Engineering Materials –Structure

and Properties
 Types of Engineering Materials
Broadly Engineering Materials are classified as:
Engineering Materials

Polymers Composites

Metals &Alloys Ceramics

Thermoplastic Thermosetting Elastomers

Polymers Polymer
 METAL
• A solid material which is typically hard, shiny,
malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good
electrical and thermal conductivity
• (e.g. iron, gold, silver, and aluminum, and
alloys such as steel)
 ALLOY
• An alloy is a material composed of two or
more metals or a metal and a nonmetal.
Metals & Alloys are futher classified as:
Metals & Alloys

Ferrous Non-ferrous

Steels Cu-Alloys Al-Alloys

Cast Irons
Ni-Alloys
Plain Carbon Steels White Cast Iron
Alloy Steels Malleable Cast Iron
Grey Cast Iron
S.G. Cast Iron
Chilled Cast Iron
• Ferrous: iron as main constitute
• Non ferrous: other than iron as main
constitute.
• Steel: carbon less than 2 %.
• Cast iron: carbon more than 2%.
• Cu alloy: cu as main content.
• Al alloy: Al as main content.
• Ni alloy: Ni as main content.
 POLYMER
• The word polymer means
• Poly means many and meros means units,
parts.
• Polymer means many parts or many units
 THERMOPLASTIC POLYMER
• A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic,
is a plastic material, polymer, that becomes
flexible or moldable above a specific temp and
solidifies upon cooling.
• thermoplastics may be reshaped by heating
Temperature and solidifies upon cooling.
 Thermosetting polymers
• Thermosetting polymers have their chains cross linked by
covalent bonds.
• The starting materials are placed into
a mould to form the desired shape.
• The polymer is then heated (or initiated with uv light)
and chemical reactions occur to form the cross links
between the chains.
• The resulting three dimensional solid structure cannot
then be changed.
• Further heating will not cause the polymer to soften,
melt or change shape (unlike thermosoftening polymers).
 Thermosetting polymers
• The picture below shows a typical structure
for a thermosetting polymer. The red lines
represent the cross links between the chains.
 Examples
• Epoxy resins - used as coating materials,
caulks, manufacture of insulating materials,
etc ...
• Phenolic resins - tool handles, billiard balls,
sprockets, insulation, etc ...
• Unsaturated polyester resins - manufacture of
plastics reinforced fiberglass commonly
known as polyester, fillers, etc ...
 Elastomers
• Elastomer materials are those materials that
are made of polymers that are joined by
chemical bonds, acquiring a final slightly
crosslinked structure.
• Natural rubber - material used in the manufacture of
gaskets, shoe heels...
• Polyurethanes - Polyurethanes are used in the textile
industry for the manufacture of elastic clothing such as
lycra, also used as foam, wheels, etc ...
• Polybutadiene - elastomer material used on the wheels
or tires of vehicles, given the extraordinary wear
resistance.
• Neoprene - Material used primarily in the manufacture
of wetsuits is also used as wire insulation, industrial
belts, etc ...
• Silicone - Material used in a wide range of materials and
areas due their excellent thermal and chemical
resistance, silicones are used in the manufacture of
pacifiers, medical prostheses, lubricants, mold, etc ...
 Composite
• Composite materials (also called composition
materials or shortened to composites) are
materials made from two or more constituent
materials with significantly different physical
or chemical properties, that when combined,
produce a material with characteristics
different from the individual components.
Material used in the Boeing 787
Composites are futher classified as:

Composites

Laminar Particle Fibre

Reinforced Reinforced
 Types of Engineering Materials
Ceramics are futher classified as:

Ceramics

Metal Oxides Nitrides Carbides

Alumina
Beryllia
Zirconia
Glass
Glass Ceramics
Ceramic s defined as any inorganic (inorganic substances do
not contain carbon or its compounds)non metallic material.
 Amorphous material
• The material have no regular arrangement of
their molecules.
• Material like glass and paraffin are example of
amorphous material.
• These material have properties of solids.
• They have definite volume and shape and
diffuse slowly.
• Amorphous carbon
 Crystalline material
• In a crystalline structure , the atoms are
arranged in three dimensional array called a
lattice.
• The lattice has a regular repeating
configuration in all direction.
Metal Alloys
 Metal Alloys
• How are metal alloys classified and what are their
common applications?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals?

• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the

mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys?

24
 Classification of Metal Alloys Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig.

Ferrous Nonferrous 11.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite
d
1400 L
g+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24, Callister &
1200 g 1148ºC L+Fe3C Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 9.24 adapted from
austenite Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
g+Fe3C 1990.)
a800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C 25
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
26
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr
27
 Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
• Low melting – relatively easy to cast
• Generally brittle

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe (a) + C (graphite)

– generally a slow process

28
 Types of Cast Iron Adapted from Fig.
11.3(a) & (b),
Gray iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle in tension
• stronger in compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant

Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger but
less ductile
29
Types of Cast Iron (cont.) Adapted from Fig.
11.3(c) & (d),
White iron Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle

Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile

30
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)

Compacted graphite iron

• relatively high thermal conductivity
• good resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(e),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

31
Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high densities

2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance

32
 • Cu Alloys
Nonferrous Alloys
• Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) • Mg Alloys
NonFerrous
Cu-Be : -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
• Refractory metals
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
33
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• Deformation temperature • Deformation below
high enough for recrystallization
recrystallization temperature
• Large deformations • Strain hardening occurs
• Small deformations

34
Dual phase, Triple steels
 Dual phase steels
 The further improving of the mechanical properties of AHSS was
the development of the concept of nonequilibrium multiphase
steel, which led to the development of two-phase steels (Dual
Phase - DP).
 The microstructure of such steels consists of ferrite and a
significant proportion of martensite and its production does not
require major changes in the chemical composition of steel. Ferrite
and martensite are obtained in the structure by influencing phase
transformations through the redistribution of chemical elements
between phases by changing the cooling rate.
Ferrite-Martensite dual-phase steel is a low-to-medium carbon
material with between 5-50% volume fractional martensite is lands
that are dispersed in a soft ferrite matrix. In addition to
martensite, bainite and retained austenite components can also
exist; these are normally produced when improved edge stretch
formability is desired.
These variations in microstructure give dual-phase steels a wide
spectrum of strength and ductility. DP steels are known to be
capable of absorbing large amounts of energy. Combined with a low
cost of production, these properties make DP steels highly desirable
for automotive applications.
Dual-phase steels can be produced as both hot rolled and cold
rolled based material. When Hot Rolled, the rolling temperature
and cooling process on the Hot Strip Mill is carefully controlled to
produce the ferrite-martensite structure from austenite. When
Cold Rolled, the properties are developed on Continuous Annealing
lines where there is even greater control over thermal treatment.
 Dual phase steels are low-carbon steel grades with carbon
content around 0.1 wt%.
 They consist of soft ferrite and 10–20% hard martensite.
This microstructure is obtained by soaking in the intercritical (_α +
β__) range (~800ºC), followed by rapid cooling.
• During intercritical annealing, part of the austenite transforms
into ferrite.
The transformed ferrite grains reject carbon atoms into the
remaining austenite. During rapid cooling, this carbon-enriched
austenite transforms into martensite.
 Dual phase steels combine a high strength with good ductility and
high work hardening,
 The basic concept of obtaining DP steels consists in slow cooling
in the temperature range of ferrite release in pre-eutectoid
steels, which leads to the release of ferrite and the redistribution
of carbon with the increase of its concentration in austenite.
 It makes it possible to achieve a sufficient concentration of
carbon in austenite for hardening and to increase resistance to
pearlite transformation. After the ferrite is separated, the steel
cools at a speed above the critical.
 The shear transformation of the supercooled austenite begins at
a temperature of the martensitic transformation. By changing the
temperature-time parameters in these steels, the quantitative
correlation of ferrite and martensite is regulated which makes it
possible to vary the value of the time resistance from 500 to
1200 MPa
 Dual-phase steels can be produced as both hot rolled and cold
rolled based material.
 When Hot Rolled, the rolling temperature and cooling process on
the Hot Strip Mill is carefully controlled to produce the ferrite-
martensite structure from austenite.
When Cold Rolled, the properties are developed on Continuous
Annealing lines where there is even greater control over thermal
treatment.
 Properties of DP steels
