.e., those requirec by mathematical modeling. Methodological ni
methodology of science, for which metaphysis Metaphysical naturalism holds that all propert or supervene
upon, nature. Broadly, the corresponding theological perspective is religious naturalism spiritual
naturalism. More specifically, metaphysical naturalism rejects the supernatural concepts and
benefit of SRS is that the
m" and "philosophical naturalism", is a philosophical g but natural elements, principles, and relations of the to understand
our physical environment
ism, on the other hand, refers exclusively to the
naturalism provides only one possible ontological foundation. related to consciousness and the mind are reducible to,
•responding theological perspective is religious naturalism or
explanations that are part of many religions.

Methodological naturalism______
Methodological naturalism concerns itself with methods of learning whaf m u l is. These methods are useful in the
evaluation of chaims about existence and knowledge and in identifying causal mechanisms responsible for the
emergence of physical phenomena. It attempts to explain and test scientific endeavors, hypotheses, and events with
reference to nature causes and events. This second sense of the term "naturalism" seeks to provide a framework within
which to conduct the scientific study of the laws of nature. Methodological naturalism is a way of acquiring
knowledge. It is a distinct system of thought concerned with a cognitive approach to reality,
and is thus a philosophy of knowledge. Studies by sociok ' Elaine Ecklund suggest that religious scientists in practice apply
methodologies naturîsm. They report . rt religious beliefs affect the way they think about the implications - often moral -
of their work, but not the way they practice science.
Steven Schafersman states that methodological naturalism is "the adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism
within the scientific method with or without fully accepting or believing it... science is not metaphysical and does not
depend on the ultimate troth of ^y metaphysics for its success, but methodological naturalism must be adopted as a strategy
or working hypothesis for science to succeed. We may therefore be agnostic about the ultimate troth of n .m, but must
nevertheless adopt it and investigate nature as if nature is all that there is."
In a series of articles and books from 1996 onward, Robert T. Pennock wrote using the term "methodological naturalism"
to clarify that the scientific method confines itself to natural explanations without assuming the existence or non-existence
of the supernatural, and is no based on dogmatic metaphysics naturalism.
Pennock's testimony as an expert witness at the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial was cited by the Judge in his
Memorandum Opinion concluding that "Methodological naturalism is a 'ground rule' of science today":
Expert testimony reveals that since the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17 th centuries, science has been limited to the
search for natural causes to explain natural phenomena.... While supernatural explanations may be important and have
merit, they are not part of science." Methodological naturalism is thus "a paradigm of

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science." It is a "ground rule" that "requires scientists to seek explanations in the world around us based upon what we can
observe, test, replicate, and verify.
Schafersman writes that "while science as a process only requires methodological naturalism, I think that the assumption of
methodologies naturîsm by scientists and others logically and morally entails ontological naturSism",and "I maintain that
the practice or adoption of methodological naturalism entails a logical and moral belief in ontological naturalism, so they
are not logically decoupled.
Views
Alvin Plantings
Alvin Pl^tinga, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Notre Dame, and a Christian, has become a well-known critic of
naturSism. He suggests, in his evolutionary argument against naturalism, that the probability that evolution has produced
hum^s with reliable true beliefs, is low or inscrutable, unless the evolution of humans was guided (for example, by God).
According to David Kahan of the University of Glasgow, in order to understand how beliefs ê warranted, a justification
must be found in the context of supernatural theism, as in Plantinga's epistemology. Plantinga argues that together,
naturalism and evolution provide an insurmountable "defeater for the belief that our cognitive faculties are reliable", i.e., a
skeptical argument along the lines of Descartes' evil demon or brain in a vat.
Take philosophical naturalism to be the belief that there aren't any supernatural entities - no such person as God, for
example, but also no other supernatural entities, and nothing at all like God. My claim was that natural ism and
contemporary evolutionary theory are ;il serious odds with one another v.' ds despite the fact that the latter is ordinmly
thought to be one of the mmn pillars supporting the edifk ' . . he former. (Of course I am not attacking the theory of
evolution, or anything in that neighborhood; I am instead attacking the conjunction of natwraZzsm wim the view that
human beings have evolved in s ri \ s. I see no similar problems with the conjunction of theism and the idea that human
beings have evolved in the way contemporary evolutionary science suggests.) More particularly, I argued that the
conjunction of naturalism with the belief that we human beings have evolved in conformity with current evolun n g
doctrine... is in a certain interesting way self-defeating or self-referentially incoherent.
—Alvin Plantinga, Naturalism Defeated?: Essays on Plantinga’s Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism,
"Introduction.
Robert T. Pennock
Robert T. Pennock contends that as supernatural agents and powers "are above and beyond the natural world and its agents
^d powers" and "are not constraine ' L A aral laws", only logical impossibilities constrain what a supernatura agent cannot
do. He states: "If we could apply natural knowledge to understand supernatural powers, then, by definition, they would not
b" > m maturS." As the supernatural is necessarily a mystery to us, it can provide no grounds on which one cr m< scientific
models. "Experimentation requires observation and control of the variables.... But by definition we have no control over
supernatural entities or forces." Science does not deal with meanings; the ch > :em of scientific reasoning cannot be used to
define itself. Allowing science to appeal to untestable su t v ral powers would mê the scientist's task meaningless,
undermine the discipline that allows science to mê progress, ^d "would be as profoundly unsatisfying as the ancient Greek
playwright's reliance upon the deus ex machina to extract his hero from a difficult predicament." Naturalism of this sort
says nothing about the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural, which by this definition is beyond natural testing. As
a practical consideration, the rejection of supernatural explanations would merely be pragmatic, thus it would nonetheless
be possible for an ontological supernaturalist to espouse and practice methodological naturalism. For example, scientists
may believe in God while practicing methodological naturalism in their scientific work. This position does not preclude
knowledge that is somehow connected to the supernatural. Generally however, anything that one can examine and explain
scientifically would not be supernatural, simply by definition.
W. V. O. Quine

