CIVL 510 WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST ESTIMATION MEHDI JALAYER

WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST welded during the erection stage. Research has been done by academia to
determine strength of different types of welds. This resulted in equations
ESTIMATION specified by steel design codes for determining strength of welds for an
acceptable safety index. Ultimately these equations are used by engineers to
design welded structural steel connections. Unfortunately, not much energy has
been put into developing a tool which automates design and cost estimates of
such connections. This report focuses on developing a spreadsheet tool for
design and cost estimation of welded steel connections.

Acknowledgements
Rick Hawkins, Estimator at a local steel fabrication shop.

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................ 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 2
2.0 OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................. 3
3.0 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING ............................................................ 3
3.1 BASICS OF WELDING TECHNOLOGY ........................................................... 3
3.2 TYPES OF WELDS ....................................................................................... 6
3.3 ADVANTAGES OF WELDING ....................................................................... 7
3.4 DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING .................................................................. 7
4.0 INVESTIGATED CONNECTIONS .......................................................... 8
4.1 BRACED CONNECTIONS.............................................................................. 8
4.2 BEAM COLUMN CONNECTIONS .................................................................. 9
5.0 DESIGN METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 10
5.1 GOVERNING CODE ................................................................................... 10
Abstract 5.2 FORMATTED SPREADSHEET TOOL ............................................................ 10
Welds are commonly used in structural steel connections to provide rigidity and 5.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE ................................................................................ 11
continuity between connecting elements. Fabricated structural steel assemblies 5.3.1 Design Strength of Welds ................................................................ 11
are typically shop welded and shipped to site, where they are bolted or field 5.3.2 Flange and Web Strength of Wide Flange Sections ........................ 13

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6.0 COST ESTIMATION................................................................................ 15 List of Tables

6.1 ASSUMPTIONS .......................................................................................... 15 TABLE 6-1 .......................................................................................................... 17
6.2 COST PARAMETERS .................................................................................. 15
6.2.1 Material........................................................................................... 16
6.2.2 Labor............................................................................................... 16
6.3 SUGGESTED METHODS OF COST MINIMIZATION ...................................... 18
7.0 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 18
1.0 Introduction
Steel structures consist of members, which are assemblies
8.0 APPENDICES............................................................................................ 19
of various elements that are bolted or welded together in the shop
APPENDIX A: PROJECT MILESTONE ............................................................... 19 and transported to the site for installation. Welding is considered
APPENDIX B: REFERENCES ............................................................................ 20 one of the important aspects in design and production of steel
structures. Structural members are fabricated by cutting, fitting and
List of Figures welding various structural shapes such as channels, round or
rectangular tubes, I sections, angles and plates as per shop
FIGURE 3-1 ........................................................................................................... 3
FIGURE 3-2A ......................................................................................................... 4 drawings, produced by the fabricator. In a typical steel structure,
FIGURE 3-2B ......................................................................................................... 4 various members are connected at joints by means of bolting
FIGURE 3-3 ........................................................................................................... 5 or/and welding. Depending on shipping regulations and costs and
FIGURE 3-4 ........................................................................................................... 5 erection schemes, the fabricator may choose to assemble several
FIGURE 3-5 ........................................................................................................... 6 elements in the shop by either welding and/or bolting in order to
FIGURE 3-6A ......................................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 3-6B ......................................................................................................... 6 erect the structure quickly and efficiently. Welding provides an
FIGURE 3-7A ......................................................................................................... 7 efficient way of producing connections in the shop and in the field.
FIGURE 3-7B ......................................................................................................... 7 This report focuses on design of welded beam-column and
FIGURE 3-8 ........................................................................................................... 7 braced connections and aims to provide a basic tool to calculated
FIGURE 3-9 ........................................................................................................... 8 resistance of several common types of welded connections.
FIGURE 4-1A ......................................................................................................... 8
FIGURE 4-1B ......................................................................................................... 9 Calculations follow the Canadian steel design code and are
FIGURE 4-1C ......................................................................................................... 9 prepared on an Excel. Moreover, the report investigates cost of
FIGURE 4-2A ....................................................................................................... 10 fabricating such connections in terms of labor, material, ease of
FIGURE 4-2B ....................................................................................................... 10 fabrication in the shop and erection in the field. The report starts
FIGURE 5-1 ......................................................................................................... 11 by giving a brief introduction to welding. The basics of welding
FIGURE 5-2 ......................................................................................................... 11
FIGURE 5-3 ......................................................................................................... 12 are explained, along with types of welds and advantages and
FIGURE 5-4A ....................................................................................................... 13 disadvantages of welding. Next, five common beam-column
FIGURE 5-4B ....................................................................................................... 14 connections are presented along with figures. Design spreadsheets
FIGURE 5-5 ......................................................................................................... 15 are prepared for each connection and presented in section five.