 Both Hot and Cold-rolled DP steels offer an incredibly
advantageous combination of low yield, high-tensile strength, easy
cold working, and weldability due to their ferrite-martensite filled
lattice microstructure.
 The carbon content of dual-phase steels enables the formation of
martensite at practical cooling rates, which increases the
hardenability of the steel.
 Generally, higher carbon will promote a stronger steel and a higher
fractional percentage of martensite.
 In DP steels the soft Ferrite phase is generally continuous, giving
these steels excellent formability.
When DP deforms the strain is concentrated in the lower strength
Ferrite phase surrounding the hard islands of Martensite, which
creates the very high initial work hardening rate exhibited by these
steels.
 • Due to high-strain hardenability, dual-phase steels also have a
high-strain redistribution capacity.
This means improved drawability as well as finished part
mechanical properties (yield strengths) that are higher than the
initial blank.
• DP steels also have a Bake or overheat hardening effect that is an
important benefit over conventional HSLA type materials.
• The bake hardening effect is the increase in yield strength
resulting from elevated temperature aging created by the curing
temperature of the paint bake cycle.
• DP grades are currently being produced from 500 to 1200 Mpa
minimum tensile strength with 5-35% total elongation.
 • Low yield-to-tensile strength ratio provides excellent ductility
for superior cold forming with high ultimate tensile strengths.
• High strain hardening and bake hardening further increase
tensile strength.
• Excellent deep drawing and high stretching properties.
• Very good crash performance: high strain rate sensitivity
means the faster a DP profile is crushed, the more energy it
absorbs.
 Custom yield strength levels can be engineered for specific applications.
High resistance to local constriction produces highly uniform elongation.
Good weldability.
 Formability
 DP steels offer an excellent combination of strength and draw
ability as a result of their strain hardening capacity from the
beginning of deformation.
 This capability ensures homogeneous strain redistribution and
reduces local thinning.
• Dual-phase steels can be drawn on conventional tools, provided
the settings are properly adjusted.
 For example, drawing pressure may be increased by
approximately 20% for a Dual-Phase 600, compared to a micro-
alloyed (HSLA) type steel of the same thickness.
 Applications in Automobiles
A material with a high-tensile strength, dual-phase steels are well
suited for automobile parts that are meant to absorb a lot of energy
during an impact.
Dual-phase steels are often used in the following automobile
applications:
DP300/500 Roof Outer, Door Outer, Body Side Outer, Floor Panel
DP350/600 Floor Panel, Hood Outer, Body Side Outer, Cowl, Fender,
Floor Reinforcements
DP500/800 Body Side Inner, Quarter Panel Inner, Rear Rails, Shock
Reinforcements
DP600/980 B-Pillar, Floor Panel, Engine Cradle, Seat Rails
DP700/1000 Roof Rails

Cold-rolled dual phase steels deliver lightweight and energy-

absorbing performance to automotive structures and crash
components. Because of their ductility, DP can be used in parts with
complex geometries.
 TRIP steels
TRIP were discovered at the end of the 19th century (Nippon Steel).
However, mass production and consumption of this type of steels
began only at the start of the 20th century when automakers
focused their attention on their products being economically
efficient and environmentally friendly. It was TRIP steel that was
able to adapt to such requirements as reducing the metal capacity
of structures while increasing their strength characteristics.
However, the possibility of using such steels is limited by the fact
that they contain a significant amount of carbon, which affects the
weldability of steel
 TRIP steels belong to the class of modern high-strength steels
(Advanced High Strength Steels - AHSS) with simultaneously high
parameters of time resistance and elongation.
 TRIP steels were a logical continuation of the development of
steels for auto manufacturing, which at an early stage were
carbon steels alloyed with manganese.
 The structure of such steels consisted of ferrite and perlite, with
yield strength of about 180 MPa, and tensile strength of about
330 MPa. The structure itself was formed due to continuous
cooling from the austenitic state.
TRIP steels can be considered as a further development of dual
phase grades. The starting structure is again a mixture of ferrite and
austenite, formed during a first annealing treatment in the (_α +¥__)
region. A second annealing step is carried out, usually between 350
and 400ºC, so that the austenite is partially transformed into a
mixture of bainite and retained austenite. The presence of this
retained austenite is of utmost importance because during further
cold processing it will gradually transform into martensite and this
transformation assists the deformation.
This is called the ‘TRIP effect’. The reason that retained austenite
does not transforms into martensite during cooling is due to its
stabilization by carbon atoms
For some TRIP steel grades, the Ms can, however, remain above
room temperature and in that case, with the martensite finish
temperature (Mf) below room temperature, the final structure is a
mixture of four phases: ferrite, bainite, martensite and some
retained austenite.
 Composition of TRIP steels
Since only a few TRIP steels are commercially available now, it is
difficult to give a ‘typical’ composition. However, based on the
published literature of the last decade, the main ingredients of TRIP
steel grades can be identified.