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W. V. O. Quine describes naturalism as the position that there is no higher tribunal for truth than natural science itself. In
his view, there is no better method than the scientific method for judging the claims of science, and there is neither any
need nor any place for a "first philosophy", such as (abstract) metaphysics or epistemology, that could stand behind and
justify science or the scientific method.
Therefore, philosophy should feel free to make use of the findings of scientists in its own pursuit, while also feeling free to
offer criticism when those claims are ungrounded, confused, or inconsistent. In Quine's view, philosophy is "continuous
with" science ^d are empirical.Naturalism is not a dogmatic belief that the modern view of science is entirely correct.
Instead, it simply holds that science is the best way to explore the processes of the universe ^d that those processes are what
modern science is striving to understand. However, this Quines Replacement Naturîsm finds relatively few supporters
among philosophers.
Karl Popper
Karl Popper equated naturîsm with inductive theory of science. He rejected it based on his general critique of induction .
yet acknowledged its utility as means for inventing conjectures.
A naturalistic methodology (sometimes called an "inductive theory of science") has its value, no doubt.... I reject the
naturalistic view: It is uncritical. Its upholders fail to notice that whenever they believe to have discovered a fact, they have
only proposed a convention. Hence the convention is liable to turn into a dogma. This criticism of the naturalistic view
applies not only to its criterion of meaning, but also to /'a of science,
and consequently to its idea of empirical method.
References [edit]
Audi, Robert (1996). "Naturalism". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). The Encyclopedic ■>, . uosophy Supplement. USA:
Macmillan Reference, pp. 372-374.
Carrier, Richard (2005). Sense and Goodness without God: A defense of Metaphysical Naturalism. AuthorHouse. p. 444.
ISBN 1-4208-0293-3.
Danto, Arthur C. (1967). "Naturalism". In Edwards, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: The
Macmillan. pp^y^450.
Dubray, Charles Albert (1911). "Naturalism" . InHerbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 10. New York:
Robert Appleton Company.
Gould, Stephen J. (1984). "Toward the vindication of punctuati 'ncu change in catastrophes and earth history". In Bergren,
W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. (eds.). Catastrophes and Earth History. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Gould, Stephen J. (1987). Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 119.
Hooykaas, R. (1963). The principle of uniformity in geology, biology, and theology (2nd ed.). London: E.J.
Brill. '
Kurtz, Paul (1990). Philosophical Essays in Pragmatic Naturalism. Prometheus Books.
Lacey, Alan R. (1995). "Naturalism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University
Press. pp. 604-606.
Post, John F. (1995). "Naturalism". In Audi, Robert (ed.). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. Cambridge University
Press. pp.: 7-518.
Rea, Michael (2002). World Wzt/zowt Design: Die Ontological Consequences of Naturalism. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-924760-9.
Sagan, Carl (2002). Cosmos. Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50832-5.
Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton Jr., C. C. (ed.). Fabric of geology. Stanford, California:
Freeman, Cooper, and Company.
Strahler, Arthur N. (1992). Understanding Science: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues. Buffalo: Prometheus Books.
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Stone, J.A. (2008). Religious Naturalism Today: The Rebirth of a Forgotten Alternative. G - Reference, Information
and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. State University of New York Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-79147537-9. LCCN
2007048682.
Web
Schafersman, Steven D. (1996). "Naturalism is Today An Essential Part of Science". Retrieved 3
November 2010.
Q.3: Write a note on realism as a main philosophical thought?

ANS: Realism
philosophy
Philosophizing is the thinking that has 3 e) characteristics, namely radical (thought up by the roots, not half-hearted),
systematic (logical thinking), and universal (think overall). In relation to education, education directly related to the purpose
of life fully understood without understand] The the concept
lives of
of world view and
individuals and society
how the ph philosophy
education. Education of ecan
Fornot
example,
be he s
Discussion a. D real. Realism is realism holds that sensory perception
ultimate als will be can be done „jed and sense
because
eing objects really
t of thought can
sourced exist,
be co
als and regardless
f Realism
views of the senses
The life.
of human term
and the mind that it was him because the object can be investigated, analyzed,
erstoneli setti h studied by science,
oals. Approach to what by
nature discovered
science and
seve ra. ctives
pers iewpoint says that the
inearre
w fcn philo y and education.
in ch a edU
wa omes ilosophy. 2.
from t in "realists" who is to be really, really
hilosophy that assumes that there is a real external world can be recognized. Therefore,
draw a sharp
philosophy.^Realismin various forms .according toâttsoff (1^96^12' knowi followers s S/ormonif
dividing line between the
matter" .... __ )e\eqr allysîid/to be "istic
to is
the spiritual, depending on which one is considered primary. When people say "life tha matter" and becausee soul
the is the
aterial to
material is not likely to have the intent, it is also not possible to have the intent soul. On the other hand if the
material is the soul, the universe can be understood as one that had the purpose or can be said to be "teleological". 1
2. Philosophy Mathematics Achieve and captured the concept in"mi!d that experience. Roses fragranc Realism
acknowledge and which are captured by fives realism, the pu
As a school by the student
of philosophy, things"
realism or "othat there are five senses ere are
holds
the first concer - - ------- - - - ---- - ------- - real
- ------ ____________
there. Example: ______ ™ stone in the
a stumbling ___________________________
road there is a new the nose _ is
principles relating to education. Some basic re principles of educational
re is perched on a tr< realism is as follows:
branch 1.the
Learning
gardentoflowers.
essentially
put the attention on nity
the learner
betwe es as and
it is.understoo
2. Initiatives in education
cation ensia should emphasize education rather of objects
’andexistence
al orand
is exist
will be formulat timal as possible. the *—"~dl
mind ducation According to
rele The b. Rat_
Accor , not something that esc in followers fort to dev , th potential/ of existing and owned
than children. 3. The core of theeducation
educational is what is on
process is the assimilation of the subject matteritythat
thathas
are been
on the
of
determined. Curriculum in organizing and planned with certainty s owner. Therefore, it is natural that
realismby the teacher. Widely material and social
environment, human beings that determines how he should live. haveSome learning principles proposed by Comenius
(Sadulloh, 2003) are: 1. Learning should be based on theagreemen interests of students. Success in learning is not as imposed
from outside, but rather is a result of personal development.t on 2. Each
the subject should have the outline, outline of
teaching and learning, syllabus and lesson plans, and already basic there at the beginning of
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learning. 3. At the beginning of the meeting or the beginning of the lesson, the teacher should convey information
about the outlines of learning that students will learn. 4. Classes should be enriched with pictures maps, photographs,
works of students and everything which is related to the teaching and learning activities provided or performed. 5.
Learning should take place simultaneously with the previous lesson so that it becomes a unified whole and keep abreast
of knowledge on a continuous basis. 2
3. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements 6. Any activities that teachers do with students should be helped to the
development of human nature, and the students pointed to the practical importance of each system value. 7.
Lessons in the same subject is for all learners. c. Fundamental Postulates and Main Tenets 1. Realism tries to build up a
body of systematized knowledge, which is certain and objective and agrees with the standpoint of physical sciences. It
says that every reality ca reasoning, For them, experience is the
e proved by tobservation,
cant determine the objective
experience, truth, the
experiment and scientific one
falling idols and falling ideals/the realists emphasize
of what is thereal.role of intelligence
Whenever as great
the simple and significant, as it formulates
direct experience mmon sense the
concepts and develops gene and objective and say that society should n history. They sh brief,
puts its truth in scientific research. In the present world ofRealism that whatever is
r the knower. (Co
Tenets : 1. Realism believes in the world which
bstractwe see ,2
ideas. of perceive to beofreal.
e realists 2. Realists
all bran tices vi believe
tthose in
, the are
hat values present life. 3.
permanent
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itutions an in the development
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amental
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ishould b e of ‘right e doesnt make reality, he onlyediscovers
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4_Phil
Humanistic Realism Humanistic realism is the reaction against the emphasis on form and style of the old
classical literature. It has great regard for the ancient literature but it emphasizes the study of content and ideas
in the ancient classical literature to understand ones present social life and environment. The aim is not to study the
form and style of old literature to have mastery over it. The study of old literature is a means to understand the
practical life. 2. Social Realism SociaiRealism in education is the reaction against a type of education that produces
scholars and professional men to the neglect of the man of affairs i.e. practice. Education should not produce men who
are unfit in soc practical man of the world. .senses.
The purpos ducation,
Senses are the according totraining
gate sense-realists s< ial realists,
of the is to prepare
and results of theythe
express th e Realism,_ and of knowledge
. _ an sense ism in'l'ducawon j ing takes iphasizes the training
... of the
is the I treasure-house
of education with the humanistic feelings. Theyofconsider r< and
all kn living place
un the
living
op all senses.
nd objective
thisration
kn of According to ined
to tbe organs and the through the
development of organseo-Realism. Neo-Realiand
is the main objective elopment
all round development ppears
•hiloof thedge the
< iJal
objects methods
is tthe e scientific principles
main characteristic
in physics. everlasting while
changeability in them. They support the education of art with the science and analytical system
of education. Bertrand Russel and whitehead were the supporters of this faculty. d. Realism and Aims of education
"Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to them aims are specific to each
individual and his perspectives." (Seetharamu, A.S. : philosophies of Education, p.74). And each one has different
perspectives. The aim of education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to understand the present practical
life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the practical man of the world. 4
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5. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements The science realists expressed that the education should be conducted on
universal basis. Greater stress should be laid upon the observation of nature and the education of science. Neo-realists
aim at developing all round development of the objects with the development of their organs. e. Realism and Methods
of Teaching i. Education should proceed from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. ii. Things before rules
and words. iii. Students to be taught to analyze rather than to construct. iv.
Vernacular to be the medium of instruction. v. The order of nature to be sought and followed. vi. Repetition is
necessary for retention. vii. Individuals experience and spirit of inquiry is more important than authority. viii. No
unintelligent cramming. More emphasis on questioning and understanding. ix. Methods of scientific thinking
formulated by sir Thomas Bacon. x. Social realists follow the method of travel of journey method, which will give real
experience of varied asp and The Teacher 1. A teacher s of should be belief
life improve and rights
knowledge andand dutiesfaculties.
mental of people, a knowledge
f. Realism at he of
present life. 3. He must g nor optimist. 4. He must be
himself beable to should
educated always
and well keepwith
versed in mitheshould
customsbe taught
of d theattrends
one time. 3.
of all
should be given up. 5. Th first and then theageswords. imparted on the basi 6. Philosophy education. 11. The
and places. 2. He must have full mastery of the ide the student towards child should
be told the utility of whatever is taught. 12.the
Thehard
simple rulesofshould
realities life. be
•dsHe defined.
theis neither
hard 13. Allofthelife.
pessimist,
realities subjects
und. shouldent.
A teacher be taught
2. Onein
proper order. 14. Various organs of education eshould
subject betproblems
ractice
children taught in of lifhould
of cramming be introduced
scessary to Jake the knowledge should be
itulation is___ionoe brou| ht up on. le in afte
essure or coerc: niformity the chil
should be the he entire icprincif ilabe gained :thod 6. Thi
should
knowledge rgans. 9. Straight iould be a co-relation between utility in daily life and
ience^
forw ics Achievements 10. ted for teaching.
Then
chronologic: interest/of tf importance t and some/po find out the

