The Manhattan Bridge, under construction in 1909, nine

months before its opening on December 31, 1909

 Introduction
• There is a vast majority of materials that are used to bear and sustain
loads.
– buildings
– bridges
– cars
– space shuttle

• We need to understand…
– … how much force a material will withstand without:
• deflecting too much.
• deforming permanently.
• cracking or breaking.
– … how the mechanical behavior changes over time due to:
• high temperature exposure.
• fatigue.
• combinations of the above.

2
 Introduction
• Having examined the crystal structure of solids, we now ask the basic
question: “How does a solid respond to an applied force?”

• In general we can expect one of the following responses:

– If there is a net force acting on the solid, then it will move.
– If the forces and moments are balanced, then the applied forces will tend to force the
atoms closer together (compression) or pull them apart (tension).

• We’ll now examine what happens when the atoms are pushed together
or pulled apart.

3
 Atomic Level Description
• We already described the bonding
between two atoms and identified
the bond length as the equilibrium
spacing of atoms (net-force =0 &
energy is minimum).

• If an external force compressive

force is applied, it will force the
atoms closer together (r becomes
less than r0).

• As we can see from the diagram we

then have a net repulsive force
between the atoms.

• In other words, the solid will exert a

reaction force.
 Atomic Level Description
• Similarly, if we pull the solid
(apply tension), the atoms
are forced to move away
from one another (r> r0).

• As we can see from the

diagram, this leads to a net
attractive force.

• So, we reach the same

conclusion, the solid will
exert a reaction force which
opposes the applied force.
 Analogy with a Spring
• If we pull on a spring, the spring exerts a
force, F = -kx, where x is the
displacement.

• We can apply the same treatment for a

solid crystal. Let’s approximate the
force vs. interatomic spacing curve as a
straight line (in the vicinity of r0).

• If the slope of this line is S, then the

force is F = -S (r-r0).

• This simple description is very accurate

and actually leads to the a very
important equation for describing the
elastic behaviour of solids:
 Hooke’s Law
• Notice that we used the stress
instead of the force. The stress is
defined as the force per unit area,
F/A.

• We also used the strain instead of

displacement, dL/L.

• The use of normalized force (stress)

and normalized displacement
(strain) is attractive because the
stress and strain are more indicative
of how the material will response
than the force and displacement.
 What Parameter Correlates A Material’s Behaviour?

If it requires 2 baby elephants

to break the lecture table how
many elephants would it take
to break two tables joined
together?
Why and what is the
principle?

If a 20 m long bungee cord stretches 6 m when you jump how long will a 30 m cord
stretch?

• A material’s response is correlated by:

– stress (normalized force).
– strain (normalized deflection).
8
 Concepts of Stress and Strain
• Three ways a load may be applied:
– Tension
– Compression
– Shear

• Engineering stress (σ): The instantaneous load applied to a

specimen divided by its cross-sectional area before any
deformation
F
 1MPa=106N/m2
A0
– Expressed in MPa
• Engineering Strain (ε): The change in gauge length of a
specimen (in the direction of an applied force) divided by its
original gauge length l  l l
 i 0
 *NO UNITS
l0 l0
 Shear
• Shear Stress(τ): The instantaneous applied
shear load divided by the original cross-
sectional area across which it is applied

F

A0

• Shear Strain(γ): The tangent of the shear

angle that results from an applied shear load
Elastic Deformation

Nike Bauer Supreme ONE95

hockey stick
 Stress-Strain Behavior
• Hooke’s Law:

Tension E= Young’s Modulus Shear G= Shear Modulus

  E   G
– Expresses the relationship between engineering stress and strain for elastic
deformation (tension and compression)

• Modulus of Elasticity, E (Young’s Modulus) is the proportionality constant

– Ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region
– Deformation is completely elastic
– Measure of the stiffness of a material

• Elastic Deformation: deformation in which stress and strain are proportional (linear
relationship)
– Slope of line is the modulus of elasticity, E
– Nonpermanent; when applied load is released, piece returns to its original shape
– Independent of Time

