EARTH SCIENCE MINERALS . .

- Seeks to understand the Earth—it’s composition, Three fields’ views on minerals:

properties, processes and other phenomenon, the > Medicine: for the body, essential elements
atmosphere, it’s oceans, and it’s neighbors in space. > Miners: source of profit
> Geology: are naturally-occurring inorganic solids that
have a definite chemical composition and an orderly
NECESSARY CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH TO internal structure
SUPPORT LIFE
Characteristics:
> The right atmosphere 1. Naturally-occuring: natural process, not man-made
> The right temperature
2. Inorganic: did noot come from living things, abiotic
> Supply of energy
> Nutrients 3. Solid: i.e. ice is a mineral (glaciers, ice caps)
> Gravity
4. Definite chemical composition: composed of
> Right distance from the Sun
compounds and elements, elemetal minerals (gold, silver,
> Presence of water
iron), compound minerals (salt, ice)
5. Crystalline structure: has an orderly internal structure
EARTH AS A SYSTEM (well-arranged)
- system is a group of interacting parts that form a Trivia:
complex whole which functions as one. Rock – aggregate of minerals
Biosphere Stone – single mineral (i.e. diamond)
- living part
- covers all of the ecosystem
- comprises of living componenets and non-living Properties:
components (?) - characteristics that are innate
- true to all
Hydrosphere
- water part 1. Crystal habit / Crystal form: overall shape, how the
- can be solid (glaciers, ice caps), liquid (salt water, fresh mineral grew
water, ground water), or gaseous (water vapor) 2. Luster: the appearance when light is reflected by a
- primarily divided into the fluid water systems and the mineral, can be metallic or non-metallic
cryosphere (ice systems)
3. Cleavage and Fracture: planes of weakness
Geosphere Cleavage: tendency of minerals to break along
- solid part very smooth, flat surfaces; one, two, or all directions
- crust (lithosphere), mantle (asthenosphere, Fracture: breaks along random, irregular
mesosphere), core (outer core, inner core) surfaces; concoidal or fibrous
Atmosphere 4. Hardness: a measure of a mineral’s resistance to
- gaseous part scratching, harder minerals will scratch softer minerals,
- troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere mohs scale
(exosphere, ionosphere)
 ROCKS . .
- naturally occuring, solid aggregate of minerals
- sometimes with non-mineral solid particles

5. Color: obcious appearance of a mineral, not reliable
alone
6. Streak: refers to the color of a mineral in its powdered
form, may or may not be the same with its color, same
mineral components but different color = same streak
color
7. Chemical properties: density, specific gravity
Properties that only some minerals have:
1. Magnetism
2. Taste
3. Odor
4. Conductivity
5. Double refraction
Most minerals are made up of the eight most
abundant elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesioum
Mineral Groups
1. Silicate minerals: most abundant group of minerals, it
contains oxygen and silicon atoms
2. Non-silicate minerals: make up only 5% of the earth’s
crust
IGNEOUS ROCKS
- formed when molten rocks cool and solidfy
[crystallization]
Types:
Intrusive (Plutonic): Magma cools and solidifies beneath
the earth’s surface; cools slowly and forms large crystals
Extrusive (Volcanic): Magma cools and solidifies above
the earth’s surface; cools very fast and develops small
crystals.
Classifications:
Texture: overall size of minerals
- coarse-grained, fine-grained, porphylitic, glassy
Chemical composition: based on the silica
content
- felsic, intermediate, mafic, ultramafic
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- formed through compaction and cementation of
sediments [lithification]
- deposited in layers with the older ones at the bottom,
layers of the rocks are called strata
- stratification is the process in which sedimentary rocks
are arranged in layers
- formed near or at the earth’s surface
Types:
Clastic (Detritus): are formed from mechanical
weathering; compound of clasts (pre-existing minerals
and rocks)