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Various cost parameters such as layout, cutting, fit up, welding and are heated to extreme temperatures. A mixture of molten metal is
cost minimization tactics are discussed in section six. created which initiates a metallurgical bond between the two
connecting pieces. This happens as base metal and filler material
2.0 Objectives cool together to initiate this bond. After cooling, a region called the
Current selection of software available to the engineer Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is created around the weld. This region
provides means of designing various elements for welded has a different microstructure than the weld and base metals and is
connections. However, such software are expensive, limited and typically harder and more brittle. Figure 3-1 shows a cut section
not very flexible. The spreadsheet has been recognized as a through a weld illustrating the HAZ.
powerful, yet simple and easy-to-use tool in various fields of
engineering. This report aims to provide the engineer with an
efficient and flexible tool for design and cost estimation of welded
connections by means of using Excel. Four design spreadsheets are
prepared, which take into account numerous variables in the design
space such as connection dimensions, material properties, forces
and moments. Design calculations are based on the Canadian steel
design code. Moreover, cost parameters are determined and
included in each spreadsheet.

3.0 Introduction to Welding

Welding is the only method available in the industry which can
produce truly “one-piece” members. It can produce continuous
connection between two pieces of metal, resulting in degree of
continuity which can not be achieved by bolting. This chapter
explains the basics of welding along with types of welds, welding
methods and advantages/disadvantages of welding.
Figure 3-1
Heat Affected Zone, Cooper [2]
3.1 Basics of Welding Technology
What is welding? US Department of Labor [1] states that “heat is Forge welding is perhaps the oldest welding method.
applied to metal pieces, melting and fusing them to form a Today, arc welding is the most common welding process that is
permanent bond.” The pieces of metal to be welded together are employed in different manufacturing processes. Arc welding
called base metal and the material “fusing” them together is called involves a circuit which is created between the work piece (base
weld metal or the filler. During fusion, both base and weld metal metal) and the electrode. The work piece and the electrode make