at the time of planning education. 2. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason. 3. Child has totgnizes
be the e
desires due
regard
given as much freedom as possible. 4. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts. 5. The child
can learn only when he follows the laws oflearning (When only one response is repeated for one stimulus, it
conditioned by that stimulus. Now whe at situation comes, response will be the same; this is the fact.) 6. The child is
to be understood a creature of the real world there is no sense in making him a God . He has to be
trained-itombecome
1 h. 1Re in order
a man only.i_. " m and Discipline
to enable Discipline
the child 1 changeis adjustment
in the real to objectivity.
world It is
is i adjust necessary
himself
self to hisTh
to the world. hardships and has to adjust o education. ible. The student
discipline
environment _isciplined student
from the :old
and concentrat i vading
traditions, the world.
idealism
rk. Bringingandout Io ..dal
world.
the high and low tides to Thus, t curriculum,
the real surface. the methods ( e system
himself is is
sone of education
who does all
not were gi
world/H ithdraw fro opposed admit this fact
withdrawal andlife.
from
7. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements i. Dark Side^êaiism/has
of RealismOne 1.vehem
The realist
arious claims
fields of e to be objective.
child, the teachers, the blood.
Realism in education dragged the education
i eat
e toward
Objectivity in knowledge is nothing but the partnership of personal knowledge. Knowledge is always subjective. 2.
The realist recognizes the origin of knowledge from the datum achieved by senses and asserts that only objects are
main and it is through their contact that knowledge is acquired. Then how does our illusion arise? How does
knowledge become fallacious? Where does the external object go in dream? The realist is unable to answer these
questions satisfactorily. 3. The realist does not accept the existence of transcendental ( not based on experience or
reason ) being. How could be know the non-existence of that which does not exist?
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Has non-existence got no existence? void ness and non-existence also are the parts of existence. Here the realist is
dumb completely. 4. Today the effect of realism has given rise to the wave of science. It is right, but there should be no
indifference towards art and literature. The realist supports this negligence. 5. Realism enthusiastic disappointment in students
and teachers. No progress can be made by having faith in the facts of daily life and shattering faith in ideals. Life is but full of
miseries and struggles. Sorrow is more predominant than joy in the world. A person becomes disappointed by this feeling. That
is why realists often appear to be skeptics ( person who doubts the truth of a particular claim, theory etc. ), pessimists and
objectionists. 3. Conclusion The doctrine of realism believes that with something or the other way, there are things that are just
in and of itself, and that is essentially not affected by someone. For example, the facts show, the table remains as represented
there, although no one in the room was a catch. So t table is not dependent on our ideas about it, but it depends on the table.
There are two main contributi the education based upon the realism. Firstly, it tried to remove the gulf-between the life
and^ducation Secondly, it propounded the principle of experimentation and realism that first introduced the thought that the
organs arethe door way to ined through the inductive method. The w<
observation in education. It was

knowledge and the knowledge c Varieties Of Philosophical Realism ation and bookish
knowledge are not sufficient The history of Western philosophy is checkered with disputes between those who
have defended forms of realism and those who have opposed them. While there are certainly significant similarities
linking the variety of positions commonly described as realist, there are also important differences which obstruct any
straightforward general characterization of realism. Many, if not all, of these disputes may be seen as concerned in one
way or another with the relations between, on the one hand, human beings as thinkers and subjects of experience and,
on the other hand, the objects of their knowledge, belief, and experience. Do sense perception and other forms of
cognition, and the scientific theorizing which attempts to make sense of their deliverances, provide knowledge of things
which exist and are as they are independently of people’s cognitive or investigative activities? It is at least roughly true
to say that philosophical realists are those who defend an affirmative answer to the question, either across the board or
with respect to certain areas of knowledge or belief—e.g., the external world, scientific theories, mathematics, or
morality.
The affirmative answer may seem no more than the merest common sense, because the vast majority of one’s beliefs
are certainly most naturally taken to concern mind-independent objects whose existence is an entirely objective matter.
And this seems to be so whether the beliefs in question are about mundane matters such as one’s immediate
surroundings or about theoretical scientific entities such as subatomic particles, fundamental forces, and so on.
Nevertheless, much argument and clarification of the issues and concepts involved (e.g., objectivity and mind-
independence) is required if the realism favoured by common sense is to be sustained as a philosophical position.
Any general statement of realism, however, inevitably obscures the great variation in focus in controversies between
realists and antirealists from antiquity to the present day. In some controversies, what is primarily at issue is a question
of ontology, concerning the existence of entities of some problematic kind. In others, the opposition, while still broadly
ontological in character, concerns rather the ultimate nature of reality as a whole, a historically important example
being the controversies generated by various forms of idealism. In yet others the dispute, while not entirely divorced
from questions of ontology, is primarily concerned with the notion of truth, either in general or in application to
statements of some particular type, such as moral judgments or theoretical scientific claims about unobservable entities.
Realism In Ontology

