MINERALS > having specific chemical constituents

Are substances naturally (Pyrite – 1 atom Iron and 2 atoms

formed in the Earth. Minerals are Sulfur (FeS2),
typically solid, inorganic, have a Ordered internal / crystalline
crystal structure and are formed by structure
geological processes naturally. A
mineral may consist of a single > its elemental components arranged in
chemical element or a compound an ordered fashion
more usually.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
Examples of mineral use in our daily MINERALS
lives. . .
1. halite (salt) for cooking 1. LUSTER - it is the quality and
2. graphite (pencil) for writing intensity of reflected light
3. diamond and gold as jewelry exhibited by the mineral.

DEFINITION OF MINERALS a. Metallic -generally opaque

• Building blocks for rocks. and exhibit a resplendent shine
• A mineral is a naturally occurring, similar to a polished metal:
inorganic, homogenous solids, galena and pyrite
consisting of definite chemical b. Non-metallic lusters: (any
composition, and ordered mineral which does not exhibit
internal/crystalline structure. shiny metallic characteristics)
i. Adamantine - brilliant, the luster of
GENERAL diamond also cerussite and anglesite
ii. Vitreous -the luster of a broken glass:
CHARACTERISTICS OF quartz
MINERALS iii. Pearly - iridescent and pearl-like: talc
and apophyllite
Naturally Occurring iv. Resinous - the luster of resin:
> made by natural process without the sphalerite and sulfur
aid of any organism v. Silky - a soft light shown by fibrous
materials: gypsum and chrysotile
vi. Dull/earthy - shown by finely
Inorganic crystallized minerals: the kidney ore
> no organic material (bones, shell, variety of hematite
teeth) be considered as mineral
2. HARDNESS - the physical
Homogenous solids hardness of a mineral is usually
> uniform in appearance and in solid measured according to the Mohs
state of matter scale. This scale is relative and
goes from 1 to 10. Minerals with a
Definite chemical composition given Mohs hardness can scratch
the surface of any mineral that has
lower hardness than itself,
3. COLOR - indicates the appearance
of the mineral in reflected light or
transmitted light for translucent
minerals (i.e., what it looks like to
the naked eye).
• Iridescence - the play of colors
due to surface or internal
interference. e.g., labradorite
exhibits internal iridescence
whereas hematite and
sphalerite often show the
surface effect.
4. STREAK - refers to the color of
the powder a mineral leaf after
rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain
streak plate.
5. CRYSTAL FORM/HABIT - The
external shape of a crystal or
groups of crystals is displayed /
observed as these crystals grow in
open spaces. It is the natural shape
of the mineral before the
development of any cleavage or
fracture. Examples include
prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy,
reniform and equant.
6. CLEAVAGE - describes the way a
mineral may split apart along
various planes. In thin sections,
cleavage is visible as thin parallel
lines across a mineral.
7. FRACTURE - describes how a
mineral break when broken
contrary to its natural cleavage
planes.
Types of Fracture:
- Conchoidal fracture is a smooth
curved fracture with concentric ridges
of the type shown by glass.
- Hackley is jagged fracture with sharp
edges.
- Fibrous
- Irregular
8. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - relates the
mineral mass to the mass of an
equal volume of water, namely the
density of the material. While most
minerals, including all the common
rock-forming minerals, have a
specific gravity of 2.5 - 3.5, a few
are noticeably more or less dense,
e.g., several sulfide minerals have
high specific gravity compared to
the common rock-forming
minerals.
Other Special properties:
Glowing under ultraviolet light -
FLUORITE
Magnetism - MAGNETITE
Salty taste - HALITE
Smell - SULFUR
Reaction to HCl – CALCITE
MAJOR STAGES INVOLVED
IN MINERAL EXPLORATION
> The steps enumerated are used or
considered based on how they are
needed during exploration. These steps
are written within the context of a
general exploration project where some
activities may vary depending on the
type of commodity being explored.
A. PROJECT DESIGN
> This is the initial stage in formulating
a project. This involves review of all
available data (geologic reports, mining
history, maps, etc.) government
requirements in acquiring the project,
review of social, environmental,
political and economic acceptability of
the project and budget and organization
proposal.

