831.

1
Q.1: How can we build our education system on the Islamic foundations of educations?
ANS: Importance of Education in Islam
Islam is the religion of peace, and it is one of the most sacred and trustworthy religions, which has given us
guidance in every aspect of life. Islam has given us education with knowledge which has no limits. The Holy
Quran is the most sacred book of Allah revealed on Prophet Muhammad (SAW), for the upliftment guidance
and enriched messages to the humanity.
Education is the knowledge of putting one's potentials to maximum use. Without education, no one can find the
proper right path in this world.
This importance of education is basically for two reasons. Education makes man a right thinker. Without
education, no one can think properly in an appropriate context you. It tells man how to think and how to make
decision. The second reason for the importance of education is that only through the attainment of education,
man is enabled to receive information from the external world. It is well said that
"Without education, man is as though in a closed room and with education he finds himself in a room with all
its windows open towards outside world."
This is why Islam attaches such great importance to knowledge and education. When the Quran began to be
revealed, the first word of its first verse was 'Iqra' that is, read..
The reflective book of Holy Quran is so rich in content and meaning that if the history of human thought
continues forever, this book is not likely to be read to its end. Every day it conveys a new message to the
humanity. Every morning, it gives us new thoughtful ideas and bound us in the boundaries of ethics.
Islamic Education is one of the best systems of education, which makes an ethical groomed person with all the
qualities, which he/she should have as a human being. The Western world has created the wrong image of Islam
in the world. They don't know that our teachings are directly given to us from Allah, who is the creator of this
world, through our Prophets.
The Muslims all over the world are thirsty of acquiring quality education. They know their boundaries and
never try to cross it. It is the West, which has created a hype that the Muslim are not in a path of getting proper
education. They think that our education teaches us fighting, about weapons, etc., which is so false. This is true
that there are certain elements, which force an individual to be on the wrong path, because as we will mould a
child, they will be like that, but it doesn't mean that our religion teaches improperly to us.
Our Holy Prophet (SAW), said,
Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave.

And:
Seek knowledge even [if it is to be found in a place as distant as China. At the battle of Badr, in which our
beloved Holy Prophet (SAW) gained victory over his foes, seventy people of the enemy rank were taken to
prison. These prisoners were literate people. In order to benefit from their education the Prophet declared that if
one prisoner teaches ten Muslim children how to read and write, this will serve as his ransom and he will be set
free. This was the first school in the history of Islam established by the Prophet himself with all its teachers
being non-Muslims. The Sunnah of the Prophet shows that education is to be received whatever the risk
involved.

Today, the Muslims are acquiring good ideas, thoughts, knowledge, and skills, from all corners of the world.
The world is moving very fast, and in this industrialize world, It is the duty of the teachers to give quality
ethical integrated education to the Muslim students worldwide, because children are invaluable assets of future
generations.

The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) encouraged all Muslims to acquire knowledge and share it. He said:
 "Acquire knowledge, for he who acquires it in the way of Allah performs an act of piety; he who speaks of it,
praises the Lord; he who seeks it, adores Allah; he who dispenses instruction in it, bestows alms; and he who
imparts it to others, performs an act of devotion to Allah." (Bukhari, Muslim)

All the teachers of either secular or religious education should give more attention to the pupils inside the
classroom. It is necessary that in the Islamic system that we should consider these dear children as our own
children, and put aside all other considerations, and rise above all such things and realize our duty and our
mission. We should raise the standards of education and attend to the needs of these children. We should realize
our duties with earnestness and awaken to the sense of responsibility. It has been seen that there are certain
teacher who are not fulfilling their duties with keen interest. I would like to request all the teachers that for the
sake of God, for the sake of your revolutionary duty, teach the children with devotion and dedication.

It is important that we advance our work through discussions, debates, studies, and through proper distribution
of work among ourselves.

We must never forget that we are living in an Islamic State, and our aim should be simultaneously to create both
an independent as well as an Islamic culture in character. Independence and richness of content are indeed
among the characteristics of the Islamic culture. Our system is an ideological system.

We should make our child enthusiastic, dynamic, and this search should pervade every corner of our society.
We should aspire them to be truthful and sincere.

Self-sacrifice and generosity, love of freedom, the resolve for resistance and headstrong perseverance, the
courage to welcome martyrdom-all these are the new values of the new generation, which should be taught
according to the teaching of Islam.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Jonathan Berkey (2004). "Education". In Richard C. Martin (ed.). Encyclopedia of
^ Jump up to:a b c d e Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). p
^ Jump up to:a b c Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). p. 21
^ Jump up to:a b c d "Islam - History of Islamic Education, Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education". education.stateunive
^ Jump up to:a b "Muslim educational attainment around the world". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project.
^ Jump up to:a b "Economics may limit Muslim women's education more than religion". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 201
^ "The Muslim gender gap in education is shrinking". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2019-11-10.

Q.2: Write a detail note on naturalism?

ANS; In philosophy, naturalism is the idea or belief that only natural (as opposed to supernatural or spiritual)
laws and forces operate in the universe. Adherents of naturalism assert that natural laws are the rules that
govern the structure and behavior of the natural universe, that the changing universe at every stage is a product
of these laws.
 Naturalism is not so much a special system as a point of view or tendency common to a number of
philosophical and religious systems; not so much a well-defined set of positive and negative doctrines as an
attitude or spirit pervading and influencing many doctrines. As the name implies, this tendency consists
essentially in looking upon nature as the one original and fundamental source of all that exists, and in
attempting to explain everything in terms of nature. Either the limits of nature are also the limits of existing
reality, or at least the first cause, if its existence is found necessary, has nothing to do with the working of
natural agencies. All events, therefore, find their adequate explanation within nature itself. But, as the terms
nature and natural are themselves used in more than one sense, the term naturalism is also far from having one
fixed meaning.
— Dubray 1911
"Naturalism can intuitively be separated into an ontological and a methodological component", argues David
Papineau. "Ontological" refers to the philosophical study of the nature of being. Some philosophers equate
naturalism with materialism. For example, philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that nature is best accounted for by
reference to material principles. These principles include mass, energy, and other physical and chemical
properties accepted by the scientific community. Further, this sense of naturalism holds that spirits, deities,
and ghosts are not real and that there is no "purpose" in nature. Such an absolute belief in naturalism is
commonly referred to as metaphysical naturalism.Assuming naturalism in working methods as the current
paradigm, without the further consideration of naturalism as an absolute truth with philosophical entailment, is
called methodological naturalism.[4]
With the exception of pantheists—who believe that Nature is identical with divinity while not recognizing a
distinct personal anthropomorphic god—theists challenge the idea that nature contains all of reality. According
to some theists, natural laws may be viewed as secondary causes of God(s).
In the 20th century, Willard Van Orman Quine, George Santayana, and other philosophers argued that the
success of naturalism in science meant that scientific methods should also be used in philosophy. Science and
philosophy are said to form a continuum, according to this view.
Origins and history

