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05 Incremental Oil
05 Incremental Oil
Defintion
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The oil rate q changes with time t in a manner that defines a decline rate D
according to
1 dq
D 1.3-1
q dt
The rate has units of (or [=]) amount or volume per time and D [=]1/time. Time is in
units of days, months, or even years consistent with the units of q. D itself can be a
function of rate, but we take it to be constant. Integrating Eq. 1.3-1 gives
Dt
q qi e 1.3-2
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log (q)
qi
-D
Slope = 2.303
Decline
period
begins
qEL Life
t
0
Figure 1-3. Schematic of exponential decline on a rate-time plot.
Np qd .
0
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The definition in this equation is general and will be employed throughout the text,
but especially in Chap. 2. To derive a rate -cumulative expression, insert Eq. 1.3-1,
integrate, and identify the resulting terms with (again) Eq. 1.3-1. This gives
q qi DN p 1.3-3
Equation 1.3-3 says that a plot of oil rate versus cumulative production should be a
straight line on linear coordinates. Figure 1-4 illustrates.
q
qi
Slope = -D
Mobile oil
qEL
Recoverable oil
Np
0
You should note that the cumulative oil points being plotted on the horizontal axis of
this figure are from the oil rate data, not the decline curve. It this were not so, there
would be no additional information in the rate-cumulative plot. Calculating Np
normally requires a numerical integration with something like the trapezoid rule.
Using model Eqs 1.3-2 and 1.3-3 to interpret a set of data as illustrated in
Figs. 1-3 and 1-4 is the essence of reservoir engineering practice, namely
1. Develop a model as we have done to arrive at Eqs. 1.3-2 and 1.3-3. Often the
model equations are far more complicated than these, but the method is the same
regardless of the model.
2. Fit the model to the data. Remember that the points in Figs. 1-3 and 1-4 are data.
The lines are the model.
3. With the model fit to the data (the model is now calibrated), extrapolate the model
to make predictions.
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At the onset of the decline period, the data again start to follow a straight line
through which can be fit a linear model. In effect, what has occurred with this plot is
that we have replaced time on Fig. 1-3 with cumulative oil produced on Fig. 1-4, but
there is one very important distinction: both axes in Fig. 1-4 are now linear. This has
three important consequences.
1. The slope of the model is now –D since no correction for log scales is
required.
2. The origin of the model can be shifted in either direction by simple additions.
3. The rate can now be extrapolated to zero.
Point 2 simply means that we can plot the cumulative oil produced for all
periods prior to the decline curve period (or for previous decline curve periods) on
the same rate-cumulative plot. Point 3 means that we can extrapolate the model to
find the total mobile oil (when the rate is zero) rather than just the recoverable oil
(when the rate is at the economic limit).
Rate-cumulative plots are simple yet informative tools for interpreting EOR
processes because they allow estimates of incremental oil recovery (IOR) by
distinguishing between recoverable and mobile oil. We illustrate how this comes
about through some idealized cases.
qEL
IOR
Np
Incremental
Project begins mobile oil
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Figure 1-5. Schematic of exponential decline curve behavior on a rate-cumulative
plot. The EOR project produces both incremental oil (IOR), and increases the mobile
oil. The pre- and post-EOR decline rates are the same.
We have replaced the data points with the models only for ease of
presentation. Placing both periods on the same horizontal axis is permissible because
of the scaling arguments mentioned above. In this case, the EOR process did not
accelerate the production because the decline rates in both periods are the same;
however, the process did increase the amount of mobile oil, which in turn caused
some incremental oil production. In this case, the incremental recovery and mobile
oil are the same. Such idealized behavior would be characteristic of thermal,
micellar-polymer, and solvent processes.
IOR
qEL
Np
Project begins
Figure 1-6 shows another extreme where production is only accelerated, the
pre- and post-EOR decline rates being different. Now the curves extrapolate to a
common mobile oil but with still a nonzero IOR. We expect correctly that processes
that behave as this will produce less oil than ones that increase mobile oil, but they
can still be profitable, particularly, if the agent used to bring about this result is
inexpensive. Processes that ideally behave in this manner are polymer floods and
polymer gel processes, which do not affect residual oil saturation. Acceleration
processes are especially sensitive to the economic limit; large economic limits imply
large IOR.
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Example 1-1. Estimating incremental oil recovery.
Sometimes estimating IOR can be fairly subtle as this example illustrates. Figure 1-7
shows a portion of rate-cumulative data from a field that started EOR about half-way
through the total production shown.
0.20
0.15
Pre EOR
0.10
Post EOR
0.05
qEL
0.00
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Cumulative Oil Produced, M std. m3
Figure 1-7. Rate (vertical axis) - cumulative (horizontal axis) plot for a field
undergoing and EOR process.
M std.m3
0.11 0.18
D month 0.027 month 1
2.55 0 M std.m3
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3
M std.m
0.09 0.11
D month 0.0137 month 1
4 2.55 M std.m3
The EOR project has about halved the decline rate even though there is no increase in
rate.
c. Estimate the IOR ([=] M std. m3) for this project at the indicated economic limit.
The oil to be recovered by continued operations is 4.7 M std. m3. That from EOR is
(by extrapolation) 7 M std. m3 for an incremental oil recovery of 2.3 M std. m3.
Comparative Performances
Most of this text covers the details of EOR processes. At this point, we compare
performances of the three basic EOR processes and introduce some issues to be
discussed later in the form of screening guides. The performance is represented as
typical oil recoveries (incremental oil expressed as a percent of original oil in place)
and by various utilization factors. Both are based on actual experience. Utilization
factors express the amount of an EOR agent required to produce a barrel of
incremental oil. They are a rough measure of process profitability.
Table 1-1 shows sensitivity to high salinities is common to all chemical
flooding EOR. Total dissolved solids should be less than 100,000 g/m3, and hardness
should be less than 2,000 g/m3. Chemical agents are also susceptible to loss through
rock–fluid interactions. Maintaining adequate injectivity is a persistent issue with
chemical methods. Historical oil recoveries have ranged from small to moderately
large. Chemical utilization factors have meaning only when compared to the costs of
the individual agents; polymer, for example, is usually three to four times as
expensive (per unit mass) as surfactants.
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