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up an open circuit. These two are connected to an electric
generator. As the electrode touches the work piece, the circuit is
complete and an arc is generated. According to Skanaluminium
[6], a Danish aluminum industry association, “an arc is an electric
current flowing between two electrodes through an ionized column
of gas.” The arc, which is produces between a negative cathode
and a positive anode, generates a temperature of about 6500°F.
This extreme heat melts both the electrode and the base metal.
Molten filler metal from the electrode is transported to the work
piece by several ways including surface tension transfer and spray
arc [6]. Surface tension transfer occurs when a drop of molten
metal touches a pool of molten metal. Spray arc is basically a
“electric pinch” which shoots the molten metal from tip of the
electrode to the metal pool. This is how the electrode is typically
“consumed” in the welding process. Figure 3-2a and 3-2b illustrate
basics of the arc welding process.
Figure 3-2a
Arc Welding Process Courtesy of Lincoln Electric [3]
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Figure 3-2b
Arc Welding Process Courtesy Lincoln Electric [3]
An interesting fact is that metals have a tendency to react
with elements in the air such as oxygen and nitrogen at high
temperatures. Such reaction can corrupt the quality, toughness and
strength of the weld. Therefore, gas shielding is used to protect the
metal from such reactions. The need for shielding molten metal
from harmful elements in the air created several branches of arc
welding such as Gas metal arc welding (MIG), Gas tungsten arc
welding (TIG), Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) and Shielded
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) or MIG is a welding
process in which electrode is supplied through a hand-held welding
torch in form of wire. As the arc is produced, shielding gas such as
carbon dioxide, oxygen or argon are also released from the gun to
protect the weld. MIG welding is considered a semi-automatic
process, since some variables such as wire speed are controlled by
the welding machine. In this process the electrode is positive for
reasons to avoid fusion and oxide inclusion problems. There are
two types of MIG welding: conventional MIG welding and pulsed
MIG welding. The conventional process uses constant voltage
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from a DC power source, whereas the pulsed process uses periodic
impulses in order to lower heat and current input. This way,
thinner materials under 4mm which could not be welded by the
conventional method, can be welded using the pulsated method.
According to WeldingEngineer.com [7], common problems with
MIG welding are: irregular wire feed, porosity, burn back and
unstable arc. Moreover, this process is sensitive to wind speed
above 5mph and requires shelters to keep wind away from freely
discharged shielding gas.
Flux Cored Arch Welding (FCAW) is quite similar to MIG
welding. However, in this case, the electrode, which is also a
consumable filler material, contains a flux core. The flux produced
protects the weld in addition to shielding gas. This process is not
sensitive to wind speed. Figure 3-3 illustrates the FCAW method.
Figure 3-3
FCAW Process, Cooper [2]
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) is typically used in
high quality high precision welding processes. This process uses a
non melting tungsten electrode. Unlike the MIG process, TIG uses
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separate filler which is typically fed by hand. TIG welding can use
both AC and DC power source. Typically Argon gas is used in
combination with AC power. This setup is typically used for light
gauge material between 0 and 5mm thick. Helium is used with DC
power to be used for welding thicker materials.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is used for welding
pieces 10mm and thicker. In this process, gas flux is fed
continuously with the electrode. Flux is fed continuously along
with filler material to shield and protect the weld. Flux then turns
into removable slag on the weld. Figure 3-4 illustrates the SAW
process.
Figure 3-4
SAW Process, Cooper [2]
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is a very simple
and common welding process which uses shielding gas and
welding electrode (as filler). Stick welding also falls under the
SMAW process. In stick welding, flux around the filler material
acts as shield to protect the weld. Figure 3-5 shows a sketch of the
SMAW process.
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Figure 3-5
SMAW Process, Cooper [2]

Figure 3-6a
Fillet Weld Positions, Cooper [2]
3.2 Types of Welds
There are two types of welds: full and partial penetration. Partial
penetration welds have fusion through part of the thickness of the
joining pieces. In full penetration welds, fusion is all through the
full thickness of the joining pieces. The abovementioned weld
types branch into different kinds of welds, which are discussed in
this chapter.
Fillet welds fall within the partial penetration category.
Figure 3-6b
They can be used to join pieces in various positions such as tee Fillet Weld X-sections, Cooper [2]
(90° bends), skewed and lap joints. Weld geometry and
specifications are prepared in for each position and weld type. Groove welds can either be partial or full penetration
These are called “welding procedures”, which are designed by a welds. In structural steel connections where full strength is
certified welding engineer. Figure 3-6a and 3-6b show various required, such as moment beam-column connections, full
welding positions and cross sections through the welds penetration groove welds are required. In order to add strength, full
respectively. penetration groove welds are combined with “reinforcing” fillet
welds. Sometimes full penetration can be achieved from one side,
“with the help of a backup plate that prevents the first pass from