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In application to matters of ontology, realism is standardly applied to doctrines which assert the existence of entities of
some problematic or controversial kind. Even under this more restricted heading, however, realism and opposition to it
have taken significantly different forms, as illustrated in the following three examples.
Universals
One of the earliest and most famous realist doctrines is Plato’s theory of Forms, which asserts that things such as “the
Beautiful” (or “Beauty”) and “the Just” (or “Justice”) exist over and above the particular beautiful objects and just acts
in which they are instantiated and more or less imperfectly exemplified; the Forms themselves are thought of as located
neither in space nor in time. Although Plato’s usual term for them (eido) is often translated in English as Idea, it is clear
that he does not think of them as mental but rather as abstract, existing independently both of mental activity and of
sensible particulars. As such, they lie beyond the reach of sense perception, which Plato regards as providing only
beliefs about appearances as opposed to knowledge of what is truly real. Indeed, the Forms are knowable only by the
philosophically schooled intellect.
Although the interpretation of Plato’s theory remains a matter of scholarly controversy, there is no doubt that his
promulgation of it initiated an enduring dispute about the existence of universals—often conceived, in opposition to
particulars, as entities, such as general properties, which may be wholly present at different times and places or
instantiated by many distinct particular objects. Plato’s pupil Aristotle reacted against the extreme realism which he
took Plato to be endorsing: the thesis of universalia ante res (Latin: “universals before things”), according to which
universals exist in their own right, prior to and independently of their instantiation by sensible particulars. He advocated
instead a more moderate realism of universalia in rebus (“universals in things”): While there are universals, they can
have no freestanding, independent existence. They exist only in the particulars that instantiate them.
In the medieval period, defenders of a broadly Aristotelian realism, including William of Shyreswood and Peter of
Spain, were opposed by both nominalists and conceptualists. Nominalists, notably William of Ockham, insisted that
everything in the nonlinguistic world is particular. They argued that universals are merely words which have a general
application—an application which is sufficiently explained by reference to the similarities among the various
particulars to which the words are applied. Conceptualists agreed with the nominalists that everything is particular but
held that words which have general application do so by virtue of standing for mental intermediaries, usually called
general ideas or concepts.
Although medieval in origin, the latter view found its best-known implementation in the English philosopher John
Locke’s theory of abstract ideas, so called because they are supposed to be formed from the wholly particular ideas
supplied in experience by “abstracting” from their differences to leave only what is common to all of them. Locke’s
doctrine was vigorously criticized in the 18th century by his empiricist successors, George Berkeley and David Hume,
who argued that ideas corresponding to general words are fully determinate and particular and that their generality of
application is achieved by making one particular idea stand indifferently as a representative of many.
The problem of universals remains an important focus of metaphysical discussion. Although Plato’s extreme realism
has found few advocates, in the later 20th century there was a revival of interest in Aristotle’s moderate realism, a
version of which has been defended—with important modifications—by the Australian philosopher David Armstrong.
Abstract entities and modern nominalism
In the second half of the 20th century the term nominalism took on a somewhat broader sense than the one it had in the
medieval dispute about universals. It is now used as a name for any position which denies the existence of abstract
entities of any sort, including not only universals but also numbers, sets, and other abstracta which form the apparent
subject matter of mathematical theories. In their classic nominalist manifesto, “Steps Toward a Constructive
Nominalism” (1947), the American philosophers Nelson Goodman and W.V.O. Quine declared:

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We do not believe in abstract entities. No one supposes that abstract entities—classes, relations, properties, etc.—exist
in space-time; but we mean more than this. We renounce them altogether... Any system that countenances abstract
entities we deem unsatisfactory as a final philosophy.
The term “Platonism” has often been used, especially in the philosophy of mathematics, as an alternative to the
correspondingly wider use of “realism” to denote ontological views to which such nominalism stands opposed.
Nominalists have often recommended their rejection of abstracta on grounds of ontological economy, invoking the
methodological maxim known as Ockham’s razor—Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem (“Entities are
not to be multiplied beyond necessity”). The maxim is problematic, however, for at least two reasons. First, it gives a
clear directive only when accompanied by some answer to the obvious question, “Necessary for what?” Although the
answer—“Necessary to account for all the (agreed upon) facts”—is equally obvious, it is doubtful that there is
sufficient agreement between the nominalist and the realist to enable the former to cut away abstracta as unnecessary.
The realist is likely to suppose that the relevant facts include the facts of mathematics, which, taken at face value, do
require the existence of numbers, sets, and so on.
But second, even if the facts could be restricted, without begging the question, to facts about what is concrete, it is still
unclear that the nominalist will be in a position to wield the razor to his advantage, because it may be argued that such
facts admit of no satisfactory explanation without the aid of scientific (and especially physical) theories which make
indispensable use of mathematics. Indispensability arguments of this kind were advanced by the American philosopher
Hilary Putnam and (relinquishing his earlier nominalism) by Quine.
Other, perhaps weightier, arguments for nominalism appeal to the broadly epistemological problems confronting
realism. Given that numbers, sets, and other abstracta could, by their very nature, stand in no spatiotemporal (and
therefore no causal) relation to human beings, there can be no satisfactory explanation of how humans are able to think
about and refer to abstracta or come to know truths about them.
Whether or not these problems are insuperable, it is clear that, because theories (especially mathematical theories)
ostensibly involving reference to abstracta appear to play an indispensable role in the human intellectual economy,
nominalists can scarcely afford simply to reject them outright; they must explain how such theories may be justifiably
retained, consistently with nominalistic scruples.
Attempts by orthodox nominalists to reinterpret or reconstruct mathematical theories in ways which avoid reference to
abstracta have not met with conspicuous success. Following a more radical course, the American philosopher Hartry
Field has argued that nominalists can accept mathematical theories under certain conditions while denying that they are
true. They can be accepted provided that they are conservative—i.e., provided that their conjunction with
nonmathematical (scientific and especially physical) theories entails no claims about nonmathematical entities which
are not logical consequences of the nonmathematical theories themselves. Conservativeness is thus a strong form of
logical consistency. Because consistency in general does not require truth, a mathematical theory can be conservative
without being true.
Possible worlds
One kind of modal realism holds that there is a distinctive class of truths essentially involving the modal notions of
necessity and possibility. Since the mid-20th century, however, advances in modal logic—in particular the development
of possible-world semantics—have given rise to a further, distinctively ontological dispute concerning whether that
semantics gives a literally correct account of the “truth-conditions” of modal propositions. According to possible-world
semantics, (1) a proposition is necessarily true if (and only if) it is true not only in the actual world but in all possible
worlds; and (2) a proposition is possibly true if and only if it is true in at least one possible world, perhaps distinct from
the actual world. If statements 1 and 2 are literally correct descriptions of the truth-conditions of modal propositions,
then, if any truths are nontrivially necessary or correctly assert unrealized possibilities, there must exist, in addition to
the actual world, many other merely possible worlds. Modal realism, in the uncompromising form defended by the
American philosopher David Lewis, is the view that there exists a (very large) plurality of worlds, each of which is a
spatiotemporally (and