B. FIELD EXPLORATION
> This stage involves physical activities
in the selected project area. This can be
divided into three phases.
- Regional Reconnaissance: The
activities involve regional surface
investigation and interpretation.
- Detailed Exploration: The objective
of finding and delineating targets or
mineralized zones.
- Prospect Evaluation: The main
objective is to assess (study) market
profitability by (1) extensive resource,
geotechnical and engineering drilling
(2) metallurgic testing and (3)
environmental and societal cost
assessment.
C. PRE- PRODUCION
FEASIBILITY STUDY
> Determines and validates the
accuracy of all data and information
collected from the different stage.
> The purpose is for independent
assessors to satisfy interested investor
to raise funds and bring the project into
production.
> Minerals are removed through a
variety of methods that vary widely in
their cost, safety factors, and levels of
environmental harm.
> A variety of methods are used based
on mineral depth.
TWO MAIN METHODS OF
MINING
SURFACE MINING
> Utilized to extract ore minerals that
are close to Earth’s Surface.
Open-Pit Mining
Machine dig holes and remove ore,
sand, gravel, and stone.
Area Strip Mining
Earth moves strips away overburden
and giant shovels remove mineral
deposits
Contour Strip Mining
Used on hilly or mountainous terrain.
Placer Mining
In which chained buckets and draglines
are used to scrape up the minerals from
underwater mineral deposits.
UNDERGROUND MINING
> Utilized to extract ore minerals from
the ore body that is deep under the
Earth’s surface.
> The materials extracted or “mined”
are rocks composed of both one and
waste material (part of the rock which
contain very little or no element or
mineral of economic value). The
extracted rocks will undergo processes
of mineral (e.g., metal) separation and
recovery.
> Recovering the minerals from the ore
and waste materials can involve one or
more processes where in the separation
is usually done in a MILL.
Examples of Milling or Recovery
Methods or Processes
1. HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION:
The crushed rocks are submerged in
liquid. This is commonly used to
separate chalcopyrite from quartz.
2. MAGNETIC SEPARATION: If the
metal or mineral is magnetic, the
crushed one is separated from the waste
materials using powerful.
3. FLOTATION: The powered ore is
placed into agitated and frothy slurry.