High E = stiff material

 Elastic Modulus
1200
1000
• The elastic modulus: 800
600
Diamond

Si carbide
– varies by 106! 400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
– depends little on alloying. 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
• same for Fe, steel 100
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
<100> Aramid fibers only

80 Silver, Gold AFRE(|| fibers)*

– depends weakly on 60 Aluminum
Magnesium,
Glass-soda Glass fibers only

40 Tin GFRE(|| fibers)*

temperature in a crystalline Concrete
solid. 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
1 10
Emelting po int  E0K 8
6
CFRE( fibers)*
AFRE( fibers)*
2 4
Polyester
PET
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
Why? 1
0.8
PP
HDPE

0.6 Wood( grain)

PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE

E in GPa
13
 Physics of Elasticity
• Elasticity(E) is caused by
bonds stretching.

• E= slope of Interatomic Force

vs. separation curve at
equilibrium spacing (r=r0) U

  F    2U  ~ S
E ~  ~  2 
  r r r
 r r r0 0
0
r r0

|
r

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

14
F
 Elastic Properties of Materials
• Poisson’s Ratio, ν: the negative ratio of
lateral and axial strains that result from an
applied axial stress
x y
  
z z

• For isotropic materials, the shear and

elastic moduli are related to each other
by: E  2G(1  )
 Theoretical Strength
• What is the maximum force that the
crystal can support?

• Let’s consider the case in which we

pull the crystal in tension. The
spacing of the atoms will continue
to increase (and the opposing force
will continue to rise) until we reach
the maximum point on the Force vs.
interatomic spacing curve.

• Beyond this point the bonds will

break and the material fails.

• The stress corresponding to this

maximum is called the theoretical
strength of the material.
 The Great Mystery
• The idea of the theoretical
strength attracted a lot of
attention at the beginning
of the 20th century.

• To everyone’s surprise, the

actual strength of
materials was typically
1/1000 or 1/100 of the
theoretical strength!

• So, what is missing?

 Dislocation Motion
• The concept of a line defect was introduced in chapter 4.
– Edge dislocation
• Moves in response to shear stress applied perpendicular to its line
(parallel to stress)
• Motion similar to that of a caterpillar
– Screw dislocation
• Direction of movement is perpendicular to the stress direction
• Dislocation motion distorts the crystal.
– We’ll learn in chapter 7 that the motion of dislocations involves the
breaking and reformation of a small number of bonds. The material can
therefore deform at stresses much lower than the theoretical stress.

Dislocation
(click to play)
18
 Plastic Deformation
• Permanent or nonrecoverable after release of the applied load; bends
or breaks (fracture)

• The response can be ductile or brittle.

• Permanent atomic displacements; breaking of bonds with original

atoms neighbors and reforming bonds with new neighbors

• Upon removal of stress, atoms do not return to their original positions

– Crystalline solids Accomplished by a process called slip (motion of
dislocations; discussed in Chapter 7)
– Amorphous solids (and liquids) Viscous flow mechanism

• Most metals experience at gradual transition from elastic to plastic

region
 Tensile Properties
• Yielding: The onset of plastic deformation

• Yield Strength ( σy ): The stress required to produce a very specific amount of

plastic strain; a strain offset of 0.002 is commonly used

“Strength” is
used in lieu of
“stress”
because
strength is a
property of
the metal,
whereas stress
is related to
the magnitude
of the applied
load
 Yield Strength Data

Meaning of symbols:
(to be discussed later)

a annealed
ag aged
cw cold worked
cd cold drawn
hr hot rolled
qt quenched and
tempered

21
 Tensile Strength
• Tensile strength: The stress at the maximum
on the engineering stress-strain curve;
materials maximum load

Fmax
TS 
A0
• After they yield, metals get harder to
deform.
 work hardening

• It is the maximum stress that can be

sustained by a structure in tension; if
maintained, fracture will result

• At this maximum stress, a small neck begins

to form in the specimen, termed “necking”