- Carbonates Chemical: are formed by the evaporation of minerals in

- Oxides water; also includes organic sedimentary rocks or rocks
- Halides formed through the lithification of animal and/or plant
- Sulfides debris
- Sulfates Classification:
- Phosphates
- Native elements Texture: overall size of the sediments
- course-grained, medium-grained, fine-grained, very fine-
grained
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- any pre-existing rocks that undergo change
[metamorhpism] because of extreme heat and pressure
- formed from parent rocks
Types of metamorphism:
- metamorphism is the process that leads to changes in
mineralogy, texture, and sometimes the chemical
compositions of rocks
- can be classified as low-grade or high-grade
Contact Metamorphism: metamorphism through extreme
heat, produces non-foliated rocks
Regional Metamorphism: metamorphism through extreme
pressure, produced foliated rocks
Classification of metamorphic rocks:
Texture: pertains to the patterns of the minerals
- Non-foliated: rocks that lack cleavage
- Foliated: rocks that contain aligned grains of flat
mienrals that form lines/layers
ROCK CYCLE
- also known as the petrologic cycle, the rock cycle
explains the contiuous trandormation and interrelation
between the three types of rocks
ENERGY RESOURCES . .
- refers to any material used as a basis or source of
energy
- two types of energy resources: renewable and non-
renewable
- energy is the ability to do work, has two types: potential
and kinetic; primary forms are chemical, mechanical,
electrical, thermal, and nuclear
Renewable Energy Resources
- resources that continue to exist despite being consumed
or resources that can replenish over a period of time
- the disadvantage of it is that it may not be available for
use when needed
- i.e. hydro, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal
Non-renewable Energy Resources
- resources that are considered finite due to the extremely
long time it takes for nature to create them
- they become unavailable once depleted
- the advantage of it is that they’re readily available
- i.e. fossil fuels
FOSSIL FUELS . .
- buried combustible geological deposits of organic
materials formed from decayed plants and animals
- found in earth’s crust
- contains carbon and hydrogen
- non-renewable
- has three types: coal (solid), petroleum (liquid), and
natural gas (gas)
Coal
- a hard, black-colored substance made up of C, H, N, O,
and S
- is different from charcoal (made from wood)
- has four types, depending on its coalification progress,
or the process by which plant remains become coal
- there are three factors in the formation of coal:
> abundant supply of plant remains (peat =
decomposing plant remains)
> heat and pressure
> time
- lignite is the lowest grade of coal, it is also considered
as pre-coal / coal
- anthracite is the most expensive type of coal
- the darker a coal is, the richer it is in carbon

Petroleum
- “black gold”
- oil, crude oil
- unlike coal, petroleum is formed from animal remains
- there are three factors in the formation of petroleum:
> abundant deposits of animal remains
> heat and pressure
> time
> impermeable rock layer (prevents oil from
escaping, also referred to as “cap rock”)

Natural Gas
- clean and non-toxic fossil fuels
- dissolved gases from oil (?)
- stored as compressed natural gas (CNG) under high
pressure
- less polluting and less expensive
- where there are oil deposits, there will be natural gas

How fossil fuels are used to produce electricity

HYDROELECTRIC POWER . .
- refers to the conversion of energy from flowing water
into electricity
- renewable energy source
- there are three types of hydropower facilities:
impoundment, run-of-river, and pumped storage

Impoundment
- fossil fuels are used to boil water (placed in the boiler) to - most common technology that uses a dam to create an
turn it into steam to power the turbine extensive reservoir of water
- electricity is made when water passes through turbines
in a dam
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY . .
- energy derived from the subsurface of the earth
- types of geothermal power plants:
Run-of-river
- rely on a diverted portion of river water to run through a
turbine, sometimes without the use of a dam or reservois
- is more intermittent/sporadic than dammed hydro since
it uses a natural source
- Water foot print: measures the amount of water used to
produce each of the goods and services we use
- Water diagram: shows the allocation of water resources
on earth
> drinking and household needs, recreation,
industry and commerce, agriculture,
thermoelectricity/energy

WASTES . .
- waste is any product or substance which is no longer
suited for its intended use
Pumped storage
- has three main types: solid, liquid, and gaseous
- similar to run-of-river facillity but PSH has a second
reservoir below the dam
SOLID WASTES . .
- water can be pumped from the lower reservoir to the
- useless and unwanter products in the solid state derived
upper reservoir, storing energy for use at a later time
from the activities of and discarded by society