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causally) closed system, disjoint from all others and comprising its own distinctive collection of concrete particulars,
replete with all their properties and relations to each other.
Although Lewis’s worlds are not, as he conceived them, abstract entities, it is clear that his realism faces
epistemological objections similar to those mentioned in connection with abstracta. These, along with other
considerations, led some philosophers to propose alternatives designed to secure the benefits of possible-world
semantics without the costs of full-blooded realism. The alternatives included a more moderate realism propounded by
the American philosopher Robert Stalnaker which denies Lewis’s homogeneity thesis (the claim that merely possible
worlds are entities of the same kind as the actual world), as well as fictionalism, the view that possible-world theory is
literally false but useful.
Realism And Idealism
The opposition between idealism and realism, although undeniably ontological in a broad sense, is distinct both from
general disputes about realism in ontology and from disputes which turn upon the notion of truth or its applicability to
statements of some specified type (see below Realism and truth). In its most straightforward and, arguably, basic sense,
idealism not only asserts the existence of “ideas” (and perhaps other mental entities) but also advances a restrictive
claim about the nature or composition of reality as whole: there is nothing in reality other than ideas and the minds
whose ideas they are. So understood, idealism is a form of monism, which is opposed both to other forms of monism
(e.g., materialism) and to pluralism, which posits two or more irreducibly distinct kinds of stuff or things (e.g., mental
and physical, as in various versions of dualism).
A paradigmatic example of an idealist position is Berkeley’s rejection of “brute matter” as unintelligible and his
accompanying doctrine that reality consists exclusively of “ideas”—for which esse est percipi (“to be is to be
perceived”)—and “spirits,” including finite spirits corresponding to individual human beings and at least one infinite
spirit, or God. If idealism in this sense is to be viewed as a kind of antirealism, the realism it opposes must be one
which maintains the existence of material things independently of their being perceived or otherwise related to any
mind, finite or otherwise.
The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant recognized that Berkeley’s “dogmatic idealism” involved
denying the independent reality of space. Berkeley’s arguments, he thought, were effective against metaphysical
positions which assumed that space is a property of “things in themselves,” as opposed to their representations, or
“appearances,” in the mind. Kant argued to the contrary that space as well as time are forms of “sensible intuition,” or
the mode in which the mind is affected by sensible objects. Thus, the reality of objects external to the mind (objects in
space) is guaranteed, because being in space and time is a condition of being an object of sensible experience at all.
Kant’s combination of transcendental idealism—the doctrine that what is given in experience are only appearances—
with empirical realism—the view that there are objects external to the mind—allowed him to reject the conception of
external objects as “lying behind” appearances and as knowable only (if at all) by a problematic and ultimately
indefensible inference from what is given in experience to its hidden causes.
Refernce ; Michele Pasaribu Sep 21, 2012 Published in: Education, on slide share
Q.4: How can psychological foundations help us in developing instructional strategies?

ANS; Understanding Educational Psychology
Today’s educational system is highly complex. There is no single learning approach that works for everyone.
That’s why psychologists working in the field of education are focused on identifying and studying learning methods to
better understand how people absorb and retain new information.
Educational psychologists apply theories of human development to understand individual learning and inform the
instructional process. While interaction with teachers and students in school settings is an important part of their work,
it isn’t the only facet of the job. Learning is a lifelong endeavor. People don’t only learn at school,
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they learn at work, in social situations and even doing simple tasks like household chores or running errands.
Psychologists working in this subfield examine how people learn in a variety of settings to identify approaches and
strategies to make learning more effective.
Research in Action
Educational Psychology Applied