The current usage of the term naturalism "derives from debates in America in the first half of the 20th century.
The self-proclaimed 'naturalists' from that period included John Dewey, Ernest Nagel, Sidney Hook and Roy
Wood Sellars."
Currently, metaphysical naturalism is more widely embraced than in previous centuries, especially but not
exclusively in the natural sciences and the Anglo-American, analytic philosophical communities. While the vast
majority of the population of the world remains firmly committed to non-naturalistic worldviews, prominent
contemporary defenders of naturalism and/or naturalistic theses and doctrines today include Kai Nielsen, J. J. C.
Smart, David Malet Armstrong, David Papineau, Paul Kurtz, Brian Leiter, Daniel Dennett, Michael Devitt, Fred
Dretske, Paul and Patricia Churchland, Mario Bunge, Jonathan Schaffer, Hilary Kornblith, Quentin Smith, Paul
Draper and Michael Martin, among many other academic philosophers.
According to David Papineau, contemporary naturalism is a consequence of the build-up of scientific evidence
during the twentieth century for the "causal closure of the physical", the doctrine that all physical effects can be
accounted for by physical causes.
Description
According to Steven Schafersman, naturalism is a philosophy that maintains that;
1. "Nature encompasses all that exists throughout space and time;
2. Nature (the universe or cosmos) consists only of natural elements, that is, of spatio-
temporal physical substance—mass–energy. Non-physical or quasi-physical substance, such
 as information, ideas, values, logic, mathematics, intellect, and other emergent phenomena,
either supervene upon the physical or can be reduced to a physical account;
3. Nature operates by the laws of physics and in principle, can be explained and understood by science and
philosophy;
4. The supernatural does not exist, i.e., only nature is real. Naturalism is therefore a metaphysical philosophy
opposed primarily by supernaturalism".
Or, as Carl Sagan succinctly put it: "The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be."
In addition Arthur C. Danto states that Naturalism, in recent usage, is a species of philosophical monism
according to which whatever exists or happens is natural in the sense of being susceptible to explanation
through methods which, although paradigmatically exemplified in the natural sciences, are continuous from
domain to domain of objects and events. Hence, naturalism is polemically defined as repudiating the view that
there exists or could exist any entities which lie, in principle, beyond the scope of scientific explanation. Arthur
Newell Strahler states: "The naturalistic view is that the particular universe we observe came into existence and
has operated through all time and in all its parts without the impetus or guidance of any supernatural agency."
"The great majority of contemporary philosophers urge that that reality is exhausted by nature, containing
nothing ‘supernatural’, and that the scientific method should be used to investigate all areas of reality, including
the ‘human spirit’.” Philosophers widely regard naturalism as a "positive" term, and "few active philosophers
nowadays are happy to announce themselves as 'non-naturalists'".
Providing assumptions required for science
According to Robert Priddy, all scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential assumptions that
are untested by scientific processes; that is, that scientists must start with some assumptions as to the ultimate
analysis of the facts with which it deals. These assumptions would then be justified partly by their adherence to
the types of occurrence of which we are directly conscious, and partly by their success in representing the
observed facts with a certain generality, devoid of ad hoc suppositions."Kuhn also claims that all science is
based on an approved agenda of unprovable assumptions about the character of the universe, rather than merely
on empirical facts. These assumptions—a paradigm—comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques
that are held by a given scientific community, which legitimize their systems and set the limitations to their
investigation. For naturalists, nature is the only reality, the "correct" paradigm, and there is no such thing as
'supernatural'. The scientific method is to be used to investigate all reality, including the human spirit.
Some claim that naturalism is the implicit philosophy of working scientists, and that the following basic
assumptions are needed to justify the scientific method.
1. that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers. The basis for rationality is acceptance of an
external objective reality." "Objective reality is clearly an essential thing if we are to develop a meaningful
perspective of the world. Nevertheless its very existence is assumed." Our belief that objective reality exist is an
assumption that it arises from a real world outside of ourselves. As infants we made this assumption
unconsciously. People are happy to make this assumption that adds meaning to our sensations and feelings, than
live with solipsism." Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in our own mind
(which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else." that this
objective reality is governed by natural laws; Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys to
knoweable principles that don't depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think,
know or how we behave. Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that "the physical world is orderly and
comprehensible."
2. that reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Stanley Sobottka said:
"The assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish. For the most part,
science is the discovering and explaining of the external world." "Science attempts to produce knowledge that is
as universal and objective as possible within the realm of human understanding."that Nature has uniformity of
laws and most if not all things in nature must have at least a natural cause. Biologist Stephen Jay
 Gould referred to these two closely related propositions as the constancy of nature's laws and the operation of
known processes. Simpson agrees that the axiom of uniformity of law, an unprovable postulate, is necessary in
order for scientists to extrapolate inductive inference into the unobservable past in order to meaningfully study
it.
3. that experimental procedures will be done satisfactorily without any deliberate or unintentional mistakes that
will influence the results.
4. that experimenters won't be significantly biased by their presumptions.
5. that random sampling is representative of the entire population. A simple random sample (SRS) is the most
basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. The benefit of SRS is that the
investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample that represents the population that ensures statistically valid
conclusions.
Metaphysical naturalism
Metaphysical naturalism, also called "ontological naturalism" and "philosophical naturalism", is a philosophical
worldview and belief system that holds that there is nothing but natural elements, principles, and relations of the
kind studied by the natural sciences, i.e., those required to understand our physical environment
by mathematical modeling. Methodological naturalism, on the other hand, refers exclusively to the
methodology of science, for which metaphysical naturalism provides only one possible ontological foundation.
Metaphysical naturalism holds that all properties related to consciousness and the mind are reducible to,
or supervene upon, nature. Broadly, the corresponding theological perspective is religious naturalism or
spiritual naturalism. More specifically, metaphysical naturalism rejects the supernatural concepts and
explanations that are part of many religions.
Methodological naturalism
Methodological naturalism concerns itself with methods of learning what nature is. These methods are useful
in the evaluation of claims about existence and knowledge and in identifying causal mechanisms responsible for
the emergence of physical phenomena. It attempts to explain and test scientific endeavors, hypotheses, and
events with reference to natural causes and events. This second sense of the term "naturalism" seeks to provide
a framework within which to conduct the scientific study of the laws of nature. Methodological naturalism is a
way of acquiring knowledge. It is a distinct system of thought concerned with a cognitive approach to reality,
and is thus a philosophy of knowledge. Studies by sociologist Elaine Ecklund suggest that religious scientists in
practice apply methodological naturalism. They report that their religious beliefs affect the way they think about
the implications – often moral – of their work, but not the way they practice science.
Steven Schafersman states that methodological naturalism is "the adoption or assumption of philosophical
naturalism within the scientific method with or without fully accepting or believing it ... science is not
metaphysical and does not depend on the ultimate truth of any metaphysics for its success, but methodological
naturalism must be adopted as a strategy or working hypothesis for science to succeed. We may therefore be
agnostic about the ultimate truth of naturalism, but must nevertheless adopt it and investigate nature as if nature
is all that there is."
In a series of articles and books from 1996 onward, Robert T. Pennock wrote using the term "methodological
naturalism" to clarify that the scientific method confines itself to natural explanations without assuming the
existence or non-existence of the supernatural, and is not based on dogmatic metaphysical naturalism.
Pennock's testimony as an expert witness at the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial was cited by the
Judge in his Memorandum Opinion concluding that "Methodological naturalism is a 'ground rule' of science
today":
Expert testimony reveals that since the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, science has been
limited to the search for natural causes to explain natural phenomena.....While supernatural explanations may be
important and have merit, they are not part of science." Methodological naturalism is thus "a paradigm of
science." It is a "ground rule" that "requires scientists to seek explanations in the world around us based upon
what we can observe, test, replicate, and verify.
Schafersman writes that "while science as a process only requires methodological naturalism, I think that the
assumption of methodological naturalism by scientists and others logically and morally entails ontological
naturalism",and "I maintain that the practice or adoption of methodological naturalism entails a logical and
moral belief in ontological naturalism, so they are not logically decoupled.
Views
Alvin Plantinga
Alvin Plantinga, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Notre Dame, and a Christian, has become a well-known
critic of naturalism. He suggests, in his evolutionary argument against naturalism, that the probability that
evolution has produced humans with reliable true beliefs, is low or inscrutable, unless the evolution of humans
was guided (for example, by God). According to David Kahan of the University of Glasgow, in order to
understand how beliefs are warranted, a justification must be found in the context of supernatural theism, as in
Plantinga's epistemology. Plantinga argues that together, naturalism and evolution provide an insurmountable
"defeater for the belief that our cognitive faculties are reliable", i.e., a skeptical argument along the lines of
Descartes' evil demon or brain in a vat.
Take philosophical naturalism to be the belief that there aren't any supernatural entities – no such person as
God, for example, but also no other supernatural entities, and nothing at all like God. My claim was that
naturalism and contemporary evolutionary theory are at serious odds with one another – and this despite the fact
that the latter is ordinarily thought to be one of the main pillars supporting the edifice of the former. (Of course I
am not attacking the theory of evolution, or anything in that neighborhood; I am instead attacking the
conjunction of naturalism with the view that human beings have evolved in that way. I see no similar problems
with the conjunction of theism and the idea that human beings have evolved in the way contemporary
evolutionary science suggests.) More particularly, I argued that the conjunction of naturalism with the belief
that we human beings have evolved in conformity with current evolutionary doctrine... is in a certain interesting
way self-defeating or self-referentially incoherent.
— Alvin Plantinga, Naturalism Defeated?: Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism,
"Introduction.
Robert T. Pennock
Robert T. Pennock contends that as supernatural agents and powers "are above and beyond the natural world
and its agents and powers" and "are not constrained by natural laws", only logical impossibilities constrain what
a supernatural agent cannot do. He states: "If we could apply natural knowledge to understand supernatural
powers, then, by definition, they would not be supernatural." As the supernatural is necessarily a mystery to us,
it can provide no grounds on which one can judge scientific models. "Experimentation requires observation and
control of the variables.....But by definition we have no control over supernatural entities or forces." Science
does not deal with meanings; the closed system of scientific reasoning cannot be used to define itself. Allowing
science to appeal to untestable supernatural powers would make the scientist's task meaningless, undermine the
discipline that allows science to make progress, and "would be as profoundly unsatisfying as the ancient Greek
playwright's reliance upon the deus ex machina to extract his hero from a difficult predicament."
Naturalism of this sort says nothing about the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural, which by this
definition is beyond natural testing. As a practical consideration, the rejection of supernatural explanations
would merely be pragmatic, thus it would nonetheless be possible for an ontological supernaturalist to espouse
and practice methodological naturalism. For example, scientists may believe in God while practicing
methodological naturalism in their scientific work. This position does not preclude knowledge that is somehow
connected to the supernatural. Generally however, anything that one can examine and explain scientifically
would not be supernatural, simply by definition.
W. V. O. Quine
W. V. O. Quine describes naturalism as the position that there is no higher tribunal for truth than natural science
itself. In his view, there is no better method than the scientific method for judging the claims of science, and
there is neither any need nor any place for a "first philosophy", such as (abstract) metaphysics or epistemology,
that could stand behind and justify science or the scientific method.
Therefore, philosophy should feel free to make use of the findings of scientists in its own pursuit, while also
feeling free to offer criticism when those claims are ungrounded, confused, or inconsistent. In Quine's view,
philosophy is "continuous with" science and both are empirical.Naturalism is not a dogmatic belief that the
modern view of science is entirely correct. Instead, it simply holds that science is the best way to explore the
processes of the universe and that those processes are what modern science is striving to understand. However,
this Quinean Replacement Naturalism finds relatively few supporters among philosophers.
Karl Popper
Karl Popper equated naturalism with inductive theory of science. He rejected it based on his general critique of
induction . yet acknowledged its utility as means for inventing conjectures.
A naturalistic methodology (sometimes called an "inductive theory of science") has its value, no doubt......I
reject the naturalistic view: It is uncritical. Its upholders fail to notice that whenever they believe to have
discovered a fact, they have only proposed a convention. Hence the convention is liable to turn into a dogma.
This criticism of the naturalistic view applies not only to its criterion of meaning, but also to its idea of science,
and consequently to its idea of empirical method.
References[edit]
Audi, Robert (1996). "Naturalism". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy Supplement.
USA: Macmillan Reference. pp. 372–374.
Carrier, Richard (2005). Sense and Goodness without God: A defense of Metaphysical Naturalism.
AuthorHouse. p 444. ISBN 1-4208-0293-3.
Danto, Arthur C. (1967). "Naturalism". In Edwards, Paul (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York:
The Macmillan. pp. 448–450.
Dubray, Charles Albert (1911). "Naturalism" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 10. New
York: Robert Appleton Company.
Gould, Stephen J. (1984). "Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history".
In Bergren, W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. (eds.). Catastrophes and Earth History. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press.