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blowing through at the bottom.” [2] There are many different
welding procedures for groove welds. Figure 3-7a and 3-7b
illustrate some more common full and partial penetration groove
weld cross-sections respectively.
Figure 3-7a
Common Full Penetration Groove Welds, Cooper [2]
Figure 3-7b
Common Partial Penetration Groove Welds, Cooper [2]
Sometimes a plug weld may be used to connect
overlapping plates together. This is done by making round or oval
holes in one plate, positioning the lap splice and either completely
filling in or partially welding in the holes.
The type of weld chosen depends on joint configurations,
required strength and fabrication and erection economy. Strength
issues are discussed in chapter 5.
3.3 Advantages of Welding
Welding has the following advantages:
ƒ Welding results in continuous connections.
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ƒ It is an economical way to connect elements and fabricate
assemblies.
ƒ Different weld types and procedures add to flexibility of
welding operations.
ƒ With the right knowledge of the welding process, tight
tolerances can be achieved during fabrication and erection.
3.4 Disadvantages of Welding
Welding has the following disadvantages:
ƒ Initiation of residual stresses in connections,
ƒ Warping due to weld shrinkage and
ƒ Lamellar tearing.
Welding initiates locked-in residual stressed in connections,
due to rapid cooling. Such stresses result in movement of pieces,
which in turn can go past fabrication tolerance specifications.
Weld shrinkage can result in warping and deformation of
welded pieces. A common example is tee joints, which are
deformed as shown in figure 3-8 below.
Figure 3-8
Warping Example, Cooper [2]
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Imperfections in rolling of plates can result in micro cracks
which reduce ductility in directions perpendicular to direction of
rolling [2]. This phenomenon is called Lamellar Tearing. High
tensile stresses initiated at welded joints can cause progressive
cracks and final tearing of the fusion face. This is more common in
thick plates. Figure 3-9 shows how lamellar tearing can result in
connection failure.
common in trusses, where a wide flange section is used for the top
and bottom chords and HSS member are used as diagonal bracing
members. Similar to type 1, all brace axial loads are transferred as
shear through a large gusset plate, which is fitted and welded to
slotted HSS members. A heavier connection type 3 is common in
trusses where larger loads need to be carried. In this case all
bracing members are wide flange sections. No gusset plate is used
in this connection, as bracing members are directly welded to the
chord. Stiffeners are commonly used to strengthen the webs of
chords in such connections in order to carry the high shear loads.
Figures 4-1a, b and c show production drawings for connection
types 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

Figure 3-9
Lamellar Tearing, Cooper [2]

4.0 Investigated Connections

Five welded connections have been analyzed in this report.
They include three welded brace connections and two welded
beam-column joints.

4.1 Braced Connections

Connection types 1, 2 and 3 are braced type connections.
Such connections are typically seen in build up trusses, tower
frames and building frames. In type 1 connection, beam shear is
transferred through a welded shear tab. Brace axial loads are
transferred to column in shear through gusset plates, which are fit Figure 4-1a
and welded through slotted HSS members. Connection type 2 is Beam-Column Shear Connection with HSS Braces (Type 1)

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Figure 4-1c
Truss Connection with WF Braces & Chords (Type 3)

4.2 Beam Column Connections

Figure 4-1b
Truss Connection with WF Chord & HSS Braces (Type 2) Connection types 4 and 5 are common beam-column
moment connections without bracing. Type 4 transfers moment
through a top moment plate which is welded to top flanges of the
beams intercepting the column. Beam shear is transferred to the
column through a stiffened seat. Figures 4-2a and b show
production drawings for connection types 4 and 5 respectively.

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5.0 Design Methodology

This section explains the methods involved in design of the
above-mentioned connections. A spreadsheet tool has been utilized
to perform design and cost calculations. Methods of connection
strength calculations have been explained along with equations and
references to the appropriate code clauses.

5.1 Governing Code

The aforementioned connections have been designed based
on the Manual of Steel Construction Edition 8th by the Canadian
Institute of Steel Construction [4]. This code uses the limit state
design procedure. In this code the loads are factored up and
Figure 4-2a material resistances are factored down based on probabilistic
Beam-Column Moment Connection with Top Plates (Type 4) distributions of load and resistance in order to provide an accepted
level of safety for the structure.

5.2 Formatted Spreadsheet Tool

Design and cost estimation calculations for each connection
type have been prepared by utilizing a modern spreadsheet tool
called: “Formatted Spreadsheet.” AutoCAD figures with labeled
dimensional variables have been prepared for each connection and
inserted in spreadsheet for user to see. Each design variable is
defined and described in the spreadsheet. What sets this tool apart
from the usual method of using a spreadsheet is that the user is
able to see all variables and relationships between them. The
formatted spreadsheet is also a great tool for documenting any type
of calculation. With all design variables defined, a set of
calculations may be reused if changes are to be accommodated for
a design.
Figure 4-2b
Typical Beam-Column Moment Connection (Type 5)