Psychologists working in education study the social, emotional and cognitive processes involved in learning and
apply their findings to improve the learning process. Some specialize in the educational development of a
specific group of people such as children, adolescents or adults, while others focus on specific learning
challenges such as attention deficit hyper No matterivity
the population
disorder (ADHD)
they areorstud
dyslexia.
instructional process and difl
How much does the time of information? What does cult
g, these develop new
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interested does themethods,
in teaching c These are
the
all questio government res êarning outcomes.
isjnlroduced
w informatioi e to do with ho..influence wl w ■ a person retains that
e? How is in-person l eplatform age affect ourrs,
proces: make a difft cational psychologists ability to
schools, community o arning d ing using technology?
fferencein eirnin sts
arealkinB-— in a
rrganizations an
Educational psychology is a subfield of psychology. It takes theories, research, principles, and knowledge from
psychology, and uses them in education.
Education includes a wide range of teaching and learning situations, from children being taught by a teacher and
learning in a classroom at school, to university students learning from an instructor in a lecture or a tutorial, to
individuals teaching themselves a new skill at home. Essentially education can include any situation in which someone
acquires knowledge by means of a process.
Educational psychologists define the field
There are many varying definitions of educational psychology in the literature.
Robert Slavin defines educational psychology quite narrowly as the systematic study of learners, learning, and teaching
(1994, 24). Bruce Tuckman and David Monetti’s definition is slightly broader. They define educational psychology as
the study of human behavior applied to the teaching and learning processes (2011, 5).
Investigations of another educational psychologist, Anita Woolfolk, show distinct changes in the research focus of
educational psychologists over time. In earlier decades educational psychologists tended to study individual
differences, assessment, and learning behaviors. More recently they have studied cognitive development and learning,
specifically concept learning, memory, and retention. Most recently educational psychologists have focused on
studying the effects of society and culture on learning and development (2010, 10).
Educational psychology in an interactive context
Tuckman and Monetti (2011, 6) describe some of the difficulties that teachers have to deal with on a daily basis.
Teaching is a profession that depends almost entirely on interaction with other people. Teachers have to manage this
interaction with students so that students learn what they are supposed to learn. This is difficult because interpersonal
interactions are complex and have different dimensions. These almost always have to be managed at the same time. For
example, teachers have to schedule, observe, record, evaluate, and react to a large number of students who may all be
doing different things. Further, teacher behavior and student behavior are often dependent on each other. This means
that teachers cannot delay their actions in the classroom. They must think quickly to react to the challenges that they
face.
Educational psychology prepares teachers for these challenges by providing them with theories and principles about
teaching and learning. It encourages teachers to reflect (think) about the needs of their learners and to be
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sensitive to the issues that learners might be facing in achieving their learning goals. In this way, educational
psychology helps teachers become more effective and improves the chances of their learners achieving success in the
classroom.
Research by psychologists has shown that human behavior is very complex. For example, although developmental
psychologists such as Erik Erikson (insert dates) have suggested that there are a number of key stages of human
development that are the same for everyone, these stages are not easily or clearly defined. This means that
Educational psychology aims to uncover the principles of teaching in order to improve learning. Principles are
uncovered when research studies repeatedly come up with the same conclusions. These principles they can be used by
teachers to deal with specific problems. For example, one of the principles of classroom management is to establish
good interpersonal relationships with learners in order to build mutual trust and respect.
Educational psychology provides teachers with a body of knowledge
Educational psychology provides teachers with a body of knowledge about teaching and learning. This body of
knowledge includes knowledge of human development, intelligence, memory, motivation, assessment, instructional
strategies, and classroom management. It is made available to trainees, including aspiring teachers, mainly at
universities and colleges of education to help them prepare for their teaching careers.
Educational psychology contributes to better educational practice
Educational psychologists are seldom satisfied with the body of knowledge they have uncovered or the teaching
methods they have experimented with, recommended, and implemented. Educational psychologists are continually
asking questions, and conducting research, about how teaching and learning can be improved. By questioning current
practices and experimenting with new teaching methods, educational psychologists and professional teachers can
ensure that classroom practices remain at the cutting edge of educational innovation. 4.2 Educational psychology
challenges teachers to disciplined enquiry and research
Educational psychology constantly develops new theories and principles about teaching and learning. With a dynamic
and changing field, teachers are challenged to n keep up to date with developments by reading articles published in
educational newsletters and journals, and by sharing and discussing-for example, at staff meetings, teacher centers,
workshops, and conferences-information about what works and what does not in their different subject areas. This
helps them improve their teaching, and become ever more effective teachers as they progress in their careers.
Educational psychology encourages a reflective mindset
Effective teaching that results in successful learning depends on thought and critical reflection. Educational psychology
assists teachers to examine their own attitudes, teaching practices, and the outcomes of their teaching.
Reflective teachers ask themselves before, during, and after every lesson why they do what they do and the way that
they do it. They check their performance against the background knowledge provided by their training and their
classroom experience. They examine their teaching methods and experiment to find out if there are better ways of
doing what they are doing. Through reflective teaching, teachers develop the cognitive tools for creatively solving
problems that may arise in their classrooms.
What makes an effective teacher?
In this unit you will learn about:
What ‘effective teaching’ means
The four components of effective teaching
Teaching as an art or a science
What it means to be a ‘reflective teacher’
The teacher as self-regulated life-long-learner
Essential concepts
Effective teacher
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Subject knowledge
Pedagogy (instruction)
Critical thinking
Knowledge of learners
Teaching and communication
Congruent communication
Incongruent communication
Reflective teaching
The means-end relationship
Long range goals
What is effective teaching?
It is not easy to define what an effective teachers are like or what they do that sets them apart from teachers who are
less effective. Is effectiveness measured by learners’ results in examinations, or do factors such as motivation and
interest play a role? Further, terms like “good,” “professional,” and “experienced” are often used to describe teachers
and teaching. Here, too, the criteria for these judgments are often not explored or explained. Nevertheless, there is a
broad understanding of the concepts and teachers often have the performance evaluated both in terms of classroom
practice and learner performance. Throughout this book, we will use the terms “effective teachers” and effective
teaching” to define and explore educational practices that “work.” Many people think that you can be an effective
teacher without any training. These people think that teaching is common sense or that some people are born with a
natural ability to teach. However, there is a vast difference between a parent teaching an infant to walk, or a child to
ride a bicycle, and teaching a young learner how to write or to do algebra. Classroom learning is far more structured,
deliberate, concentrated, and abstract than the learning that takes place between parent and child.
Educational psychologists generally agree that most people can be trained to become effective teachers (Slavin 1994,
7). While observation and practice are important components of effective teaching, teachers need to be aware of several
basic principles so that these can be applied in the classroom. Over the years educational psychologists have identified
four essential components of effective teaching (Tuckman and Monetti 2011;
Woolfolk 2010; Crowl et al 1997; Slavin 1994): subject knowledge and knowledge of teaching resources critical
thinking and problem-solving skills knowledge of learners and their learning teaching and communication skills
Subject knowledge and knowledge of teaching
In order to be an effective teacher, a teacher needs subject knowledge (knowledge about what to teach). For example, if
a teacher is teaching a course about the history of the modern Middle East, he or she must know about this subject.
However, while subject knowledge is necessary, it is not enough. Knowledge of how to transmit information and the
skill to do so is at least as important as knowledge of the information and skills themselves. To be an effective teacher,
a teacher must also know where to find information about his or her subject, so that he or she can keep his or her
subject knowledge up to date with the latest information about it. In addition, to be effective, a teacher must have an
understanding of pedagogy (also referred to as instruction), a word which comes from the Greek and literally means ‘to
lead the child.’ [i] Pedagogy refers to the set of teaching strategies a teacher uses in any given teaching situation to help
learners learn what they are supposed to learn at that time. In designing these teaching strategies, an effective teacher
takes into account a number of factors about his or her students, including their behavior, background knowledge about
the subject, and motivation, as well as their intellectual, social, and cultural characteristics. The learning material needs
to be presented in a way that makes sense, using strategies that help learners remember what they have been taught.
Effective teaching builds in regular informal and formal assessments to check whether or not learning goals