4. CYANIDE HEAP LEACHING:
This method is used for low grade gold
ore where the crushed rock is placed on
a “leach pile”.
Improper Mining Can Cause
> Acid Mine Drainage
> Erosion and Sedimentation
> Cyanide and other toxic releases
> Dust Emissions (air pollution)
> Habitat modification (Damage to
wildlife)
> Surface and Groundwater
Contamination
DEFINING ENERGY
- energy is the amount of force or
power when applied can move one
object from one position to another.
- energy can have many forms: kinetic,
potential, light, sound, gravitational,
elastic, electromagnetic nuclear.
Energy is broadly classifying into a two
main groups. . .
RENEWABLE ENERGY
> energy which generated from natural
sources i.e., sun, wind, rain, tides and
can be regenerated and replenished
again and again through rapid natural
cycles.
MAIN FORMS OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY
 Solar – the energy obtained from
sun in the form of radiations.
 Wind – is the kinetic energy
associated with the movement of
air to power electric generators.
 Hydroelectrical – energy in the
form of flowing water to run a
turbine connected to a power
generator.
 Biomass – is the organic material
like wood, biofuel, biogas when
burned it generate energy.
 Geothermal – means heat from the
earth in the form of steam to power
electric generators.
NON - RENEWABLE ENERGY
> is a natural resource that cannot be
remade or regrown at a scale
comparable to its consumption.
> resources that exists in a fixed
quantity in Earth’s crust and thus
theoretically can be used up.
MAIN FORMS OF NON-
RENEWABLE ENERGY
 Coal – a black or brownish-black
hard substance within the earth that
is used as fuel.
 Oil – a thick black liquid that
comes from the ground and that is
used in making various products
(such as gasoline).
 Natural Gas – is found above the
oil well. It is the mixture of 50%-
90% methane and small amount of
other hydro-carbon.
 Nuclear – is the energy trapped
inside the atom that can be
generated when the nuclei of atoms
are split apart (nuclear fission) and
when they are joined together
(nuclear fusion).
The following uses of energy…
Agricultural
Transportation
Residential
 Commercial
Industrial
DEFINING FOSSIL FUELS
> are fuels formed by the natural
processes such as anaerobic
decomposition of buried dead
organism. The age of the organisms
and their resulting fossil fuels is
typically million of years, and
sometimes exceeds 650 million years.
Different types of fossil fuels...
Coil
Oil
Natural Gas
COAL FACTS
 Hard
 Black or Brownish-Black
 Rock like
 Composed primarily of carbon
 A non-renewable energy because
of it takes million years to create
 Energy in coal comes from the
energy stored by plants that lived
hundreds of millions of years ago.
HOW COAL IS FORMED
> Formed when peat is altered
physically and chemically.
> Formed from the remains of
vegetation that grew as long as 400
million years ago.
 Process is called “coalification”
- the formation of coal from plants
material by the processes of diagenesis
and metamorphism. Also known as
bituminization or carbonification.
GEOLOGICAL TIME FOR THE
FORMATION OF COAL
CARBONIFEROUS (“coal-bearing”):
Period: (360 million to 290 million
years ago) – most favorable conditions
for the formation of coal.
PERMIAN: Period (290 million years
ago – lesser amounts of formation.
MESOZOIC ERA: Period (250 million
to 65 million years ago) – lesser
amounts of formation.
TERTIARY ERA: (less than 65 million
years ago – generally less mature.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
COAL
> There are several different types of
coal. They are several different types of
coal. They are ranked according to their
carbon and volatile matter content.
1. Anthracite Coal – is 80 – 90% pure
carbon and 8 to 3% volatile matter.
It is an excellent fuel that s still
used to heat hemes.
2. Bituminous Coal – contains 70% to
86% carbon and 46 to 31% volatile
matter. It is used to make coke,
used in metallurgy.
3. Sub-bituminous coal – is 70% to
76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile
matter. It is burned in industrial
boilers.
4. Lignite - is 65 to 70% of carbon and
63 to 53% volatile matter. It is a low-
grade fuel with a high moisture content
that is used in industrial boilers.
5. Peat – consists of partially
decomposed vegetation. Technically
speaking it isn’t coal. It has a carbon
content of less than 60% and is
composed entirely of volatile matter.
 lighter hydrocarbon. This dept interval
is known as the gas window.