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5.3 Design Procedure

A table is created in which all connection attributes are
entered. Connection attributes include: weld sizes, weld lengths,
member sizes, member dimensions, member forces, etc. For each
connection type, a worksheet is created, using the formatted
spreadsheet. Each worksheet is programmed to retrieve the
appropriate connection attributes for calculations. Design strength
of welds for each component (i.e brace, gusset plate, shear plates, Figure 5-1
etc.) are calculated based on given weld length and sizes. Fillet Welds Critical Dimension, Cooper [2]
Strength of each type of connection is calculated by
determining capacity of each component. The weakest component Fillet welds can fail in two ways: shear through effective
in each connection determines the overall strength for that throat of weld parallel to weld axis or shear through fusion face of
connection. It should be noted that the spreadsheet does not check the weld parallel to weld axis. The shear strength through the
stresses at the cross-section of connecting members since this issue effective throat also depends on direction of the load relative to the
must be covered prior to choosing member sizes. Design axis of weld. Strength of fillet welds is recognized to be higher by
calculation can be divided into two major parts: design strength of as much as 50% when load is applied at 90º relative to weld axis.
welds and design shear strength of column/chord webs and flanges. Increase in weld strength is due to reduction of shear stresses on
These are explained in the next two sections. the effective throat. This is illustrated in figure 5-2.

5.3.1 Design Strength of Welds

Fillet and groove welds are widely used in welded connections. In
order to determine capacity of a welded connection, it is essential tension tw

to understand how fillet and groove weld fail when subjected to

loads. Weld strength formulae in the CISC code are based on
testing and theory, derived from fundamentals, which is discussed shear Tf
in this section. tw

Partial penetration welds such as fillets, transfer load from

member to member by shear. Looking at cross-section of a fillet
weld, there are two critical dimensions, which influence weld’s
shear strength. These dimensions are: the nominal weld size and Tf
the effective throat shown in figure 5-1.
Figure 5-2
Fillet Weld Loaded Normal To Weld Axis

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Unlike fillet welds, shear strength of partial penetration

Design strength of fillet welds is determined by calculating groove welds does not depend on orientation of the load relative to
the lesser of weld metal strength and base metal strength given by axis of weld. In fact, partial and full penetration groove welds fail
the lesser of equations 5-1 and 5-1 respectively as per clause in tension when load is normal to axis of weld. Groove welds fail
13.13.2.2. in similar manner as fillet welds in shear. Design shear strength of
partial and complete penetration groove welds is calculated by the
Vr = 0.67φ w Am Fu for base metal (5-1) lesser of equations 5-5 and 5-6 as per clause 13.13.2.1.
Vr = 0.67φ w Aw X u (1.0 + 0.50 sin 1.5 θ ) for weld metal (5-2)
Vr = 0.67φ w Am Fu for base metal (5-5)
where: Φw = 0.67 (weld resistance factor to account for various
possible defects in the weld such as lack of fusion and Vr = 0.67φ w Aw X u for weld metal (5-6)
porosity)
Aw = area of effective weld throat Equation variables are as previously shown for fillet welds.
Am = shear area of effective fusion face Full penetration groove welds provide as much strength as
θ = angle between load and axis of weld the base metal in the connecting elements. They fully bridge and
Fu = ultimate strength of base metal fill the gap between the connecting elements. Figure 5-3 shows a
Xu = weld electrode ultimate strength. full penetration groove weld with backing bar. Full member cross-
section and yield strength is utilized in this connection when
In the above formulae, Aw and Am are calculated by equations 5-3 subjected to tension.
and 5-4 as shown below:
t
Aw = w Lw (5-3)
2
Aw = t w Lw (5-4)
where: tw = nominal weld size and
Lw = length of weld.

Table 3-24 and 3-25 of the Manual of Steel Construction

tabulate factored shear strength values of fillet weld per millimeter
of weld length. It should be noted that weld electrode must be
selected based on base metal yield strength. Table 3-22 in the Figure 5-3
Manual of Steel Construction tabulates matching electrode Full Penetration Groove Weld, Cooper [2]
specifications for different base metal strengths.

