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Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically

ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE.LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL. CHRISTIAN VALUES surface) to abrasion.
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Earth Science

Module 2
Lesson 1

TOPIC: Minerals and Rocks (PART 1)

Introduction:

Key Concepts:

Mineral - naturally occurring, inorganic solid with orderly crystalline structure and a
definite chemical composition. These are the basic building blocks of rocks.

Five Requirements for a material to be considered a mineral:

 naturally occurring. Moh’s scale of Hardness
 inorganic. (The test compares the resistance of a mineral relative to the 10 reference minerals
 solid. with known hardness. It is simply determining the hardness of a mineral by
 definite chemical composition. scratching them with common objects of known hardness (e.g. copper coin -3.0-3.5).)
 ordered internal structure.

Do you consider water a mineral?  What are the pros and cons in using the Mohs scale of hardness?
Water is not a mineral since it is not solid and crystalline. Tube ice is not because it is
PROS CONS
not naturally occurring. Snow flake meets all requirements in defining a mineral.
Easy to do test The test is qualitative not
quantitative
A. MINERAL PROPERTIES: Can be done anywhere, anytime Cannot be used to test accurate
1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the as long as the place is not dark hardness of industrial materials
mineral a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar Moh scales is highly relevant for
to a polished metal b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine field geologists to roughly
(brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, etc. identify materials using scratch
kits
Can be done without or few kits
 – handy 6. Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken
surfaces that are irregular and non-planar. Quartz for example has an inherent
weakness in the crystal structure that is not planar. Examples of fracture are
3. Color and streak – Color maybe a unique identifying property of certain
conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven among others.
minerals (e.g. malachite – green, azurite – blue). There are also lots of
7. Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an
minerals that share similar or the same color/s. In addition, some minerals can
equal volume of water. A bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh 10 times
exhibit a range of colors. The mineral quartz for example, can be pink (rose
more than a bucket of water (SG 1). It is a measure to express the density
quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white (colorless quartz) etc.
(mass per unit volume) of a mineral. The specific gravity of a mineral is
Streak on the other hand is the color of a mineral in powdered form. Note that
numerically equal to density.
the color of a mineral could be different from the streak. For example, pyrite
8. Others – There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in
(FeS2) exhibits golden color (hence the other term of pyrite which is Fool’s
their identification (e.g. magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid,
Gold) but has a black or dark gray streak. Streak is a better diagnostic
etc.). Magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is
property as compared to color. Streak is inherent to almost every mineral.
salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered form.
Color maybe unreliable for identification as impurities within the minerals
may give the minerals a different color.
B. MINERAL GROUPS
4. Crystal Form/Habit –The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is A more stable and less ambiguous basis for classification of minerals is by chemical
displayed / observed as these crystals grow in open spaces. The form reflects composition.
the supposedly internal structure (of atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral).
It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage
or fracture. Examples include prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, Reni form and
equant. A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described as
amorphous.

The crystal form also define the relative growth of the crystal in 3 dimension
which are its length, width and height.

5. Cleavage – It is the property of some minerals to break along parallel

repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces. These planes of
weakness are inherent in the bonding of atoms that makes up the mineral.
These planes of weakness are parallel to the atomic planes and appear to be
repeating within the mineral. When minerals break evenly in more than one 1. Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s
direction, cleavage is described by the number of cleavage directions and the crust, namely, silicon and oxygen. When linked together, these two elements
angle(s) between planes (e.g. cleavage in 2 directions at 90 degrees to each form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the fundamental building block of
other). silicate minerals. Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to this group.
 Aside from Si (46.6 % by wt.) and O (27.7%), the other most common (You can use a separate sheet for your answers.)
elements that make the earth’s crust are Al (8.1), Fe (5.0), Ca (3.6), Mg (3.1),
Na (2.8) and K 2.6).
2. Oxides – minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2 - ) combined with one or TOPIC: Minerals and Rocks (PART 2)
more metal ions
3. Sulfates – minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion (SO4) - combined
with other ions
4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion (S2) - combined with one or more
ions. Some sulfides are sources of economically important metals such as
copper, lead and zinc.
5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3) 2- combined
with other elements
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elements.
a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and electrical
conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more
elements (The total abundances do not add up to exactly 100% because of round-off
errors)
EVALUATION:
Answer the following questions:  Approximately 85% of the Earth's crust is composed of oxygen and silicon.
Together they form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron, which is the basic building
1. What are the characteristics that define a mineral? block of silicate minerals. Silicates are also termed as (common) rock forming
2. Which among the following mineral groups, if any, contain silicon: halides, minerals.
carbonates or sulfides? Explain.  Rocks are an aggregate of minerals. A rock can be composed of a single
3. Which is more abundant in the Earth’s crust: silicates or all the other mineral mineral (e.g. Quartzite is a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of
groups combined? Explain. Quartz) or more commonly composed of an aggregate of two or more minerals.
4. An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a density of 18g/cm3.
Is the mineral metallic or non-metallic? Can a name of a mineral be also used as a rock name?
INSTRUCTION:
5. What is the difference between a mineral's streak and color? Why is streak
more reliable for rock identification? A. ROCK CLASSIFICATION
6. Differentiate habit and a cleavage plane.
7. Is it possible for a mineral to have a prismatic habit without having any 1. Igneous Rocks
cleavage? Why or why not? If yes, give an example.
  these are rocks that are derived from the cooling and solidification of magma - mafic: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually dark colored
or lava. - ultramafic: <45% silica, generally very dark colored
 from solidified molten rock materials, usually hard and crystalline.
 rate of cooling as one of the most important factors that control crystal size.
 solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of
the earth.

Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth.

Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through a central
vent (volcano) or as fissure eruption.

 Plutonic or Intrusive Rocks

- from solidified magma underneath the earth
- gradual lowering of temperature is indicated by the movement of magma
from depth to surface causing slow cooling /crystallization.
- Phaneritic textures
- Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro

 Volcanic or Extrusive Rocks

- from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
- fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature
between Earth’s surface and underneath
- common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic (define groundmass vs
phenocrysts), vesicular
- examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt
- pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or
explosive type of eruption. Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits 2. Sedimentary Rocks
(ignimbrite)  these are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the Earth
 sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks, erosion, sediment
 Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content and relative transport and deposition (compaction and cementation)
amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg and Ca. They can be classified as felsic,  common sedimentary features: fossil assemblages and stratification
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, practically based on presence of light and  fossil assemblages: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved
dark colored minerals. The relatively dark minerals are olivine, pyroxene, in rocks
hornblende and biotite. The relatively light colored minerals are plagioclases,
 stratification or layering (strata which is >1cm is called bedding and < 1cm is
Kfeldspars, quartz and muscovite.
called lamination): layering is the result of a change in grain size and
- felsic: granitic: >65% silica, generally light-colored
composition; each layer represents a distinct period of deposition
- intermediate: andesitic: 55-65% silica, generally medium colored (medium
gray)
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 - grains, matrix and cement are the components of clastic rocks
- clastic rocks are commonly classified based on particle size
- clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastics) and may have
undergone some stages in the sedimentary processes could be classified as
sedimentary rock (e.g. volcanoclastic rocks).
- the presence of variable grain sizes (including matrix and cement) is
indicative of sedimentary differentiation which is actually a function of
processes happening in different sedimentary environments.
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Non-Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
- evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic
matter
- classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and dolostone), precipitates
(limestone) and bioclastics (coal, coquina)
- chart below summarizes the features of the non-clastic rocks.
- formed below the surface of the earth through the process of
metamorphism with the recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to
changes in pressure and temperature conditions
- contact and regional metamorphism
 Contact Metamorphism
- heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs when a pre-existing rock
gets in contact with magma which is the source of heat and magmatic
fluids where metamorphic alterations and transformations occur around
the contact / metamorphic aureole of the intruding magma and the rock
layers. The aureole occurs on different scales depending on the sizes of the
intruding magma and the amount of water in the intruded rocks and the
reactive fluids coming from the magma.
- creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
- example: hornfels
 Regional Metamorphism
- pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone considerable
amount of mechanical deformation and chemical recrystallization during
orogenic event which are commonly associated with mountain belts
- occurs in a regional/large scale
- creates foliated metamorphic rocks
- examples: schist, gneiss
 - non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional metamorphism,
where pressure is not intense, far from the main geologic event.
ASSIGNMENT:

Research on 3 rocks (one for each rock type). Include in the discussion the following:
a. history of formation
b. common environment of formation
c. common textures
d. common use of the rock

(You can use a separate sheet for your answers.)

EVALUATION:

Answer the following questions.

1. How does a vesicular texture in a volcanic rock develop?

2. Explain why vesicular texture is not associated with peridotites.
3. How do clastic rocks differ from non-clastic rocks in terms of process of
formation?
4. Explain how the physical features of sediments change during transport.
5. Differentiate between a foliated and non-foliated rock.
6. What do butterflies and metamorphic rocks have in common?
7. Heat is a major agent in metamorphism and igneous rock formation, but not in
sedimentary rocks. Why?
8. Does every rock go through the complete rock cycle, i.e. changing from
igneous to sedimentary rock to metamorphic then back to igneous rocks?
Explain.