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have been achieved. They need to respond appropriately if these assessments show that learners are having difficulties.
In other words, an effective teacher must be able to select those parts of his or her knowledge that are appropriate for
his or her learners at their stage of learning, and communicate that knowledge to them in a way that is appropriate to
their level. Simply put, an effective teacher knows when to teach what, using the most suitable method.
Knowledge of learners and their learning
Subject knowledge and pedagogy are not the only types of knowledge that teachers require. Effective teaching depends
on teachers knowing their learners and knowing how learners learn. Educational psychology provides teachers with
knowledge about how this. It provides teachers with insights into different ways learning can take place, learner
preferences, learner motivation, and the link between the emotional life of the learner and learning. Knowing these
things teachers can plan and manage instructional procedures, establish a suitable classroom environment, and engage
learners in meaningful learning activities.
Critical thinking and problem-solving skills
Many research studies have looked at the differences between more- and less-effective teachers. One theme that runs
through these studies is that effective teachers are critical thinkers (Floden and Klinzing 1990; Leinhardt and Greeno
1986; Swanson et al 1990). Woolfolk (2010, 292) defines critical thinking as the ability “to evaluate conclusions by
logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.” In other words, critical thinking is
an ordered, logical process of thinking about a problem and how it can be solved. It requires reflective judgment and
the analysis of the validity and reliability of information.
It may involve generating or organizing ideas, examining assumptions, evaluating arguments and evidence, solving
problems, defining opinions, or recognizing hidden values and meanings.
Teachers need to be critical thinkers because teaching involves solving problem in a systematic, logical way. The most
effective teachers constantly evaluate and upgrade their own teaching practices. They read widely, observe other
teachers, attend conferences to learn new ideas, and use their own learners’ responses to guide their instructional
decisions (Saber et al. 1991; Shulman 1987). Teachers who improve are the ones who reflect about their own practice,
are open to new ideas, and look at their own teaching critically. [1] Teaching and communication skills
Teaching is a form of communication. Teachers are communicators. Communication is more than a matter of teachers
talking and students listening. Communication also involves students talking and teachers listening. It is important that
learners get opportunities to participate in the communication process. Through creating opportunities for interaction
(for example, by inviting questions and answers from learners, or through initiating discussions or group presentations),
the teacher can monitor the learners’ perceptions and understandings and adjust his or her own communications
accordingly.
What is more, communication is more than just talking and listening (verbal communication). It is also includes non-
verbal communication such as teachers’ actions, movements, tone of voice, and facial expressions (together, their body
language). Some researchers say that as much as 65% of effective communication is nonverbal (Ornstein 1990, 539).
Effective communication between a teacher and his or her learners also depends on the teacher’s credibility with them:
do the learners trust that what the teacher says is believable, and does the teacher’s body language support and
strengthen this trusting relationship on a daily basis? One of the ways by which teachers can earn the trust and respect
of their learners is by practicing “congruent communication” as opposed to “incongruent communication.” Congruent
communication is also known as the language of acceptance. The language of acceptance acknowledges the learner’s
situation and reflects a non-discriminatory attitude by the teacher (Tuckman and Monetti 2011, 373). Incongruent
language is also known as the language of rejection.
Ginott (1922-1973) provides an example of how the language of acceptance is different from the language of rejection.
Ginott states that if a child spills paint his or her teacher can address the situation using language of
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acceptance (congruent communication) by saying “I see the paint has spilled, let’s get some water and a towel.”
Alternatively the teacher can use the language of rejection (incongruent communication) by saying “What’s the matter
with you? You are so clumsy. Didn’t I tell you to be careful? You never listen.” In the first situation, we can see that
the teacher’s response involves him or her accepting that a situation has happened and addressing it. In the second
situation, the teacher’s response involves attacking the personality and character of the child. Ginott advises that in
order for a teacher to earn the trust of the child in this situation, he or she should use congruent communication and
speak about the situation (the spilled paint) instead of using incongruent communication to speak about the personality
and character of the child (Ginott 1993, 83).
Teachers also have to become sensitive to cultural rules (often implicit or hidden) when they communicate with their
learners. For example in some East Asian and African cultures learners are expected not to make eye contact with their
teachers when they talk to them. This is a sign of respect. In most western cultures the exact opposite is true.
Teaching: Art or science?
While educational psychologists claim that they have put teaching on a scientific footing because they conduct
systematic scientific research into human behavior, thinking and learning, and instructional design, there are many
elements that characterize it as an art. Events inside the classroom are often spontaneous and unpredictable. These
require a teacher’s intuition, or the ability to act on a feeling, instead of factual knowledge. It is impossible to provide
teachers with a magic formula that makes them effective, or a recipe to handle every circumstance that arises. Further,
it is difficult to evaluate the teaching performance of individual teachers accurately and consistently because there is no
single set of scientific criteria to do so. Finally, some teachers appear to natural educators, but it is hard to define what
sets them apart from others. A teacher who attempts to base every action on scientific evidence may come across as
rigid and mechanical to his or her learners By contrast, a teacher who ignores scientific knowledge about teaching and
learning runs the risk of applying principles and methods that are ineffective (Biehler and Snowman 1993, 20).
Scientific research done by educational psychologists and other educationalists can introduce teachers to principles and
theories of teaching that extend their ability or competence. Teaching from a scientific basis helps teachers avoid the
pitfalls of subscribing to the latest fad (a fashionable but unproven method of teaching). If teaching is purely an art,
then effective teaching would be determined by the teacher’s natural talent or by long years of practice. But, there is a
sizeable body of scientific research and research-validated instructional practices that have been shown to improve
teacher performance and learners’ achievement.
The reflective teacher
To reflect means “to think.” “To reflect about your actions” as a teacher means that you think and plan carefully about
the way that you want to do things, and how these things should be done. Reflective teaching can therefore be seen as a
blend of teaching as an art and teaching as a science. Reflective teachers think carefully about the educational goals
they want to achieve, and whether or not such goals are actually worth achieving. They think carefully about the nature
and effectiveness of the instructional methods and techniques they want to use to reach those goals, and they question
the underlying assumptions, for example the means-end relationship, behind the choice of learning materials. They also
reflect about the extent to which scientific evidence supports their choices.
A good example of a means-end relationship can be found in learning a second or third language. From a learning point
of view, the end goal will determine the shortest, most effective means (way) of achieving it. If the end goal is every
day spoken communication for the purposes of tourism, then a good means to the end may be to attend a short language
course or living with a family in the country where the language is spoken. The picture changes dramatically if the end
goal is to earn an advanced degree in a language. Here the focus is on academic purposes. This requires a high level of
proficiency in the written and spoken forms of the language, and a detailed understanding of its grammar and literature.
Achieving these will require a completely different means.
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It is important for teachers to reflect carefully about long-range goals because the choice of goals affects not only the
learning materials or content to be covered, but also the type of classroom activities (Brophy and Alleman 1991). If, for
example, the goal is for learners to acquire problem-solving skills, learners would likely be engaged in activities that
call for analysis (that is, breaking up the problem into smaller parts), reasoning, and decision-making. Debates,
simulations, and laboratory experiments are just three examples of activities that might be useful to meet such a goal. If,
however, the goal is for learners to memorize facts and information, learners will likely be given activities that call for
isolated memorization and recall. Worksheets and drill-and- practice exercises are typically used as means to meet this
type of goal. The point is that effective teachers think about these issues as a basis for planning.
Becoming a reflective teacher
Becoming a reflective teacher is not difficult, although it does require practice. As you try out various teaching
techniques or wonder why certain learners respond to instruction as they do, formulate hypotheses (tentative
explanations) and then try to test them. You will rarely be able to do this in a completely controlled way, but you can
often set up simple experiments. For example, if most of the learners in your class seem to be restless whenever you
present a particular topic, you might test a hypothesis such as: learners will be interested and focused if I have learn-by-
doing activities during the lesson.
Once you have established a hypotheses you can test it by trying it out. As you do so, play the role of the teacher as an
artist and be enthusiastic and committed. Then play the role of the teacher as a scientist: be objective when analyzing
the results of your teaching. If you find that your learners respond more positively, or that test scores are up, or that the
quality of their work has improved, you have evidence to substantiate your hypothesis. If student behavior remains
unchanged or deteriorates, however, formulate another hypothesis and test it.
Most truly reflective teachers keep a personal teacher’s portfolio or workbook, in which they record all their
experiments, experiences, and findings. This type of reflective activity is closely related to action research, a topic that
will be discussed in a later section of this chapter.
1.3.4 Teachers as self-regulated, life-long learners
In addition to being critical thinkers and creative decision makers, most effective teachers are also lifelong learners.
This means that they never stop learning and never consider themselves as knowing all there is to know. As McCown et
al (1996, 17) state, to become an expert teacher, you must first become an expert learner. And becoming an expert
learner implies that the teacher practices self-regulation.
Self-regulated teachers take responsibility for building their own knowledge and skills base. They set new learning
goals based on their own experiences and the reflection of others like them. They motivate themselves to learn and
uncover new information; they monitor their own progress, assess the extent of their own mastery of new knowledge
and skills, and continuously redirect the course of their learning and development.
Figure 1.3: The cycle of reflective construction for the development of teaching expertise (adapted from McCown et al
1996:16)
Figure 1.3 above represents the continuous cycle of reconstruction that reflective, self-regulated teachers follow in the
life-long learning process of building knowledge and expertise in their profession. It begins with their own personal
experiences of being taught throughout their own years of schooling, progresses to their training as teachers, including
their study of educational psychology, and gaining more knowledge and expertise as teachers. Ultimately, successful
teachers will be able to integrate and reflect critically about educational concepts, principles, theories, and classroom
interactions, and they will develop, construct, and reconstruct a personal theory of teaching flowing out of life-long
learning and classroom experience.
1.3.5 Summary
In this unit we set out to provide an answer to the question: “What makes a good teacher?” We discussed some of the
instructional tasks involved in effective instruction and highlighted four essential components of effective instruction.
We drew a further distinction between teaching as an art and teaching as a science, concluding that
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the most “artful” teachers are the ones who reflect regularly about their practice and never stop learning, working from
a well-founded scientific knowledge base about teaching and learning.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - A FOUNDATION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
The role of research in educational psychology
One of the most important functions of research in educational psychology is that it provides teachers-in- training,
beginner and less experienced teachers with knowledge and skills about how to teach in the best possible ways in their
individual subject areas.
For example, from the moment a teacher walks into a classroom, he or she needs to know how to create a suitable
teaching and learning environment, one which is conducive to meeting his or her teaching objectives as well as the
learning needs of the learners. Creating such an environment implies excellent classroom management skills, among
others. It is very difficult for a beginner teacher to re-establish control once chaos has erupted. In order to be better
prepared and to avoid unnecessary disruptions to the teaching-learning process, beginner teachers can pick up useful
pointers by reading case studies and studying research reports prepared by educational psychologists and experienced
teachers.
One example of the impact of research on the teaching and learning process is the finding that one of the most powerful
predictors of a teacher’s impact on learners is the belief that what the teacher does in class actually makes a huge
difference. This belief, called teacher efficacy, is at the heart of what it means to be an intentional teacher. Teachers
who believe that success in school is almost entirely due to children’s inborn intelligence, home environment, or other
factors that teachers cannot influence, are unlikely to teach in the same way as those who believe that their own efforts
are the key to children’s learning. An intentional teacher, one who has a