Gould, Stephen J. (1987). Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological
Time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 119.
Hooykaas, R. (1963). The principle of uniformity in geology, biology, and theology (2nd ed.). London: E.J.
Brill.
Kurtz, Paul (1990). Philosophical Essays in Pragmatic Naturalism. Prometheus Books.
Lacey, Alan R. (1995). "Naturalism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford
University Press. pp. 604–606.
Post, John F. (1995). "Naturalism". In Audi, Robert (ed.). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 517–518.
Rea, Michael (2002). World Without Design: The Ontological Consequences of Naturalism. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-924760-9.
Sagan, Carl (2002). Cosmos. Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50832-5.
Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton Jr., C. C. (ed.). Fabric of geology. Stanford,
California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company.
Strahler, Arthur N. (1992). Understanding Science: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues. Buffalo:
Prometheus Books.
Stone, J.A. (2008). Religious Naturalism Today: The Rebirth of a Forgotten Alternative. G – Reference,
Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. State University of New York Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7914-
7537-9. LCCN 2007048682.
Web
Schafersman, Steven D. (1996). "Naturalism is Today An Essential Part of Science". Retrieved 3
November 2010.
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Q.3: Write a note on realism as a main philosophical thought?
ANS: Realism
philosophy
Philosophizing is the thinking that has 3 (three) characteristics, namely radical (thought up by the roots, not
half-hearted), systematic (logical thinking), and universal (think overall). In relation to education, education
directly related to the purpose of life and the lives of individuals and society education. Education can not be
fully understood without understanding the ultimate goal being sourced to the goals and views of human life.
The concept of world views and life goals will be a cornerstone in setting educational goals. Approach to what
and how the philosophy of education can be done through several perspectives. The first viewpoint says that the
philosophy of education can be composed because the linear relationship between philosophy and education.
For example, some schools of thought can be connected in such a way as to educational philosophy. 2.
Discussion a. Definition of Realism The term realism comes from the Latin "realists" who is to be really, really
real. Realism is a philosophy that assumes that there is a real external world can be recognized. Therefore,
realism holds that sensory perception and sense objects really exist, regardless of the senses and the mind that it
was him because the object can be investigated, analyzed, studied by science, nature discovered by science and
philosophy. Realism in various forms according to Kattsoff (1996: 126) draw a sharp dividing line between the
knowing and the known, and generally inclined toward materialistic dualism or monism. A materialistic
followers say that the soul and the material completely alike. If so, it would be equally said to be "the soul is the
matter" as saying "matter is spirit." But if people are trying to trace the spirit to the material or the material to
the spiritual, depending on which one is considered primary. When people say "life is a matter" and because the
material is not likely to have the intent, it is also not possible to have the intent soul. On the other hand if the
material is the soul, the universe can be understood as one that had the purpose or can be said to be
"teleological". 1
2. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements As a school of philosophy, realism holds that there are five senses
and captured the concept in mind that there are real there. Example: a stumbling stone in the road there is a new
experience. Roses fragrance stimulates the nose is real there is perched on a tree branch the garden flowers.
Realism acknowledge and accept the unity between esensia and existence, the nature and existence of objects
which are captured by five senses and understood by the mind. b. Rationale of Realism Education According to
realism, the purpose of education will be formulated as an effort to develop the potential of existing and owned
by the students to be as optimal as possible. According to realism, that is the nature of reality that are on the
"things" or "objects". So, not something that escapes or is released from its owner. Therefore, it is natural that
the first concern in education is what is on the learner. The followers of realism have agreement on the basic
principles relating to education. Some basic principles of educational realism is as follows: 1. Learning to
essentially put the attention on the learner as it is. 2. Initiatives in education should emphasize education rather
than children. 3. The core of the educational process is the assimilation of the subject matter that has been
determined. Curriculum in organizing and planned with certainty by the teacher. Widely material and social
environment, human beings that determines how he should live. Some learning principles proposed by
Comenius (Sadulloh, 2003) are: 1. Learning should be based on the interests of students. Success in learning is
not as imposed from outside, but rather is a result of personal development. 2. Each subject should have the
outline, outline of teaching and learning, syllabus and lesson plans, and already there at the beginning of
learning. 3. At the beginning of the meeting or the beginning of the lesson, the teacher should convey
information about the outlines of learning that students will learn. 4. Classes should be enriched with pictures
maps, photographs, works of students and everything which is related to the teaching and learning activities
provided or performed. 5. Learning should take place simultaneously with the previous lesson so that it
becomes a unified whole and keep abreast of knowledge on a continuous basis. 2
3. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements 6. Any activities that teachers do with students should be helped to
the development of human nature, and the students pointed to the practical importance of each system value. 7.
Lessons in the same subject is for all learners. c. Fundamental Postulates and Main Tenets 1. Realism tries to
build up a body of systematized knowledge, which is certain and objective and agrees with the standpoint of
physical sciences. It says that every reality can be proved by observation, experience, experiment and scientific
reasoning, For them, experience is the touchstone of what is real. Whenever the simple and direct experience
cant determine the objective truth, the common sense puts its truth in scientific research. In the present world of
falling idols and falling ideals, the realists emphasize the role of intelligence as great significant, as it formulates
the concepts and develops general and abstract ideas. 2. The realists of all brands aver that values are permanent
and objective and say that although institutions and practices very a great deal, the fundamental values of
society should not change. The children should be taught those values, which have proved enduring throughout
history. They should be taught the nature of ‘right and ‘wrong and what is objectively good and beautiful. In
brief, Realism believes in the usefulness of the world and the material existence in its field of action . It believes
that whatever is real is independent. Whatever is, is and exists. Its presence of existence does not depend upon
the knower. (Compare with idealists standpoint. ) The individual doesnt make reality, he only discovers it. Main
Tenets : 1. Realism believes in the world which we see of perceive to be real. 2. Realists believe in the present
life. 3. They believe that the truth of life and aim of life are in the development from the present unsystematic
life. 4. Knowledge is real and can be assimilated by the human beings. 5. The realists distinguish between
‘appearance and ‘reality. 6. Realism believes that there is an objective reality apart from that which is presented
to the consciousness. 3
4. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements The developing realism has adopted four points in education : 1.
Humanistic Realism Humanistic realism is the reaction against the emphasis on form and style of the old
classical literature. It has great regard for the ancient literature but it emphasizes the study of content and ideas
in the ancient classical literature to understand ones present social life and environment. The aim is not to study
the form and style of old literature to have mastery over it. The study of old literature is a means to understand
the practical life. 2. Social Realism Social Realism in education is the reaction against a type of education that
produces scholars and professional men to the neglect of the man of affairs i.e. practice. Education should not
produce men who are unfit in social life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the
practical man of the world. 3. Sense Realism, and The sense realism in education emphasizes the training of the
senses. Senses are the gateways of knowledge and learning takes place the operation of the senses. According to
sense-realists nature is the treasure house of all knowledge and this knowledge can be obtained through the
training of the senses. 4. Neo-Realism. Neo-Realism is really a philosophical thought. It appears the methods
and results of modern development in physics. They do not consider the scientific principles everlasting while
they express the changeability in them. They support the education of art with the science and analytical system
of education with the humanistic feelings. They consider living and un living all objective to be organs and the
development of organs is the main objective and all round development of the objects is the main characteristic
of education. Bertrand Russel and whitehead were the supporters of this faculty. d. Realism and Aims of
education "Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to them aims are
specific to each individual and his perspectives." (Seetharamu, A.S. : philosophies of Education, p.74). And
each one has different perspectives. The aim of education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to
understand the present practical life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the
practical man of the world. 4
5. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements The science realists expressed that the education should be conducted
on universal basis. Greater stress should be laid upon the observation of nature and the education of science.
Neo-realists aim at developing all round development of the objects with the development of their organs. e.
Realism and Methods of Teaching i. Education should proceed from simple to complex and from concrete to
abstract. ii. Things before rules and words. iii. Students to be taught to analyze rather than to construct. iv.
Vernacular to be the medium of instruction. v. The order of nature to be sought and followed. vi. Repetition is
necessary for retention. vii. Individuals experience and spirit of inquiry is more important than authority. viii.
No unintelligent cramming. More emphasis on questioning and understanding. ix. Methods of scientific
thinking formulated by sir Thomas Bacon. x. Social realists follow the method of travel of journey method,
which will give real experience of varied aspects of life improve knowledge and mental faculties. f. Realism
and The Teacher 1. A teacher should be such that he himself be educated and well versed with the customs of
belief and rights and duties of people, and the trends of all ages and places. 2. He must have full mastery of the
knowledge of present life. 3. He must guide the student towards the hard realities of life. He is neither pessimist,
nor optimist. 4. He must be able to expose children to the problems of life and the world around. A teacher
should always keep in mind : 1. Re-capitulation is necessary to make the knowledge permanent. 2. One subject
should be taught at one time. 3. No pressure or coercion be brought upon the child. 4. The practice of cramming
should be given up. 5. The uniformity should be the basic principle in all things. 6. Things should be introduced
first and then the words. . The entire knowledge should be gained after experience. 8. The knowledge should be
imparted on the basis of organs. 9. Straight forward method should be adopted for teaching.
6. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements 10. There should be a co-relation between utility in daily life and
education. 11. The child should be told the utility of whatever is taught. 12. The simple rules should be defined.
13. All the subjects should be taught in proper order. 14. Various organs of education should be taught in
chronological order. 15. The topic should not be given up unless the boys understand it well. 16. To find out the
interest of the child and to teach accordingly. g. Realism and The Child 1. Realism in education recognizes the
importance of the child. The child is a real unit which has real existence. He has some feelings, some desires
and some powers. All these cannot be overlooked. These powers of the child shall have to be given due regard
at the time of planning education. 2. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason. 3. Child has to be
given as much freedom as possible. 4. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts. 5. The child
can learn only when he follows the laws of learning (When only one response is repeated for one stimulus, it
conditioned by that stimulus. Now wherever that situation comes, response will be the same; this is the fact.) 6.
The child is to be understood a creature of the real world there is no sense in making him a God . He has to be
trained to become a man only. h. Realism and Discipline Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary
in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out
change in the real world is impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and
adjust himself to the world. A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies,
hardships and shortcomings pervading the world. Realism has vehemently opposed withdrawal from life. One
has to adjust oneself to this material world. Thus, the realism has brought great effect in various fields of
education. The aims, the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the child, the teachers, the
discipline and the system of education all were given new blood. Realism in education dragged the education
from the old traditions, idealism and the high and low tides to the real surface.
7. Philosophy Mathematics Achievements i. Dark Side of Realism 1. The realist claims to be objective.
Objectivity in knowledge is nothing but the partnership of personal knowledge. Knowledge is always
subjective. 2. The realist recognizes the origin of knowledge from the datum achieved by senses and asserts that
only objects are main and it is through their contact that knowledge is acquired. Then how does our illusion
arise? How does knowledge become fallacious? Where does the external object go in dream? The realist is
unable to answer these questions satisfactorily. 3. The realist does not accept the existence of transcendental (
not based on experience or reason ) being. How could be know the non-existence of that which does not exist?
Has non-existence got no existence? void ness and non-existence also are the parts of existence. Here the realist
is dumb completely. 4. Today the effect of realism has given rise to the wave of science. It is right, but there
should be no indifference towards art and literature. The realist supports this negligence. 5. Realism enthusiastic
disappointment in students and teachers. No progress can be made by having faith in the facts of daily life and
shattering faith in ideals. Life is but full of miseries and struggles. Sorrow is more predominant than joy in the
world. A person becomes disappointed by this feeling. That is why realists often appear to be skeptics ( person
who doubts the truth of a particular claim, theory etc. ), pessimists and objectionists. 3. Conclusion The doctrine
of realism believes that with something or the other way, there are things that are just in and of itself, and that is
essentially not affected by someone. For example, the facts show, the table remains as represented there,
although no one in the room was a catch. So the table is not dependent on our ideas about it, but it depends on
the table. There are two main contributions of the education based upon the realism. Firstly, it tried to remove
the gulf-between the life and education. Secondly, it propounded the principle of experimentation and
observation in education. It was realism that first introduced the thought that the organs are the door way to
knowledge and the knowledge can be gained through the inductive method. The wordy education and bookish
knowledge are not sufficient.