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Design tensile strength of complete penetration groove welds is in compression or overload column flange in tension. Buckling of
calculated by equation below as per clause 13.13.3.1. column webs are undesirable in since buckling failure comes with
little warning. In this case horizontal and/or diagonal stiffener
Tr = φA g Fy (5-7) plates must be used to reinforce column web and flange. Moreover,
where: Φ =0.9 extra shear load may have to be taken by the column if beam and
Ag = gross cross-section of weld column moments are not balanced. If column shear capacity is not
Fy = base metal yield strength. enough, a doubler plate must be used to increase web thickness.
Figure 5-4a and b illustrate how beam-column connections
Tensile strength of partial penetration groove welds is calculated perform with and without stiffeners.
by clause 13.13.3.2 as per the following equation:

Tr = φw An Fu ≤ φAg Fy (5-8)

All terms have their usual meaning. It should be noted that the
code requires the connection strength to be no more than yield
strength of the base metal. This is to ensure ductility in the
connection.
Lastly, groove welds may be reinforced by fillet welds, in
order increase strength. In this case, tensile strength is calculated
by clause 13.13.3.3 as par the following equation:

Tr = φ w ( An Fu ) 2 + ( Aw X u ) 2 ≤ φAg Fy (5-9)

5.3.2 Flange and Web Strength of Wide Flange

Sections
In welded beam-column connections, shear strength of web
of wide flange columns must be checked for two modes of failure:
web crippling and web yielding. In a welded beam-column
connection, moment is transferred from beam to column through
Figure 5-4a
flange-to-flange connections by a tension and an opposite Beam column connection without Stiffeners, Blodget [5]
compressive load. Such forces concentrate on the column at two
connecting locations and may cause column web to buckle or yield

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wc = column web thickness,

tb = beam flange thickness,
Fyc = yield strength of column material,
hc = clear depth of column web,
tc = thickness of column flange.

The shear resistance of un-stiffened web is prescribed by the code

in clause 21.3 by the following equation:

Vr = 0.55φwdFy (5-13)
Column web crippling and yielding capacity for interior loads on a
beam or a column are calculated by equations in clause 14.3.2 as
shown below.
Figure 5-4b
Beam column connection with Stiffeners, Blodget [5] Br = φ bi w( N + 10t ) Fy (5-14)
Br = 1.45φbi w 2 Fy E (5-15)
After calculating concentrated tension and compression
loads on the column, column flanges should be checked for where: Φbi = 0.8
bearing resistance in both tension and compression as per clause w = web thickness
21.3 equations shown below. N = length of bearing
t = flange thickness
For flanges in compression:
Br = φ bi wc (t b + 10t c ) Fyc (5-10) If concentrated tension/compression loads on the column exceed
any of the above values, horizontal or diagonal stiffeners must be
except for columns of class 3 and 4 provided as shown in figure 5-5.
640000φ bi wc (t b + 10t c )
Br = (5-11)
h
( c)
wc
For flanges in tension:
Br = φ 7t c Fyc
2
(5-12)
where: Φ = 0.9
Φbi = 0.8

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CIVL 510 WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST ESTIMATION
Figure 5-5
Beam column connection with Stiffeners, HSC [4]
Moreover, if shear capacity of column is exceeded, a
doubler plate must be provided. The above equations have been
programmed in formatted spreadsheets for each connection. It
should be noted that stiffeners are not limited to welded beam-
column connections. They may be used in brace connections where
several members frame into a column or a truss chord through
gusset plates that is welded in line with column/chord web.
6.0 Cost Estimation
A well-designed connection not only transfers load
efficiently between members, but is also economical. During the
design phase, considerations should be given to fabrication in the
shop and installation in the field. A connection which is difficult to
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fabricate and erect ends up costing more because more time and
effort needs to be spent in detailing, fabrication and erection.
A cost estimation study was performed by interviewing an
estimator from a local fabrication shop. To make the cost estimate
applicable in different context, number of labor hours is estimated
for each connection. The final cost can be calculated based on
number of fabricators and shop’s hourly rate, which may differ
from shop to shop.
6.1 Assumptions
Determining accurate price estimates for fabrication and
erection of steel structures is more of an art than science. It
involves knowledge based on past experience. For the purpose of
this report, several assumptions are made in order to simplify the
estimating process within reasonable accuracy. Research was
conducted by interviewing estimators from the industry to verify
these assumptions, which include:
1. Material costs make up a small portion of total costs for
welded connections when compared to labor costs and can
be neglected.
2. Labor costs can be estimated based on length of welds in
each connection.
3. Fabricating a connection in the field could cost as much as
three times the cost of fabrication in the shop.
These assumptions are elaborated in the following sections.
6.2 Cost Parameters
Economy of fabricating any type of structural steel
connection involves two parameters: material and labor. An
interesting point is that material costs and shop fabrication labor
can affect each other in ways that may not be so obvious to the
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CIVL 510 WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST ESTIMATION MEHDI JALAYER