Fracture
• Beyond Fmax we see tensile instability
(necking) which leads to fracture

22
 Ductility
• Ductility relates to how much the material plastically deforms
before it fractures

• May be expressed as percent elongation (%EL) or percent

reduction in area (%RA) from a tensile test

• A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation

up fracture is termed brittle
l f  l0
%EL  100
l0

A0  Af
%RA  100
A0
 Energy Storage
• Work done:

dW F  d
   d
V A0 0
WT  
dW
 WV  
0
V
  ( )d   E   d 
0 0

• Consequences:
– Energy is dissipated by fracture
– Packaging & protection applications

24
 Energy Storage
• Resilience: the capacity of a Incorporating Hooke’s Law to
material to absorb energy when solve for Modulus of Resilience
it is deformed elastically and for elastic behavior
then, upon unloading, is able to
y
recover this energy
– That means there must be energy stored U r   d
in the solid 0

• Modulus of resilience, Ur: the Assuming a linear elastic region

strain energy per unit volume and using,
(J/m3)
 y  E y 1
and U r   y y
• The area under the engineering 2
stress-strain curve up to the
 y2
point of yielding Solve for
stored energy  Ur 
2E
 Packing Protection from Stress

If you want to protect a pole vaulter

from stress, would you use materials
with low or high elastic moduli?

– Why?
– Give examples of materials
Olympic pole vaulter Tatiana Grigorieva
From abc.net.au

• Answer:
1 2
Remember that WV   / E
2
– For a given , to maximize WV, you need to minimize E.
– Examples: foam
low density polymers
26
 Typical Tensile Curve: Engineering
stress-strain
True Stress and Strain curve

Metals- Look for: True stress-strain

curve
• For stress, divide by
instantaneous area

• For strain, use the

instantaneous length

• Volume is conserved during

deformation

27
 Thermal Stresses
(from Chapter 19)

• A uniform temperature change in an

unconstrained, homogeneous body won’t
cause any stresses in the material

• Thermal stress is induced by:

– constraints (e.g. fixed length)
– temperature gradients
– different materials (with different α values)
bonded together

28
 Thermal Stresses
• Example: A rod of fixed length (L)

L
 thermal    (T  Troom )
Lroom
L
T
  E thermal

compressive σ keeps ΔL = 0

29
 Thermal Shock
• Rapid heating or cooling causes temperature
gradients.
– This can cause cracking in weak or brittle materials.

• The tensile stress at surface during cooling is given

by:
  E (T2  T1 )
• Fracture if  > f , if cooling rate too large
rapid quench

tries to contract during coolingT2
doesn’t want to contract T1
30
 Hardness Testing
• Hardness is a measure of
material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation.

• This is an alternative to
tensile testing.

• Usually the load required to

produce a special indent is
measured. P
H~ indent

Aindent

31
 Advantages of Hardness Test
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of a
hardness test compared to a tensile test?

• Pros:
– cheaper, quicker
– non-destructive
– quality control
– works on quasi-brittle materials
– used on specific parts of inhomogeneous materials
• composites and thin films
• Cons:
– less precise data, not useful for design calculations

32
 Chapter 6

Practice Problems
 Practice Problems
1. A cylindrical bar of metal having a diameter of 2.83
mm and a length of 632 mm is deformed elastically
in tension with a force of 13582 N. Given that the
elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio of the metal are
115 GPa and 0.32, respectively, the change in
diameter of the specimen will be:

a) -17.014 mm
b) -1.7 x 10-2 mm
c) -1.7 x 10-4 mm
d) 2.1 x 10-2 mm
 Practice Problems
2. An alloy has a yield strength of 180 MPa and
an elastic modulus of 100 Gpa. The modulus of
resilience (or the work done per m3) for this
alloy (in J/m3) given that it exhibits linear
elastic stress-strain behavior is:

a) 1.04 x 105
b) 1.62 x 105
c) 3.2 x 10-5
d) 2.5 x 10-5