Varieties Of Philosophical Realism

The history of Western philosophy is checkered with disputes between those who have defended forms of
realism and those who have opposed them. While there are certainly significant similarities linking the variety
of positions commonly described as realist, there are also important differences which obstruct any
straightforward general characterization of realism. Many, if not all, of these disputes may be seen as concerned
in one way or another with the relations between, on the one hand, human beings as thinkers and subjects of
experience and, on the other hand, the objects of their knowledge, belief, and experience. Do sense
perception and other forms of cognition, and the scientific theorizing which attempts to make sense of their
deliverances, provide knowledge of things which exist and are as they are independently of
people’s cognitive or investigative activities? It is at least roughly true to say that philosophical realists are
those who defend an affirmative answer to the question, either across the board or with respect to certain areas
of knowledge or belief—e.g., the external world, scientific theories, mathematics, or morality.
The affirmative answer may seem no more than the merest common sense, because the vast majority of one’s
beliefs are certainly most naturally taken to concern mind-independent objects whose existence is an entirely
objective matter. And this seems to be so whether the beliefs in question are about mundane matters such as
one’s immediate surroundings or about theoretical scientific entities such as subatomic particles, fundamental
forces, and so on. Nevertheless, much argument and clarification of the issues and concepts involved (e.g.,
objectivity and mind-independence) is required if the realism favoured by common sense is to be sustained as a
philosophical position.

Any general statement of realism, however, inevitably obscures the great variation in focus in controversies
between realists and antirealists from antiquity to the present day. In some controversies, what is primarily at
issue is a question of ontology, concerning the existence of entities of some problematic kind. In others, the
opposition, while still broadly ontological in character, concerns rather the ultimate nature of reality as a whole,
a historically important example being the controversies generated by various forms of idealism. In yet others
the dispute, while not entirely divorced from questions of ontology, is primarily concerned with the notion
of truth, either in general or in application to statements of some particular type, such as moral judgments or
theoretical scientific claims about unobservable entities.
Realism In Ontology
In application to matters of ontology, realism is standardly applied to doctrines which assert the existence of
entities of some problematic or controversial kind. Even under this more restricted heading, however, realism
and opposition to it have taken significantly different forms, as illustrated in the following three examples.