designer. For example, common notion is that lighter material
weighs less and is more economical. However, very light material
tends to warp and distort due to weld shrinkage, and may cost
more money to control in the fabrication phase. On the other hand,
overly heavy material, not only costs more, it is also harder to
handle during fit up and may end up costing more during
fabrication also. The next sections explain how material and labor
affect the overall cost of welded connections.
6.2.1 Material
Material costs are calculated based on the total weight of
required material. An estimator looks at design drawings and
calculates weights of different elements that make up the
connection. These elements typically include: gusset plates,
stiffeners, shear tabs, beam seats and top/bottom beam moment
plates. Total cost is calculated by the following equation:
6.2.2 Labor
Labor cost makes up a larger portion of the total costs
associated with production of welded connections. Total labor cost
is calculated based on the total number of hours allocated to a
connection, number of fabricators allocated to each task, and shop
hourly rate for each task. In many cases an estimator has to
visualize all the steps required during fabrication in order to give
an accurate estimate of the fabrication costs. However, fabrication
generally follows these three steps in order:
1. Cutting,
2. Fitting or fit up and
3. Welding.
In order to simplify the procedure, labor time associated with
cutting, fitting and welding are calculated based on length of welds
associated with each member. Total cost is calculated by formulae
shown below.

C m = WmU m (6-1) CT = C c + C f + C w (6-2)

where: Cm = cost of material ($) where: C c = Tc Rc (6-3)
Wm = weight of material (lb)
Um = unit cost of material (specific to cross-section) ($/lb) C f = Tf Rf (6-4)
C w = Tw Rw (6-5)
It should be noted that unit cost of material varies for different and where:
types of cross sections. For example, cost of wide flange sections Tc = cutting time (hrs)
per pound is different from cost of plates. Moreover, material costs Tf = fitting time (hrs)
typically make up a small portion of total cost of a connection. Tw = welding time (hrs)
Fabrication of steel connections whether bolted or welded, Rc = cutting rate ($/hr)
involves cutting, fitting and welding the required components. Rf = fitting rate ($/hr)
Each task consumes certain amount of time, and the total time Rw = welding rate ($/hr)
require to fabricated a connection can be related to its labor costs.
This is discussed in the next section. Cutting costs are associated with preparation of framing
members and cutting stiffener and gusset plates, which are mostly
done on automatic burning tables, using plasma or water.

