Typical engineering stress – strain behavior

su

sf
sy

Necking

Uniform def. Localized def.

Elastic
Behavior Plastic Behavior
Elastic Behavior: In this region when the load is
removed the specimen will return back to its original
shape.
(Deformation is temporary= reversible)
s  e (Stress is proportional to strain)

s= E e (Hooke’s Law)
Where:
E is the Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus)
= s / e (any stress and its corresponding strain in the
elastic region)
E is the slope of the straight line.
Straight line (Y=mX)=== Linear elastic behavior
What happens during elastic deformation on atomic scale?
•Stretching of inter atomic bonds (interatomic bonds do not break)
•*Magnitude of E is a measure of resistance to separation of adjacent
atoms
 YOUNG’S MODULI:
COMPARISON
Metals
Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
Ionic or covalent bond >
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
metallic bond >
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers)*
Wanderwaals bond or
6 AFRE( fibers)*
4
Polyester
PET
secondary bonds
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE
 For some materials (gray cast iron, polymers) the
elastic portion is not linear. In this case the elastic
modulus is computed either by tangent modulus (slope
at a particular stress level, s2) or secant modulus
(slope of a secant drawn between two stress level
points , origin and s1)

Ds = s2-s1 s2, e2
De e2-e1 s1, e1
Yielding: If the stress exceeds the sy = Yield strength ==
elastic limit The materials starts to
the stress that defines the
deform permanently (the specimen
transition from elastic
keeps its deformed shape even if the
deformation to plastic
load is removed) leading to plastic
deformation.
deformation
Offset Yield Strength (sy):Some metals do not have a well defined
yield point. At a strain of 0.002 a line parallel to the initial straight
line is drawn. The point where this line intersects the curve defines
the yield strength.
Some steels exhibit an elastic
– plastic transition which is
termed as yield point
phenomenon.

Yield strength is taken as the

average stress Associated with
the lower yield point.
 Ultimate tensile strength ( sut):
Maximum stress achieved =Fmax / Ao

Necking: At the point of maximum load (when s reaches s ut)

constriction (cross section area begin to decrease in a localized region)
begins to form. From that point onward, deformation is confined within
the neck region, that’s why the deformation is termed localized
deformation. Before the neck point the deformation is uniform.

Fracture stress (sf): the final point on the curve, fracture happens in
the neck region.
 Ductility : The maximum strain before rupture (maximum degree of
deformation that can be sustained at fracture), materials that can be
subjected to large strains is called a ductile material.
L f - Lo
%Elongation %EL = x100
Lo

Ao - A f
% Area Reduction =%AR = x100
Ao
• Note: %AR and %EL are often
comparable.

•Ductility defines allowable

deformation during fabrication

•Ductility defines the degree to

which a structure will deform
before fracture
Modulus of resilience (Ur): Elastic energy absorbed
and recovered upon un loading. (area under the
elastic line)
Ur = ½ * sy * ey
N.B. yield stress and proportional
limit stress will be assumed to
coincide.
From Hooke’s law:
ey = s / E
Ur= sy2 / 2 E
(units should represent energy:
Joule/m3)
Units:
MPa = N/mm2 x 106  N/m2 x m/m  J/m3
Modulus of toughness (Ut) : Ability of the material to absorb
energy upto fracture (The area under the whole curve)
An approximation for the Ut
is the area under the
rectangle
For Ductile Materials:
Ut = (sy + sut) x ef
2
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress, s (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, e

 Elastic Recovery: When a material is
unloaded from the plastic region, some
elastic strain is recovered.

Amount of elastic strain

recovered:
E= A’C
O’C
erecovered =(A’C) / E
C
= sA’ / E
epermanent = e total– e recovered
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