Universals
One of the earliest and most famous realist doctrines is Plato’s theory of Forms, which asserts that things such
as “the Beautiful” (or “Beauty”) and “the Just” (or “Justice”) exist over and above the particular beautiful
objects and just acts in which they are instantiated and more or less imperfectly exemplified; the Forms
themselves are thought of as located neither in space nor in time. Although Plato’s usual term for them (eido) is
often translated in English as Idea, it is clear that he does not think of them as mental but rather as abstract,
existing independently both of mental activity and of sensible particulars. As such, they lie beyond the reach
of sense perception, which Plato regards as providing only beliefs about appearances as opposed to knowledge
of what is truly real. Indeed, the Forms are knowable only by the philosophically schooled intellect.
Although the interpretation of Plato’s theory remains a matter of scholarly controversy, there is no doubt that
his promulgation of it initiated an enduring dispute about the existence of universals—often conceived, in
opposition to particulars, as entities, such as general properties, which may be wholly present at different times
and places or instantiated by many distinct particular objects. Plato’s pupil Aristotle reacted against the extreme
realism which he took Plato to be endorsing: the thesis of universalia ante res (Latin: “universals before
things”), according to which universals exist in their own right, prior to and independently of their instantiation
by sensible particulars. He advocated instead a more moderate realism of universalia in rebus (“universals in
things”): While there are universals, they can have no freestanding, independent existence. They exist only in
the particulars that instantiate them.
In the medieval period, defenders of a broadly Aristotelian realism, including William of Shyreswood and Peter
of Spain, were opposed by both nominalists and conceptualists. Nominalists, notably William of Ockham,
insisted that everything in the nonlinguistic world is particular. They argued that universals are merely words
which have a general application—an application which is sufficiently explained by reference to the similarities
among the various particulars to which the words are applied. Conceptualists agreed with the nominalists that
everything is particular but held that words which have general application do so by virtue of standing for
mental intermediaries, usually called general ideas or concepts.
Although medieval in origin, the latter view found its best-known implementation in the English
philosopher John Locke’s theory of abstract ideas, so called because they are supposed to be formed from the
wholly particular ideas supplied in experience by “abstracting” from their differences to leave only what is
common to all of them. Locke’s doctrine was vigorously criticized in the 18th century by his empiricist
successors, George Berkeley and David Hume, who argued that ideas corresponding to general words are fully
determinate and particular and that their generality of application is achieved by making one particular idea
stand indifferently as a representative of many.
The problem of universals remains an important focus of metaphysical discussion. Although Plato’s extreme
realism has found few advocates, in the later 20th century there was a revival of interest in Aristotle’s moderate
realism, a version of which has been defended—with important modifications—by the Australian philosopher
David Armstrong.
Abstract entities and modern nominalism
In the second half of the 20th century the term nominalism took on a somewhat broader sense than the one it
had in the medieval dispute about universals. It is now used as a name for any position which denies the
existence of abstract entities of any sort, including not only universals but also numbers, sets, and other
abstracta which form the apparent subject matter of mathematical theories. In their classic nominalist manifesto,
“Steps Toward a Constructive Nominalism” (1947), the American philosophers Nelson Goodman and W.V.O.
Quine declared:
We do not believe in abstract entities. No one supposes that abstract entities—classes, relations, properties, etc.—
exist in space-time; but we mean more than this. We renounce them altogether.…Any system
that countenances abstract entities we deem unsatisfactory as a final philosophy.
The term “Platonism” has often been used, especially in the philosophy of mathematics, as an alternative to the
correspondingly wider use of “realism” to denote ontological views to which such nominalism stands opposed.
Nominalists have often recommended their rejection of abstracta on grounds of ontological
economy, invoking the methodological maxim known as Ockham’s razor—Entia non sunt multiplicanda
praeter necessitatem (“Entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity”). The maxim is problematic,
however, for at least two reasons. First, it gives a clear directive only when accompanied by some answer to the
obvious question, “Necessary for what?” Although the answer—“Necessary to account for all the (agreed upon)
facts”—is equally obvious, it is doubtful that there is sufficient agreement between the nominalist and the realist
to enable the former to cut away abstracta as unnecessary. The realist is likely to suppose that the relevant facts
include the facts of mathematics, which, taken at face value, do require the existence of numbers, sets, and so
on.
But second, even if the facts could be restricted, without begging the question, to facts about what is concrete, it
is still unclear that the nominalist will be in a position to wield the razor to his advantage, because it may be
argued that such facts admit of no satisfactory explanation without the aid of scientific (and especially physical)
theories which make indispensable use of mathematics. Indispensability arguments of this kind were advanced
by the American philosopher Hilary Putnam and (relinquishing his earlier nominalism) by Quine.
Other, perhaps weightier, arguments for nominalism appeal to the broadly epistemological problems
confronting realism. Given that numbers, sets, and other abstracta could, by their very nature, stand in no
spatiotemporal (and therefore no causal) relation to human beings, there can be no satisfactory explanation of
how humans are able to think about and refer to abstracta or come to know truths about them.
Whether or not these problems are insuperable, it is clear that, because theories (especially mathematical
theories) ostensibly involving reference to abstracta appear to play an indispensable role in the
human intellectual economy, nominalists can scarcely afford simply to reject them outright; they must explain
how such theories may be justifiably retained, consistently with nominalistic scruples.
Attempts by orthodox nominalists to reinterpret or reconstruct mathematical theories in ways which avoid
reference to abstracta have not met with conspicuous success. Following a more radical course, the American
philosopher Hartry Field has argued that nominalists can accept mathematical theories under certain conditions
while denying that they are true. They can be accepted provided that they are conservative—i.e., provided that
their conjunction with nonmathematical (scientific and especially physical) theories entails no claims about
nonmathematical entities which are not logical consequences of the nonmathematical theories themselves.
Conservativeness is thus a strong form of logical consistency. Because consistency in general does not
require truth, a mathematical theory can be conservative without being true.
Possible worlds
One kind of modal realism holds that there is a distinctive class of truths essentially involving the modal notions
of necessity and possibility. Since the mid-20th century, however, advances in modal logic—in particular the
development of possible-world semantics—have given rise to a further, distinctively ontological dispute
concerning whether that semantics gives a literally correct account of the “truth-conditions” of modal
propositions. According to possible-world semantics, (1) a proposition is necessarily true if (and only if) it is
true not only in the actual world but in all possible worlds; and (2) a proposition is possibly true if and only if it
is true in at least one possible world, perhaps distinct from the actual world. If statements 1 and 2 are literally
correct descriptions of the truth-conditions of modal propositions, then, if any truths are nontrivially necessary
or correctly assert unrealized possibilities, there must exist, in addition to the actual world, many other merely
possible worlds. Modal realism, in the uncompromising form defended by the American philosopher David
Lewis, is the view that there exists a (very large) plurality of worlds, each of which is a spatiotemporally (and
therefore causally) closed system, disjoint from all others and comprising its own distinctive collection
of concrete particulars, replete with all their properties and relations to each other.
Although Lewis’s worlds are not, as he conceived them, abstract entities, it is clear that his realism faces
epistemological objections similar to those mentioned in connection with abstracta. These, along with other
considerations, led some philosophers to propose alternatives designed to secure the benefits of possible-world
semantics without the costs of full-blooded realism. The alternatives included a more moderate realism
propounded by the American philosopher Robert Stalnaker which denies Lewis’s homogeneity thesis (the claim
that merely possible worlds are entities of the same kind as the actual world), as well as fictionalism, the view
that possible-world theory is literally false but useful.
Realism And Idealism
The opposition between idealism and realism, although undeniably ontological in a broad sense, is distinct both
from general disputes about realism in ontology and from disputes which turn upon the notion of truth or its
applicability to statements of some specified type (see below Realism and truth). In its most straightforward
and, arguably, basic sense, idealism not only asserts the existence of “ideas” (and perhaps other mental entities)
but also advances a restrictive claim about the nature or composition of reality as whole: there is nothing in
reality other than ideas and the minds whose ideas they are. So understood, idealism is a form of monism, which
is opposed both to other forms of monism (e.g., materialism) and to pluralism, which posits two or more
irreducibly distinct kinds of stuff or things (e.g., mental and physical, as in various versions of dualism).
A paradigmatic example of an idealist position is Berkeley’s rejection of “brute matter” as unintelligible and his
accompanying doctrine that reality consists exclusively of “ideas”—for which esse est percipi (“to be is to be
perceived”)—and “spirits,” including finite spirits corresponding to individual human beings and at least
one infinite spirit, or God. If idealism in this sense is to be viewed as a kind of antirealism, the realism it
opposes must be one which maintains the existence of material things independently of their being perceived or
otherwise related to any mind, finite or otherwise.
The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant recognized that Berkeley’s “dogmatic idealism”
involved denying the independent reality of space. Berkeley’s arguments, he thought, were effective
against metaphysical positions which assumed that space is a property of “things in themselves,” as opposed to
their representations, or “appearances,” in the mind. Kant argued to the contrary that space as well as time are
forms of “sensible intuition,” or the mode in which the mind is affected by sensible objects. Thus, the reality of
objects external to the mind (objects in space) is guaranteed, because being in space and time is a condition of
being an object of sensible experience at all. Kant’s combination of transcendental idealism—the doctrine that
what is given in experience are only appearances—with empirical realism—the view that there are objects
external to the mind—allowed him to reject the conception of external objects as “lying behind” appearances
and as knowable only (if at all) by a problematic and ultimately indefensible inference from what is given in
experience to its hidden causes.

