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11
Applications and
Processing of Metal Alloys
Introduction
Ferrous alloys
Nonferrous alloys
Forming operations
Casting
Miscellaneous techniques
Annealing processes
Heat treatment of steels
Precipitation hardening
2
Chapter 11: Applications and
Processing of Metal Alloys
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and what are their
common applications?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals?
• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys?
3
Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys
4
Ferrous Alloys
金屬合金
鋼 鑄鐵
低合金鋼
灰鑄鐵 延性鑄鐵 白鑄鐵 展性鑄鐵 變緊密
的石墨鐵
高合金鋼
低碳鋼 中碳鋼 高碳鋼
5
工具鋼 不銹鋼
Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys
Ferrous Nonferrous
Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
g+Fe3C
a800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C 6
Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C
heat
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
7
Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone
BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C + O2 CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C 2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe +3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3 CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 slag
8
Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons
10
Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
Cementite decomposes to
T(ºC)
ferrite + graphite 1600
Fe3C 3 Fe (a) + C (graphite)
1400 L Liquid +
g +L Graphite
Graphite formation 1200 g 1153ºC
11
Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle in tension
• stronger in compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant
Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile
12
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
White iron
• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + cementite
• very hard and brittle
Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile
13
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Compacted graphite iron
• relatively high thermal conductivity
• good resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures
14
Production of Cast Irons
15
Limitations of Ferrous Alloys
16
Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be : -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
17
Introduction
Ferrous alloys
Nonferrous alloys
Forming operations
Casting
Miscellaneous techniques
Annealing processes
Heat treatment of steels
Precipitation hardening
18
Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold
• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape
19
Fabrication of Metals
20
Metal Fabrication Methods (i)
22
Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)
23
Metal Fabrication Methods (iv)
24
Metal Fabrication Methods (v)
molten
solidified
25
Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)
27
Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, for an extended time, then cool slowly.
28
Fe – Fe3C
29
Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths
a) Full Annealing A
b) Quenching P
c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite) A
B
b) a)
c)
30
Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
flat ground
specimen
(heated to g
phase field) Rockwell C
24ºC water hardness tests
Hardness, HRC
60
40
400
M(start)
200
AM
0 M(finish)
Hardness, HRC
five alloys each with, 100
80 %M
C = 0.4 wt% C 4340
50
40 4140
8640
5140
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)
34
Introduction
Ferrous alloys
Nonferrous alloys
Forming operations
Casting
Miscellaneous techniques
Annealing processes
Heat treatment of steels
Precipitation hardening
35
Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure:
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
600 a+L a q+L
A
(get a solid solution) 500 q
-- Pt B: quench to room temp. C a+q
400
(retain a solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small q particles within 0 B 10 20 30 40 50
(Al) wt% Cu
a phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
• Other alloys that precipitation
harden: Temp.
• Cu-Be Pt A (sol’n heat treat)
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate q)
Time
Pt B
36
Precipitation Hardening
-Al-Cu alloy:
With time and the subsequent diffusion
of copper atoms, zones become particles
as they increase in size. These
precipitate particles then pass through
two transition phases (q” and q’), before
the formation of the equilibrium q phase
37
Influence of Precipitation Heat
Treatment on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• Maxima on TS curves. • Minima on %EL curves.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
tensile strength (MPa)
30
%EL (2 in sample)
400
20
300
149ºC 10
200 204ºC 149ºC
204ºC
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
38
Summary
39