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They identify a range of direct and indirect effects that formal education has upon political participation. Its direct
effects include the acquisition of the knowledge and communication skills useful for public debate, and direct training
in political analysis through courses with current events content.
Its indirect effects are many and include the benefits of voluntary engagement in school government, clubs, sports and
school newspapers, these arenas provide young people with an early apprenticeship for politics, where they can
exercise leadership, develop civic skills of cooperation and negotiation, and acquire bureaucratic and organizational
skills useful for political activity.
Education enhances other factors supporting political engagement, such as access to high-income jobs that provide the
resources and contacts for political activity, and access to non-political associations such as charitable organizations or
religious establishments that can be a recruitment ground for political activity.
As an academic discipline the study of politics in education has two main roots: The first root is based on
theories from political science while the second root is footed in organizational theory. Political science
attempts to explain how societies and social organizations use power to establish regulations and allocate
strong belief in his or her efficacy, is more likely to put forth consistent effort, to persist in the face of obstacles, and to
keep trying relentlessly until every student succeeds.
Reference: UKEssays
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resources. Organizational theory uses scientific theories of management to develop deeper understandings
regarding the function of organizations.
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It seems evident that formal education should be strongly associated with political participation for women and for
men. Indeed, the American sociologists Burns, Schlozman and Verba assert, on the basis of decades of research into
the factors influencing women and men’s engagement with politics in the USA, that education is an especially
powerful predictor of political participation.
Researchers have drawn a distinction between two types of politics in schools. The term micropolitics refers
to the use of formal and informal power by individuals and groups to achieve their goals in organizations.
Cooperative and conflictive processes are integral components of micropolitics. Macro-politics refers to how
power is used and decision making is conducted at district, state, and federal levels. Macro-politics is
generally considered to exist outside the school, but researchers have noted that micro- and macro-politics
may exist at any level of school systems depending on circumstance.
There exist significant difference between "Politics of Education" and "Politics in Education". More debates
on the prevailing differences are solicited from academia of the world to define politics educationally.
Education and politics enjoy a symbiotic relationship, that is, education affects politics and vice versa.
Education, or lack thereof, influences the collective intellect, goals, and values of the body politic. The way in
which a society is educated will thus determine who is able to hold office; how those in office are elected (or
chosen); how much power and control those in office will have at their disposal; what laws are considered
reasonable and unreasonable; and how those representing the state will choose to regulate, promote, and
establish educational institutions.
The last point is critical as it shows how the cycle comes full circle. Just as much as educational institutions
have a role in creating, maintaining, and limiting the state, the political has immense power over the
educational. Look at how the modern state has control over how much schools are funded and what they can
and can’t teach (evolution, sexual education, the way in which history is framed, among many other
examples). Indeed, there are many states that strictly prohibit secular education, as it is in their interest to
keep their populations misinformed. Why? Precisely because the more informed (educated) their population,
the more likely it is that their stranglehold on power will be overthrown.
Education is encapsulated in the political environment of the nation state. Each nation state from liberal
democracies to totalitarian systems uses education as one of their state apparatus to transmit
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their political ideologies. In discussing the nexus between education and politics, the various educational
polities in Malaysia will be critically examined, with particular reference to the various educational acts
starting from the Razak Report of 1956 till the Education Act of 1996 in maylasia . The social, economic and
political factors leading to the educational policies will be discussed. The current educational issues such as
the teaching of maths and science in English, replacing the primary school evaluations and the lower
secondary assessment examinations with school based exams, among others, will also be discussed.
One of the earliest political philosophers Plato has put this as follows:
“It is the government which must flow from the education and not education from the government.”
Plato gives more importance to education to the extent that it must produce the best of the governments.
What we commonly see is the education system is dependent on the government. It is the government which
decides how the education must be. Rather, what requires is that the education must decide who should be
governing, and what should be the kind of government.
Plato writes: “Until the philosophers become the kings, and the princes of the world have the spirit and
power of philosophy..........................cities will never have rest from their evils.”
Now if we have to put this in the present times, the word king is applicable to all the rulers either democratic
or not. And cities should be read as States (meaning countries).
Plato gives an extensive Theory of Education that would create such philosophers who were eligible to
rule. It includes elementary education (10 years of physical training plus two years of moral education). And
this was to be completed by the age of twenty. The disqualified were to take up the role of producers.
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It is important that we advance our work through discussions,

Q.2: Write a detail note on naturalism?

benefit of SRS is that the

explanations that are part of many religions.