Refernce
Q.4: ; Michele
How can Pasaribufoundations
psychological Sep 21, 2012 Published
help in: Education,
us in developing on slide strategies?
instructional share
ANS; Understanding Educational Psychology
Today’s educational system is highly complex. There is no single learning approach that works for everyone.
That’s why psychologists working in the field of education are focused on identifying and studying learning
methods to better understand how people absorb and retain new information.
Educational psychologists apply theories of human development to understand individual learning and inform
the instructional process. While interaction with teachers and students in school settings is an important part of
their work, it isn’t the only facet of the job. Learning is a lifelong endeavor. People don’t only learn at school,
they learn at work, in social situations and even doing simple tasks like household chores or running errands.
Psychologists working in this subfield examine how people learn in a variety of settings to identify approaches
and strategies to make learning more effective.
Research in Action

Educational Psychology Applied

Psychologists working in education study the social, emotional and cognitive processes involved in learning and
apply their findings to improve the learning process. Some specialize in the educational development of a
specific group of people such as children, adolescents or adults, while others focus on specific learning
challenges such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or dyslexia.
No matter the population they are studying, these professionals are interested in teaching methods, the
instructional process and different learning outcomes.
How much does the time of day when new information is introduced influence whether a person retains that
information? What does culture have to do with how we process new ideas? How does age affect our ability to
develop new skills, like language? How is in-person learning different from remote learning using technology?
How does the choice of a media platform make a difference in learning?
These are all questions that educational psychologists are asking — and answering — in settings as diverse as
government research centers, schools, community organizations and learning centers.
Educational psychology is a subfield of psychology. It takes theories, research, principles, and knowledge from
psychology, and uses them in education.
Education includes a wide range of teaching and learning situations, from children being taught by a teacher and
learning in a classroom at school, to university students learning from an instructor in a lecture or a tutorial, to
individuals teaching themselves a new skill at home. Essentially education can include any situation in which
someone acquires knowledge by means of a process.
Educational psychologists define the field
There are many varying definitions of educational psychology in the literature.
Robert Slavin defines educational psychology quite narrowly as the systematic study of learners, learning, and
teaching (1994, 24). Bruce Tuckman and David Monetti’s definition is slightly broader. They define
educational psychology as the study of human behavior applied to the teaching and learning processes (2011,
5).
Investigations of another educational psychologist, Anita Woolfolk, show distinct changes in the research focus
of educational psychologists over time. In earlier decades educational psychologists tended to study individual
differences, assessment, and learning behaviors. More recently they have studied cognitive development and
learning, specifically concept learning, memory, and retention. Most recently educational psychologists have
focused on studying the effects of society and culture on learning and development (2010, 10).
Educational psychology in an interactive context
Tuckman and Monetti (2011, 6) describe some of the difficulties that teachers have to deal with on a daily basis.
Teaching is a profession that depends almost entirely on interaction with other people. Teachers have to manage
this interaction with students so that students learn what they are supposed to learn. This is difficult because
interpersonal interactions are complex and have different dimensions. These almost always have to be managed
at the same time. For example, teachers have to schedule, observe, record, evaluate, and react to a large number
of students who may all be doing different things. Further, teacher behavior and student behavior are often
dependent on each other. This means that teachers cannot delay their actions in the classroom. They must think
quickly to react to the challenges that they face.
Educational psychology prepares teachers for these challenges by providing them with theories and principles
about teaching and learning. It encourages teachers to reflect (think) about the needs of their learners and to be
sensitive to the issues that learners might be facing in achieving their learning goals. In this way, educational
psychology helps teachers become more effective and improves the chances of their learners achieving success
in the classroom.
Research by psychologists has shown that human behavior is very complex. For example, although
developmental psychologists such as Erik Erikson (insert dates) have suggested that there are a number of key
stages of human development that are the same for everyone, these stages are not easily or clearly defined. This
means that
Educational psychology aims to uncover the principles of teaching in order to improve learning. Principles are
uncovered when research studies repeatedly come up with the same conclusions. These principles they can be
used by teachers to deal with specific problems. For example, one of the principles of classroom management is
to establish good interpersonal relationships with learners in order to build mutual trust and respect.
Educational psychology provides teachers with a body of knowledge
Educational psychology provides teachers with a body of knowledge about teaching and learning. This body of
knowledge includes knowledge of human development, intelligence, memory, motivation, assessment,
instructional strategies, and classroom management. It is made available to trainees, including aspiring teachers,
mainly at universities and colleges of education to help them prepare for their teaching careers.
Educational psychology contributes to better educational practice
Educational psychologists are seldom satisfied with the body of knowledge they have uncovered or the teaching
methods they have experimented with, recommended, and implemented. Educational psychologists are
continually asking questions, and conducting research, about how teaching and learning can be improved. By
questioning current practices and experimenting with new teaching methods, educational psychologists and
professional teachers can ensure that classroom practices remain at the cutting edge of educational innovation.
4.2 Educational psychology challenges teachers to disciplined enquiry and research
Educational psychology constantly develops new theories and principles about teaching and learning. With a
dynamic and changing field, teachers are challenged to n keep up to date with developments by reading articles
published in educational newsletters and journals, and by sharing and discussing-for example, at staff meetings,
teacher centers, workshops, and conferences-information about what works and what does not in their different
subject areas. This helps them improve their teaching, and become ever more effective teachers as they progress
in their careers.
Educational psychology encourages a reflective mindset
Effective teaching that results in successful learning depends on thought and critical reflection. Educational
psychology assists teachers to examine their own attitudes, teaching practices, and the outcomes of their
teaching.
Reflective teachers ask themselves before, during, and after every lesson why they do what they do and the way
that they do it. They check their performance against the background knowledge provided by their training and
their classroom experience. They examine their teaching methods and experiment to find out if there are better
ways of doing what they are doing. Through reflective teaching, teachers develop the cognitive tools for
creatively solving problems that may arise in their classrooms.
What makes an effective teacher?
In this unit you will learn about:
What ‘effective teaching’ means
The four components of effective teaching
Teaching as an art or a science
What it means to be a ‘reflective teacher’
The teacher as self-regulated life-long-learner
Essential concepts
Effective teacher
Subject knowledge
Pedagogy (instruction)
Critical thinking
Knowledge of learners
Teaching and communication
Congruent communication
Incongruent communication
Reflective teaching
The means-end relationship
Long range goals
What is effective teaching?
It is not easy to define what an effective teachers are like or what they do that sets them apart from teachers who
are less effective. Is effectiveness measured by learners’ results in examinations, or do factors such as
motivation and interest play a role? Further, terms like “good,” “professional,” and “experienced” are often used
to describe teachers and teaching. Here, too, the criteria for these judgments are often not explored or explained.
Nevertheless, there is a broad understanding of the concepts and teachers often have the performance evaluated
both in terms of classroom practice and learner performance. Throughout this book, we will use the terms
“effective teachers” and effective teaching” to define and explore educational practices that “work.”
Many people think that you can be an effective teacher without any training. These people think that teaching is
common sense or that some people are born with a natural ability to teach. However, there is a vast difference
between a parent teaching an infant to walk, or a child to ride a bicycle, and teaching a young learner how to
write or to do algebra. Classroom learning is far more structured, deliberate, concentrated, and abstract than the
learning that takes place between parent and child.
Educational psychologists generally agree that most people can be trained to become effective teachers (Slavin
1994, 7). While observation and practice are important components of effective teaching, teachers need to be
aware of several basic principles so that these can be applied in the classroom. Over the years educational
psychologists have identified four essential components of effective teaching (Tuckman and Monetti 2011;
Woolfolk 2010; Crowl et al 1997; Slavin 1994):
subject knowledge and knowledge of teaching resources
critical thinking and problem-solving skills
knowledge of learners and their learning
teaching and communication skills
Subject knowledge and knowledge of teaching
In order to be an effective teacher, a teacher needs subject knowledge (knowledge about what to teach). For
example, if a teacher is teaching a course about the history of the modern Middle East, he or she must know
about this subject. However, while subject knowledge is necessary, it is not enough. Knowledge of how to
transmit information and the skill to do so is at least as important as knowledge of the information and skills
themselves. To be an effective teacher, a teacher must also know where to find information about his or her
subject, so that he or she can keep his or her subject knowledge up to date with the latest information about it.
In addition, to be effective, a teacher must have an understanding of pedagogy (also referred to as instruction), a
word which comes from the Greek and literally means ‘to lead the child.’ [i] Pedagogy refers to the set of
teaching strategies a teacher uses in any given teaching situation to help learners learn what they are supposed
to learn at that time. In designing these teaching strategies, an effective teacher takes into account a number of
factors about his or her students, including their behavior, background knowledge about the subject, and
motivation, as well as their intellectual, social, and cultural characteristics. The learning material needs to be
presented in a way that makes sense, using strategies that help learners remember what they have been taught.
Effective teaching builds in regular informal and formal assessments to check whether or not learning goals
have been achieved. They need to respond appropriately if these assessments show that learners are having
difficulties.
In other words, an effective teacher must be able to select those parts of his or her knowledge that are
appropriate for his or her learners at their stage of learning, and communicate that knowledge to them in a way
that is appropriate to their level. Simply put, an effective teacher knows when to teach what, using the most
suitable method.
Knowledge of learners and their learning
Subject knowledge and pedagogy are not the only types of knowledge that teachers require. Effective teaching
depends on teachers knowing their learners and knowing how learners learn. Educational psychology provides
teachers with knowledge about how this. It provides teachers with insights into different ways learning can take
place, learner preferences, learner motivation, and the link between the emotional life of the learner and
learning. Knowing these things teachers can plan and manage instructional procedures, establish a suitable
classroom environment, and engage learners in meaningful learning activities.
Critical thinking and problem-solving skills
Many research studies have looked at the differences between more- and less-effective teachers. One theme that
runs through these studies is that effective teachers are critical thinkers (Floden and Klinzing 1990; Leinhardt
and Greeno 1986; Swanson et al 1990). Woolfolk (2010, 292) defines critical thinking as the ability “to evaluate
conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.” In other
words, critical thinking is an ordered, logical process of thinking about a problem and how it can be solved. It
requires reflective judgment and the analysis of the validity and reliability of information.