Kinds of solid wastes:

1. Domestic wastes: generated by household activities

2. Commercial wastes: generated by commercial

establishments (i.e. trade, business, sports, recreation,
entertainment)

3. Institutional wastes: generated by institutions (i.e.

schools, hospitals, prisons)
Types of dam 4. Municipal wastes: generated due to municipal
- dam is a barrier that restricts or stops the flow of water, activities, comes from homes, schools, hospitals, and
helps suppress floods, and provides water for agricultural, businesses
industrial, and aquaculture uses
- coffer dam
5. Construction and Demolition waste: generated from
- embankment dam
construction sites
- buttress dam
- diversion dam
6. Industrial waste: discarded solid materials of industrial
- gravity dam
operations
- storage dam
- detention dam
Solid waste management
- the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid wastes
Hydroelectric Power Water Resources
- Surface water: water found on the surface of the earth
Why do we have to manage our wastes?
> river, lake, sea, dam, bay, gulf, ice caps,
- wastes can be hazardous to human health, causes land
glaciers
depletion, and pollutes the land.
- Ground water: found beneath the earth’s surface in
Negative effects of solid waste:
conditions of 100% saturation
- water, soil, and air pollution, loss of biodiversity,
> open well, tube well, artesian well, infiltration,
chemical poisoning, radioactive exposure, infectious
springs
diseases, and pathogens
LIQUID WASTES .
- is any form of liquid residue that is hazardous for people
or the environement
- domestic washings, chemical oils, waste water from
ponds, manufacturing industries
Types of liquid wastes
1. Organic waste water: compounds containing carbon
2. Inorganic waste water: compounds that have no
carbon
3. Sludges: a solid, semisolid, or slurry residual material
that is produced as a by-product of wastewater treatment
processes
4. Fats, oil, used oil, or grease (FOG): comes from meat
fats in food scraps, etc. that restrics flow in the pipe and
can cause untreated wastewater
5. Hazardouse household liquids: products that can catch
fire, react, explode, or corrode under certain
circumstances
Sources of liquid wastes:
- residential areas, commercial areas, and industrial
areas
Types of waste waster
- wastewater is used water that has been affected by
domestic, industrial, and commercial use
Greywater: domestic wastewater, generated in
households or offices, has no fecal contamination
Blackwater: refers to wastewater from toilets, contains
fecal matter
Stormwater: refers to waters that originates from
precipitation, contains sediments
Wastewater treatment
- a process used to remove contaminants from
wastewater or sewage
- water reclamation
Sewage: wastes from a community, contains excreta
Sullage: waste that does not contain excreta
Sewers: underground conduit for liquid wastes
Negative effects of liquid wastes:
- pollution, pathogens, bacterial, viral, and parasitic
diseases
. GASEOUS WASTES . .
- wastes that are released in the form of gases
- gets mied in with other gases in the atmosphere
- can cause smog and acid rain
Types of gaseous wastes:
1. Particular matter: gaseous pollutants consisting of solid and
liquid particles
2. Gaseous pollutants: gaseous particle pollutants
Sources of gaseous wastes:
- burning of fossil fuels, farming and forestry, vehicles,
factories, and other industrial areas
Landfill Gases (LFG)
- a natural byproduct of the decomposition of organic material
in landfills
- ammonia and hydrogen sulfides (responsible for odors in
landfills), methane (flammable and explosive, displaces
oxygen), and carbon dioxide (displaced oxygen)
Management of gaseous wastes:
1. Settling chambers
2. Filters
3. Electrostatic method
4. Absorption
Negative effects of gaseous wastes:
- ozone depletion, smog, greenhouse effects, acid rain,
respiratory illness, heart diseases, and shortened life span
WASTE MANAGEMENT LAWS . .
Republic Act 7924: mandates MMDA to implement policies
promoting proper sanitary waste disposal management
Local Government Code of 1991: LGUs are responsible for
collecting solid wastes in their perspective area of jurisdiction
Republict Act 9003: Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
of 2000. Defines and sets parameters of Solid Waste
Management: segragation at source, separate collection of
waste materials, strict implementation of materials recovery
system, and prohibition of open burning