Carbon: As will be discussed below, a minimal amount of carbon is

necessary to stabilize the austenite during processing; too much
carbon would however damage the weldability of the steel, so most
TRIP steels have a carbon content between 0.1 and 0.2 wt%,
although variants with higher carbon content (up to 0.4 wt%) have
been studied
● Silicon: The addition of Si to steel retards the formation of carbides;
this is important because the carbon atoms, rejected by the
transforming austenite should be absorbed by the retained austenite
and may not precipitate as carbides. Si helps to delay this
precipitation reaction; a second benefit is that it gives some solid
solution hardening; most TRIP steels have a Si content between 0.7
and 1.5 wt%; larger amounts give rise to hot shortness problems and
to the formation of oxide scales during hot rolling.

● Manganese: The addition of Mn increases the relative stability of

austenite towards martensite and helps to retain a sufficient amount
of austenite at room temperature; Mn also shifts the start of the
pearlite nose towards longer times and helps to avoid pearlite
formation during cooling.
● Aluminium: Al has been proposed as a substitute for Si.
 Thermo-mechanical processing
The main target in the processing of TRIP steels is to obtain at room
temperature a mixture of ferrite, bainite and a sufficiently large
amount of retained austenite (~10% in low-carbon TRIP steels). In
most cases these steels are hot and cold rolled as for a normal low-
carbon steel and then annealed in two steps, During reheating
towards the first annealing temperature, the ferrite in the cold-
deformed sheet will recrystallize. During subsequent soaking in the
intercritical region, pearlite transforms into austenite. The soaking
temperature is kept just above Ac1 because this gives the highest
carbon content in the austenite and limits the austenite grain
growth.
 Maraging steels

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 Introduction
• MARAGING STEELS are low-carbon, iron-nickel
steels that possess an excellent combination of
strength and toughness superior to carbon-
hardened steels
• very high nickel, cobalt, and molybdenum contents
and very low carbon contents
• Strength due to the formation of iron-nickel
martensite and then formation of iron nickel
intermetallic compounds as precipitate phase during
aging
• Hence the name maraging steel = martensite+aging

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 Advantages of maraging steels
• High yield strength(2000-3000MPa)
• High weldability
• High fracture toughness
• Difficult shapes can be easily machined

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 History of maraging steel development
• 20 % and 25% Ni added to steel - with 0.3% Al, 1.4% Ti, and 0.4% Nb,
0.03%C - resulted in precipitation hardening of the low-carbon
martensitic structure when aged at 425 to 510 °C
• These alloys exhibited good combinations of strength and ductility at
hardness levels of 53 to 56 HRC but were abandoned because of their
brittleness at extremely high strength levels
• With 18% Ni, martensite of required hardness and toughness was
obtained through the addition of cobalt and molybdenum
• Current Maraging steels based on Fe-18%Ni-Co-Mo quaternary
alloy system – eg: 18 Ni Marage 200, 250, 300 and 350 alloys
• Carbon content restricted to less than 0.03%

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 Compositions of commercial maraging steels

•18 Ni Marage 350 alloy is essentially a

modified version of the 300 grade that
contains higher cobalt and titanium levels
and a slightly reduced molybdenum
Content
•Yield strength > 2100MPa
•Low cobalt maraging steels also
developed