It may involve generating or organizing ideas, examining assumptions, evaluating arguments and evidence,
solving problems, defining opinions, or recognizing hidden values and meanings.
Teachers need to be critical thinkers because teaching involves solving problem in a systematic, logical way.
The most effective teachers constantly evaluate and upgrade their own teaching practices. They read widely,
observe other teachers, attend conferences to learn new ideas, and use their own learners’ responses to guide
their instructional decisions (Saber et al. 1991; Shulman 1987). Teachers who improve are the ones who reflect
about their own practice, are open to new ideas, and look at their own teaching critically. [1]
Teaching and communication skills
Teaching is a form of communication. Teachers are communicators. Communication is more than a matter of
teachers talking and students listening. Communication also involves students talking and teachers listening. It
is important that learners get opportunities to participate in the communication process. Through creating
opportunities for interaction (for example, by inviting questions and answers from learners, or through initiating
discussions or group presentations), the teacher can monitor the learners’ perceptions and understandings and
adjust his or her own communications accordingly.
What is more, communication is more than just talking and listening (verbal communication). It is also includes
non-verbal communication such as teachers’ actions, movements, tone of voice, and facial expressions
(together, their body language). Some researchers say that as much as 65% of effective communication is non-
verbal (Ornstein 1990, 539).
Effective communication between a teacher and his or her learners also depends on the teacher’s credibility
with them: do the learners trust that what the teacher says is believable, and does the teacher’s body language
support and strengthen this trusting relationship on a daily basis? One of the ways by which teachers can earn
the trust and respect of their learners is by practicing “congruent communication” as opposed to “incongruent
communication.” Congruent communication is also known as the language of acceptance. The language of
acceptance acknowledges the learner’s situation and reflects a non-discriminatory attitude by the teacher
(Tuckman and Monetti 2011, 373). Incongruent language is also known as the language of rejection.
Ginott (1922-1973) provides an example of how the language of acceptance is different from the language of
rejection. Ginott states that if a child spills paint his or her teacher can address the situation using language of
acceptance (congruent communication) by saying “I see the paint has spilled, let’s get some water and a towel.”
Alternatively the teacher can use the language of rejection (incongruent communication) by saying “What’s the
matter with you? You are so clumsy. Didn’t I tell you to be careful? You never listen.” In the first situation, we
can see that the teacher’s response involves him or her accepting that a situation has happened and addressing it.
In the second situation, the teacher’s response involves attacking the personality and character of the child.
Ginott advises that in order for a teacher to earn the trust of the child in this situation, he or she should use
congruent communication and speak about the situation (the spilled paint) instead of using incongruent
communication to speak about the personality and character of the child (Ginott 1993, 83).
Teachers also have to become sensitive to cultural rules (often implicit or hidden) when they communicate with
their learners. For example in some East Asian and African cultures learners are expected not to make eye
contact with their teachers when they talk to them. This is a sign of respect. In most western cultures the exact
opposite is true.
Teaching: Art or science?
While educational psychologists claim that they have put teaching on a scientific footing because they conduct
systematic scientific research into human behavior, thinking and learning, and instructional design, there are
many elements that characterize it as an art. Events inside the classroom are often spontaneous and
unpredictable. These require a teacher’s intuition, or the ability to act on a feeling, instead of factual knowledge.
It is impossible to provide teachers with a magic formula that makes them effective, or a recipe to handle every
circumstance that arises. Further, it is difficult to evaluate the teaching performance of individual teachers
accurately and consistently because there is no single set of scientific criteria to do so. Finally, some teachers
appear to natural educators, but it is hard to define what sets them apart from others. A teacher who attempts to
base every action on scientific evidence may come across as rigid and mechanical to his or her learners
By contrast, a teacher who ignores scientific knowledge about teaching and learning runs the risk of applying
principles and methods that are ineffective (Biehler and Snowman 1993, 20). Scientific research done by
educational psychologists and other educationalists can introduce teachers to principles and theories of teaching
that extend their ability or competence. Teaching from a scientific basis helps teachers avoid the pitfalls of
subscribing to the latest fad (a fashionable but unproven method of teaching). If teaching is purely an art, then
effective teaching would be determined by the teacher’s natural talent or by long years of practice. But, there is
a sizeable body of scientific research and research-validated instructional practices that have been shown to
improve teacher performance and learners’ achievement.
The reflective teacher
To reflect means “to think.” “To reflect about your actions” as a teacher means that you think and plan carefully
about the way that you want to do things, and how these things should be done. Reflective teaching can
therefore be seen as a blend of teaching as an art and teaching as a science. Reflective teachers think carefully
about the educational goals they want to achieve, and whether or not such goals are actually worth achieving.
They think carefully about the nature and effectiveness of the instructional methods and techniques they want to
use to reach those goals, and they question the underlying assumptions, for example the means-end relationship,
behind the choice of learning materials. They also reflect about the extent to which scientific evidence supports
their choices.
A good example of a means-end relationship can be found in learning a second or third language. From a
learning point of view, the end goal will determine the shortest, most effective means (way) of achieving it. If
the end goal is every day spoken communication for the purposes of tourism, then a good means to the end may
be to attend a short language course or living with a family in the country where the language is spoken. The
picture changes dramatically if the end goal is to earn an advanced degree in a language. Here the focus is on
academic purposes. This requires a high level of proficiency in the written and spoken forms of the language,
and a detailed understanding of its grammar and literature. Achieving these will require a completely different
means.
It is important for teachers to reflect carefully about long-range goals because the choice of goals affects not
only the learning materials or content to be covered, but also the type of classroom activities (Brophy and
Alleman 1991). If, for example, the goal is for learners to acquire problem-solving skills, learners would likely
be engaged in activities that call for analysis (that is, breaking up the problem into smaller parts), reasoning, and
decision-making. Debates, simulations, and laboratory experiments are just three examples of activities that
might be useful to meet such a goal. If, however, the goal is for learners to memorize facts and information,
learners will likely be given activities that call for isolated memorization and recall. Worksheets and drill-and-
practice exercises are typically used as means to meet this type of goal. The point is that effective teachers think
about these issues as a basis for planning.
Becoming a reflective teacher
Becoming a reflective teacher is not difficult, although it does require practice. As you try out various teaching
techniques or wonder why certain learners respond to instruction as they do, formulate hypotheses (tentative
explanations) and then try to test them. You will rarely be able to do this in a completely controlled way, but
you can often set up simple experiments. For example, if most of the learners in your class seem to be restless
whenever you present a particular topic, you might test a hypothesis such as: learners will be interested and
focused if I have learn-by-doing activities during the lesson.
Once you have established a hypotheses you can test it by trying it out. As you do so, play the role of the
teacher as an artist and be enthusiastic and committed. Then play the role of the teacher as a scientist: be
objective when analyzing the results of your teaching. If you find that your learners respond more positively, or
that test scores are up, or that the quality of their work has improved, you have evidence to substantiate your
hypothesis. If student behavior remains unchanged or deteriorates, however, formulate another hypothesis and
test it.
Most truly reflective teachers keep a personal teacher’s portfolio or workbook, in which they record all their
experiments, experiences, and findings. This type of reflective activity is closely related to action research, a
topic that will be discussed in a later section of this chapter.
1.3.4 Teachers as self-regulated, life-long learners
In addition to being critical thinkers and creative decision makers, most effective teachers are also lifelong
learners. This means that they never stop learning and never consider themselves as knowing all there is to
know. As McCown et al (1996, 17) state, to become an expert teacher, you must first become an expert learner.
And becoming an expert learner implies that the teacher practices self-regulation.
Self-regulated teachers take responsibility for building their own knowledge and skills base. They set new
learning goals based on their own experiences and the reflection of others like them. They motivate themselves
to learn and uncover new information; they monitor their own progress, assess the extent of their own mastery
of new knowledge and skills, and continuously redirect the course of their learning and development.
Figure 1.3: The cycle of reflective construction for the development of teaching expertise (adapted from
McCown et al 1996:16)
Figure 1.3 above represents the continuous cycle of reconstruction that reflective, self-regulated teachers follow
in the life-long learning process of building knowledge and expertise in their profession. It begins with their
own personal experiences of being taught throughout their own years of schooling, progresses to their training
as teachers, including their study of educational psychology, and gaining more knowledge and expertise as
teachers. Ultimately, successful teachers will be able to integrate and reflect critically about educational
concepts, principles, theories, and classroom interactions, and they will develop, construct, and reconstruct a
personal theory of teaching flowing out of life-long learning and classroom experience.
1.3.5 Summary
In this unit we set out to provide an answer to the question: “What makes a good teacher?” We discussed some
of the instructional tasks involved in effective instruction and highlighted four essential components of effective
instruction. We drew a further distinction between teaching as an art and teaching as a science, concluding that
the most “artful” teachers are the ones who reflect regularly about their practice and never stop learning,
working from a well-founded scientific knowledge base about teaching and learning.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY – A FOUNDATION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
The role of research in educational psychology
One of the most important functions of research in educational psychology is that it provides teachers-in-
training, beginner and less experienced teachers with knowledge and skills about how to teach in the best
possible ways in their individual subject areas.
For example, from the moment a teacher walks into a classroom, he or she needs to know how to create a
suitable teaching and learning environment, one which is conducive to meeting his or her teaching objectives as
well as the learning needs of the learners. Creating such an environment implies excellent classroom
management skills, among others. It is very difficult for a beginner teacher to re-establish control once chaos
has erupted. In order to be better prepared and to avoid unnecessary disruptions to the teaching-learning
process, beginner teachers can pick up useful pointers by reading case studies and studying research reports
prepared by educational psychologists and experienced teachers.
One example of the impact of research on the teaching and learning process is the finding that one of the most
powerful predictors of a teacher’s impact on learners is the belief that what the teacher does in class actually
makes a huge difference. This belief, called teacher efficacy, is at the heart of what it means to be an intentional
teacher. Teachers who believe that success in school is almost entirely due to children’s inborn intelligence,
home environment, or other factors that teachers cannot influence, are unlikely to teach in the same way as
those who believe that their own efforts are the key to children’s learning. An intentional teacher, one who has a
strong belief in his or her efficacy, is more likely to put forth consistent effort, to persist in the face of obstacles,
and to keep trying relentlessly until every student succeeds.
Reference : UKEssays. (November 2018). Educational Psychology A Foundation For Teaching And
Learning. Retrieved from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/the-foundation-for-teaching-and-
learning.php?vref=1