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CIVL 510 WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST ESTIMATION
Geometry data is fed electronically to these automatic burning
tables and they are very cost effective for mass production
purposes. Members themselves are usually cut by saws. Most
welded HSS braces require slotting the HSS members in order to
weld them to gusset plates. This is usually done by an
oxyacetylene torch.
After members are cut, they are fit together as per shop
drawings. A well-drawn shop drawing shows reference dimensions
which control geometry of the connection. Complex connections
require more time to fit and put together. Fit up is critical in
fabrication. Errors and mistakes during fitting in the shop will
reflect as fitting problems in the field. Sometimes a connection
may have to be completely modified in order to make it work in
the field.
Welding costs are controlled by type, size, position of
welds and environment. For example, fillet welds up to 8mm in
size can be done in one pass. Larger welds have to be done in two
or more passes and require more time. Also welds done in the
vertical position cost as much as 50% more than welds in the
horizontal. Table 6-1 below summarizes welding rates for fillet
welds of different sizes in the flat position for the FCAW process.
Table 6-1 Fillet Weld Rates for FCAW Process
Fillet Size Rate (minutes/inch of weld)
1/4” 0.35
5/16” 0.44
3/8” 0.88
1/2” 1.32
Full penetration groove welds are more expensive than
partial penetration fillet welds because they require special
preparation and more passes, hence more time to complete.
mehdi_jalayer_report.doc
MEHDI JALAYER
Another factor that impacts the cost of welds is access. Welds that
are located in hard to get areas are more expensive to do. A good
fabricator has to think about sequence of welding steps of different
elements in order to minimize areas that are hard to access.
Environment also impacts welding costs. Field welding
costs more than shop welding because of the following reasons:
1. Welding setup costs are higher in the field than in the shop
and depending on location and situation, welding platforms
may need to be designed and installed.
2. Some connections may be restricted and difficult to access
on the erected structure, resulting in longer setup time.
3. Welding tents often need to be setup to protect the work
from elements such as wind and water.
4. If required, stress relieving is more expensive and requires
special equipment in the field.
5. Welding equipment such as generators, gas bottles and
welder machines must be purchased or rented in addition to
shop equipment.
6. Erection crew would consist of certified welders who may
be required to pass tests on coupons prior to welding on
special connections. Members of welding gang may fail
tests, resulting in delays and ultimately higher costs.
Due to the abovementioned reasons, field welding can cost as
much as three times more than welding in the shop. Therefore,
field fabrication costs have been factored by three times for
connection types 4 and 5 in the formatted spreadsheets.
Distribution of time allocated to each of the three tasks
(cutting, fitting and welding) differs from connection to
connection, depending on size of members and connection
configuration. Each formatted spreadsheet includes a breakdown of
tasks and estimated time for fabricating each component in the
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CIVL 510 WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST ESTIMATION MEHDI JALAYER

connection. It was observed that for shop fabricated connections
such as connection types 1, 2 and 3, fitting ranked first in
consuming the most fabrication time. Welding and cutting ranked
second and third, respectively. Using this observation, one can
come up with ways to minimize fabrication time. A few tips for
minimizing costs have been suggested in the next section.
6.3 Suggested Methods of Cost Minimization
As mentioned in the previous section, labor makes up most
of the cost of fabricating welded structural steel connections. In
order to minimize connection costs, the engineer must design the
connection, bearing in mind ways to reduce fabrication time. Here
are a few cost minimization tips for the engineer:
connections. A flexible tool has been developed using the
formatted spreadsheet, which not only determines strength of
welded connections, but also calculates a cost estimate. Five
typical welded connections were chosen and a design/estimation
spreadsheet program was written for each connection. Research
was done on labor cost estimation of welded connections and
incorporated into these spreadsheets. Such tool can assist the
engineer in designing cost-effective connections.

1. Avoid unnecessarily complex designs, if possible. Complex

connections require more fit up time.
2. Specify minimum number of stiffener plates as required.
3. Where possible, specify minimum weld sizes as specified
by the Hand Book of Steel Construction (CISC).
4. Minimize length of welds.
5. Avoid or minimize field welding by using bolted
connections in the field. If fabricated properly, bolted
connections are faster to erect and require less effort and
equipment.
6. Be open to suggestions from fabricators. Sometimes, a
fabricator may propose to change a connection in order to
lower fabrication costs and make installation easier.

7.0 Conclusion
Welding has been long recognized as an efficient way of
creating continuous metal connections. The Canadian steel code
prescribes equations for determining strength of welds. These
equations are used in order to determine strength of welded

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CIVL 510 WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST ESTIMATION MEHDI JALAYER

8.0 Appendices
Appendix A: Project Milestone

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CIVL 510 WELDED CONNECTION DESIGN & COST ESTIMATION MEHDI JALAYER

Appendix B: References

[1] US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004.

Welding, Soldering and Brazing workers. URL:
http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos226.htm

[2] Cooper, Sol. E., 1985. Designing Steel Structures Methods and
Cases. Prantice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

[3] Knowledge. Lincoln Electric Company, 2005. URL:

http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/

[4] Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, 2004. Handbook of

Steel Construction. Quadratone Graphics Ltd., Toronto, Ontario.

[5] Blodgett, W. Omer, 1968. Design of Welded Structures. The

James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation. Cleveland, Ohio.

[6] Skanaluminum, AluBook Lexical Knowledge About Aluminum

URL: http://www.alu-info.dk/Html/alulib/modul/A00526.htm

[7] American Metallurgical Consultants, 1999. Welding

Procedures and Techniques. URL: www.weldingengineer.com

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