HOW IS COAL USED AS A

FOSSIL FUEL HOW OIL IS USED AS A
> Almost 93% of the coal used in the FOSSIL FUEL
United States is used for generating  Used for petroleum products and
electricity. motor gasoline.
> Separated ingredients of coal (such as  As few products made from
methanol ad ethylene) are used in petroleum: Ink, crayons,
making; Tar, Fertilizers, Plastic, dishwashing liquids, deodorant,
Medicines, core, steel. eyeglasses, Cos and DVDs, Tires,
Ammonia etc.
WHAT IS OIL AND NATURAL
GAS AND HOW IS IT HOW NATURAL GASES ARE
FORMED? USED AS FOSSIL FUELS
> Produce: Steel, Glass, Clothing,
Oil Facts… Brick, Electricity
 Formed more than 300 million > Products that use natural gas as a raw
years ago. material: Paints, Fertilizer, Plastics.
 Scientists say that tiny diatoms
(diatoms – sea creatures the size of FOSSIL FUEL POWER
a pin head and can convert sunlight GENERATION
directly into stored energy) are the
source of oil. > Electrical energy generation using
 Oil has been used for more than steam turbines involves three energy
5000-6000 years. conversions, extracting thermal
energy from the fuel and using it to
raising steam, converting the thermal
Natural Gas Facts… energy of the steam into kinetic energy
 is lighter than air in the turbine and using a rotary
 No odor generator to convert the turbine’s
 Can’t see it mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
HOW OIL AND GAS FORMS
> At depth of 2,000 meters, when the DEFINING WATER
temperature reaches 100 degrees > Water is made of tiny molecules of
Celsius, hydrocarbons start to be hydrogen and oxygen.
released. > Each one is so small that you can’t
> Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it see it even with the most powerful
turns into oil. This depth interval is microscope.
known as the oil window. > Water exists in three forms on the
> Between 3,800 and 5,000 meters, the Earth:
liquids produced become increasingly
a.) solid (ice, hail, snow, or frost)
b.) liquid (in lakes, oceans, rain, dew,
fog or mist)
c.) gas (steam or water vapour =
“invisible” water in the air.)
WATER RESOURCES
 Are sources of water that are useful
to humans. Uses of water include
agricultural, industrial, household,
recreational, and environmental
activities. Virtually all of these
human uses require fresh water.
 Water resources are divisible into
two distinct categories: the
surface-water resources and the
ground-water resources. Each of
these categories is a part of the
earth’s water circulatory system,
called HYDROLOGIC CYCLE,
and is derived from precipitation,
which is rainfall plus snow.
SURFACE WATER
- surface water is water in a river, lake
or fresh water wetland. Surface water is
naturally replenished by
precipitation and naturally lost through
discharge to the oceans, evaporation,
and sub-surface seepage.
GROUND-WATER
- sub-surface water or ground water, is
fresh water located in the pore space of
soil and rocks. It is also water that is
flowing within aquifers below the water
table.
DESALINATION
- is an artificial process by which saline
water (generally sea water) is converted
to fresh water. The most common
desalination processes are distillation
and reverse osmosis.
FROZEN WATER
- several schemes have been proposed
to make use of icebergs as a water
source, however to date this has only
been done for novelty purposes. Glacier
runoff is considered to be surface water.
USES OF WATER
A. Agricultural
- it is estimated that 69% of worldwide
water use is for irrigation, with 15-35%
of irrigation withdrawals being
unsustainable. It takes around 3,000
liters of water, converted from liquid to
vapor, to produce enough food to
satisfy one person’s daily dietary need.
B. Industrial
- It is estimated that 22% of worldwide
water use is industrial. Major industrial
users include hydroelectric dams,
thermoelectric powerplants, which use
water for cooling, ore and oil refineries,
which use water in chemical processes,
and manufacturing plants, which use
water as a solvent.
C. Recreational Water
- use is usually very small but growing
percentage of total water use.
Recreational water use is mostly tied to
reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller
than it would otherwise be for
recreation, then the water retained
could be categorized as a recreational
usage.
D. Household
- It is estimated that 8% of worldwide
water use is for household purposes.
These include drinking water, bathing,
cooking, sanitation and gardening.
Basic household water requirements
have been estimated at around 50 liters
per person per day.

E. Environmental
- explicit environmental water use is
also a very small but growing
percentage of total water use.
Environmental water may include
water stored in impoundments and
released for environmental purposes
(held environmental water), but more
often is water retained in waterways
through regulatory limits of abstraction.

WHY SHOULD WE SAVE WATER?

 Of all water in the world, only 3% is fresh.

 Less than one third of 1% of this fresh water
is available for human use.
 The rest is frozen in glaciers or polar ice
caps, or is deep within the earth, beyond our
reach.

To simplify, if 100 liters represents the

world’s water, about half a tablespoon of it is
fresh water available for our use.