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Q.5: Describe the relationship between politics and education?

ANS;
What is the Relationship between Education and Politics?
Different persons will approach the relationship between politics and education from different vectors. Folks
interested in diving more deeply into specific areas should follow the appropriate links in the info-box to the
right. The interface between politics and education is at once deeply intellectual and critically practical.
Some who come to this page will be interested in the relationship between teachers unions and innovative
institutional arrangements in schools, others in curriculum and pedagogy, others in race and culture, others in
the relationship between technology and education, others in the relationship custom shot glasses between
political philosophy and education, or even the politics of knowledge, others in teacher education, others in
high-stakes testing and still others in the dynamic relationship between political ideology and education. Of
course, this is only to a name a few of the potential vectors of inquiry that permeate the relationship between
political and educational phenomena.
It seems evident that formal education should be strongly associated with political participation for women and
for men. Indeed, the American sociologists Burns, Schlozman and Verba assert, on the basis of decades of
research into the factors influencing women and men’s engagement with politics in the USA, that education is
an especially powerful predictor of political participation.
They identify a range of direct and indirect effects that formal education has upon political participation. Its
direct effects include the acquisition of the knowledge and communication skills useful for public debate, and
direct training in political analysis through courses with current events content.
Its indirect effects are many and include the benefits of voluntary engagement in school government, clubs,
sports and school newspapers, these arenas provide young people with an early apprenticeship for politics,
where they can exercise leadership, develop civic skills of cooperation and negotiation, and acquire bureaucratic
and organizational skills useful for political activity.
Education enhances other factors supporting political engagement, such as access to high-income jobs that
provide the resources and contacts for political activity, and access to non-political associations such as
charitable organizations or religious establishments that can be a recruitment ground for political activity.
As an academic discipline the study of politics in education has two main roots: The first root is based on
theories from political science while the second root is footed in organizational
theory. Political science attempts to explain how societies and social organizations use power to establish
regulations and allocate resources. Organizational theory uses scientific theories of management to develop deeper
understandings regarding the function of organizations.
Researchers have drawn a distinction between two types of politics in schools. The term micro- politics refers
to the use of formal and informal power by individuals and groups to achieve their goals in organizations.
Cooperative and conflictive processes are integral components of micro-
politics. Macro-politics refers to how power is used and decision making is conducted at district, state, and
federal levels. Macro-politics is generally considered to exist outside the school, but researchers have noted that
micro- and macro-politics may exist at any level of school systems depending on circumstance.
There exist significant difference between "Politics of Education" and "Politics in Education". More debates on
the prevailing differences are solicited from academia of the world to define politics educationally.
Education and politics enjoy a symbiotic relationship, that is, education affects politics and vice versa.
Education, or lack thereof, influences the collective intellect, goals, and values of the body politic. The way in
which a society is educated will thus determine who is able to hold office; how those in office are elected (or
chosen); how much power and control those in office will have at their disposal; what laws are considered
reasonable and unreasonable; and how those representing the state will choose to regulate, promote, and
establish educational institutions.

The last point is critical as it shows how the cycle comes full circle. Just as much as educational institutions
have a role in creating, maintaining, and limiting the state, the political has immense power over the
educational. Look at how the modern state has control over how much schools are funded and what they can
and can’t teach (evolution, sexual education, the way in which history is framed, among many other examples).
Indeed, there are many states that strictly prohibit secular education, as it is in their interest to keep their
populations misinformed. Why? Precisely because the more informed (educated) their population, the more
likely it is that their stranglehold on power will be overthrown.
Education is encapsulated in the political environment of the nation state. Each nation state from liberal
democracies to totalitarian systems uses education as one of their state apparatus to transmit
their political ideologies. In discussing the nexus between education and politics, the various educational
polities in Malaysia will be critically examined, with particular reference to the various educational acts starting
from the Razak Report of 1956 till the Education Act of 1996 in maylasia . The social, economic and political
factors leading to the educational policies will be discussed. The current educational issues such as the teaching
of maths and science in English, replacing the primary school evaluations and the lower secondary assessment
examinations with school based exams, among others, will also be discussed.

One of the earliest political philosophers Plato has put this as follows:

“It is the government which must flow from the education and not education from the
government.”

Plato gives more importance to education to the extent that it must produce the best of the governments.

What we commonly see is the education system is dependent on the government. It is the government which
decides how the education must be. Rather, what requires is that the education must decide who should be
governing, and what should be the kind of government.

Plato writes: “Until the philosophers become the kings, and the princes of the world have the
spirit and power of philosophy….. cities will never have rest from their evils.”

Now if we have to put this in the present times, the word king is applicable to all the rulers either democratic or
not. And cities should be read as States (meaning countries).

Plato gives an extensive Theory of Education that would create such philosophers who were
eligible to rule. It includes elementary education (10 years of physical training plus two years of moral
education). And this was to be completed by the age of twenty. The disqualified were to take up the role of
producers.

Reference : Owlgen March 28, 2020

https://www.owlgen.in › eLearning › Understanding Education

https://www.owlgen.in › eLearning › Understanding Education