Ultrahigh-strength maraging steel

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 Strength of maraging steels
1. Formation of lath martensite
2. Precipitation/age hardening of lath
martensite

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 1. Formation of iron nickel lath
martensite
• Iron nickel martensite – martensitic structure formed
when iron nickel alloy is heated above 800C(austenite
formation temperature) and then cooled to temp
below 300C
• Iron nickel martensite is called lath martensite with
BCC structure formed by diffusionless transformation
of FCC austenite(no diffusion to α phase during
cooling,but crystal structure changes from fcc to bcc )
• LATH martensite is not as hard as ordinary martensite
but more tough and ductile
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 Phase diagram of iron nickel alloys

•nickel levels > 18% results in the retention of austenite and thus prevent
complete transformation into martensite
•18 Ni chosen as the standard maraging steel composition as it promotes
11/13/2023 62
complete transformation into martensite during quenching
 Lath martensite
• The lath martensitic structure of
maraging steels consists of several
martensitic packets and numerous
blocks within each packet
• packets and blocks are planar, lie
along one direction, and are parallel
to each other
• Packets are the predominant
structure of lath martensite followed
by the block structures that appear as
discrete areas within each packet

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 2. Precipitation Aging of lath martensite
• Lath martensite is again reheated in the temperature
range 450-500C and aging is done for a certain time
period( 1 – 6 hr)
• Aging is done to minimize or eliminate the reversion
of martensite into austenite(γ) and ferrite(α)
• During aging, ordered precipitate phase of nickel-rich
intermetallic compounds is formed in the lath
martensitic structure
• precipitation of the Ni3Mo and Ni3Ti intermetallic
compounds

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 Effect of Ti, Mo and Cobalt
• Ti – strong hardener and Mo - moderate
hardener
• Co helps the precipitation of Ni3Mo and a finer,
more uniform distribution of Ni3Mo precipitates
is formed
• the good structural fit between (Ni3Mo and Ni3Ti
) precipitates and the bcc martensitic matrix
gives coherence and ordered precipitate phase
necessary for required hardness and toughness

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 Effect of aging time on hardness

Plots of aged hardness versus aging time at 455 °C (850 °F) for
Fe-18Ni-5Mo and Fe-18Ni-5Mo-8Co maraging steels
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 Effect of aging time on hardness

Hardness of 18Ni(250) maraging steel versus aging time for various

aging temperatures

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Effect of alloying elements – Ni, Mo, Ti, Co, Al
• Ni, Mo, Ti – lowers Ms (martensite formation start – 200-300C)
temperature, low Ms favors formation of twinned martensite
which is not desirable
• Ni, Mo, Ti – helps in precipitation hardening(desirable)
• Co – increases Ms temp and favors formation of lath martensite
(upto 6-8% composition)
• Hence Co added to compensate for excess use of Ni, Mo, Ti
and maintains Ms temperature required for lath martensite
formation
• In the absence of cobalt, other elements such as nickel,
molybdenum, and titanium must be maintained or reduced to
levels to ensure an adequately high Ms temperature
• Nickel lowers Ms temperature heavily if in excess of 18%,
hence Ni level kept at 18%
• Upto 0.1% Al slightly increases Ms temperature

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 Variation of strength and hardness in
maraging steels

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Strength/toughness combination of 18 Ni maraging steels compared
to conventional high-strength carbon steels

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 Weldability of maraging steels
• Weldability of maraging steels is due to tough, ductile lath
martensite
• Heat-affected zone(HAZ) in maraging steels can be
divided into three regions
• First region closest to the fusion line contains coarse
martensite
• Second region is a narrow region containing reverted
austenite produced by temperatures 595 to 805 °C
• Third region contains martensite that has been age
hardened by temperatures from ambient up to 595 °C

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 Strength of welded zone
• Heat-affected zone in an as-welded structure is
relatively soft
• Because the metal in the area immediately
surrounding the weld is soft and ductile,
residual stresses are low, and weld cracking is
considerably less than in steels hardened by
quenching
• Subsequent aging brings the hardness of the
weld zone up to that of the base metal

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